Alchemy, a fusion of science, philosophy and mysticism, emerges in practice from the 1st century AD. Among the power civilizations of antiquity, ancient Rome is unequalled for political and military prowess, administration and engineering. But did Romans do alchemy?
One of the lesser known aspects of ancient Roman culture is alchemy. Overshadowed by other practices of the time in the Roman Empire, alchemy is a complex brew of influences and ideals. The practice of ancient alchemy leads to modern concepts of chemistry and medicine.
A Historical Framework
Alchemy has roots in earlier traditions, primarily those of Ancient Egypt and Greece. Early Egyptian alchemy begins in mummification practices. Republican and Imperial Romans encounter ideas through conquests and cultural exchange.
The Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt smooth the way. The first Ptolemy is a Macedonian Greek general of Alexander the Great. After the death of Alexander in 323 BCE his generals divide the holdings amongst themselves.
The Ptolemies support art, literature and the sciences. They build and patronize the Great Library of Alexandria. A glass industry thrives. Greeks like Hippocrates come to Egypt to study medicine. Alexandria grows into the alchemical and innovation center of the world.
Later Ptolemies have lost interest in the academic scene and expel all intellectuals c. 145 BCE. The Romans conquer Egypt c. 30 BCE. Due to Roman neglect the Library falls into further ruin, having already been damaged in 48 BCE when Julius Caesar accidently sets it on fire.
The head librarian quits and exiles himself to Cyprus. Alexandria loses its sparkling reputation as politics get rough. Nonetheless it becomes the largest city in the world until c. 270 AD, when it's eclipsed by Rome.
Brewing, winemaking and metallurgy involve alchemical processes. The Romans show alchemical process in methods of gold-plating by the 3rd century AD. Molten gold is mixed with mercury. The mixture is brushed on a substrate, then heated so the mercury evaporates.
The gold is beautiful but the invisible fumes are deadly toxic. Most mercury in ancient times is mined and processed at the Almadén cinnabar mine in Spain. Slaves and convicted criminals are condemned to the mines.
It's a slow painful death from mercury poisoning, which includes tremors, seizures and madness. Yet mercury or quicksilver is an element of life in alchemy, and later of the spirit Mercurius. This duality is inherent in the concept of alchemy.
Latin language is widespread after the 7th century AD. Greek medical texts are translated, often by educated slaves, into Latin. The Latin Mercurius meaning spirit comes to indicate the spirit of alchemy and later, the divine light inside a person. Mercury is used in medicine.
Prominent figures in early alchemy include Gnostic philosopher and chemist Zosimos of Panopolis (c. 300 AD), whose writings influence later alchemical thought. Zosimos is Greek, born in Upper Egypt, which at the time is a Roman holding.
Thus he's likely to pop up in Egyptian, Greek or Roman alchemy documents. Much of his work is translated into Arabic after the Islamic conquest in 642 AD. Zosimos is a voice for alchemy and contemporary thought in a time when few texts exist, or survive.
At this time in history, Rome has a keen interest in divination. Romans use methods such as astragalomancy (casting bones or dice), ornithomancy (making prophecies by bird flight or movement); oracles of Apollo; astrology; haruspicy (reading animal entrails) and more.
Philosophical Foundations: The Four Elements
Central to early alchemical thought is the philosophical framework of the four classical elements: earth, air, fire, and water. This doctrine, derived from earlier Greek philosophy, posits everything in the universe is composed of these elements in various combinations.
Ancient alchemists and philosophers believe that through understanding and manipulating these elements, they can transform matter and achieve greater wisdom about the universe. The people exploring these facets are often priests or physicians.
Rome has conquered most of the Mediterranean lands by c. 300 AD. Although alchemy may be practiced by some individuals, it's a low-key enterprise. Much of the ancient Roman contribution to alchemy comes from Egypt.
Experimentation and Empiricism
Roman alchemists, if they are to be found outside Greco-Egypt, would be required to make empirical observations. Alchemists conduct practical experiments with metals, minerals, and other substances to understand their properties and interactions.
Pliny the Elder bases his scientific experience on empirical observation. He asserts rock crystal or clear quartz is water frozen so long it's turned to stone. However, he's also the first to identify amber as a resin, based on its smell when burned.
Craftspeople, including potters, smiths, healers and dyers, contribute to alchemical knowledge as they experiment with materials. While alchemical processes are seen at work in ancient Rome, they are practical in nature, as in brightening pigments or refining alloys.
Alchemy, Medicine, and the Quest for Healing
Alchemy's ties to medicine are noteworthy. Roman physicians, influenced by Greek medical knowledge, borrow ideas which later progress through the Renaissance and into the 19th century. Galen promotes the Four Humors theory which stagnates medicine for centuries.
Alchemy provides a framework for understanding the body itself. The notion that human beings are microcosms of the universe, an idea originating among the Greek philosophers, allows for a holistic perspective on health, disease, and the means of healing.
In Imperial Rome, alchemy and medicine combine as Roman monarchs seek poisons and antidotes. Poisoning in ancient Rome is so widespread among the elite it becomes an automatic conclusion for sudden death or sickness.
Antidotes are also prepared to counteract accidental poisoning, snake bite and scorpion venom. Ancient Egyptians use onions, natron, wound incision and bandaging to treat venomous bites or stings.
This connection between alchemy and medicine comes from early origins of natural healing. Eventually distinctions blur and science fuses knowledge into the foundations of a new age.
Hermes Trismegistus
In Greco-Roman Egypt, the Greek god Hermes and the Egyptian Thoth combine in the prophet Hermes Trismegistus, the legendary alchemist and founder of Hermeticism. In the Roman world, Hermes is Mercury, with the same attributes.
Writings about Hermes Trismegistus are found in both Greek and Latin, the latter being the official language for medicine and literature. Mercurius meaning "spirit" is a Latin translation along with anima (soul) and corpus (body), found in Renaissance alchemy.
By this time many different influences shape the course of alchemical history. The alchemy of the Renaissance is steeped in Christianity, the official religion of Rome since c. 380 AD.
The Rise of Roman Alchemy
After the fall of Rome c. 476 AD and the Islamic conquest of Egypt c. 642 AD, much alchemical knowledge is preserved by Islamic scholars. The fusion of Greek, Latin and Islamic alchemy texts leads to the next step in alchemical history, the early Medieval.
The first known mention of planet Mercury in association to hydrargyros is found in a list by Stephanus of Alexandria from the 7th century AD:
In early alchemical recipes the term Mars is often used to mean iron and Venus is copper, all part of the cryptic language of the alchemists. The metals adopt the symbols of the planets. As time goes on alchemical language and meanings become ever more complex.
Roman alchemy takes off in independent practice during the Italian Renaissance c. 1350 - 1550 AD. Alchemists include Caterina Sforza and Giambattista della Porta. Alchemy finds a home in the medieval convents of cities like Naples, and from there disperses.
The Medici are especially known as patrons of alchemy. In Florence, Duke Cosimo I (1519 - 1574) creates two enormous laboratories. One is in the Uffizi, then a pioneering complex of Medici administration and law offices.
Non-Fiction Books:
Fiction Books:
READ: Lora Ley Adventures - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series
READ: Reiker For Hire - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries