Alchemy rises from inquiring minds. Golden Ages of alchemy appear in Greco-Roman Alexandria, medieval Islam and the Renaissance. Based on metallurgy and ancient medicine, alchemy takes hold in many diverse cultures such as China and India.
One of the first examples of a known alchemical process is the intentional fermentation of honey to create honey mead c. 8000 BCE. Processes of heating, baking, roasting, grinding or distilling a substance are among the practical alchemical applications used in daily life.
Alchemy relates to the perceived transmutation of matter including coloring of metals. Herbal alchemy (spagyria) is also introduced by Paracelsus. Spiritual alchemy is a Jungian purveyance pertaining to inner growth.
The pursuit of alchemy develops concurrently in various civilizations. The first Golden Age in the West happens in Alexandria of Greco-Roman Egypt. Based on ancient Greek elemental philosophy, alchemy prospers as a practice.
The earlier Greek philosophies explore laws of nature and the natural elements Earth, Air, Fire and Water. The idea of Four Elements as a group comes from Empedocles (492 - 432 BCE), who later jumps into a volcano.
Before proliferation of alchemy in Islam, Alexandrian alchemists work with the Greek model of the natural elements. After the Muslim conquest of Greco-Roman Egypt, alchemists of the Islamic world explore the philosophy of metal formation and translate many Greek works.
Mercury and sulfur, already used by esteemed "first alchemist" Mary the Jewess, are named by Islamic alchemist Jābir ibn Ḥayyān as elements creating metals deep in the earth. Abu Bakr al-Rāzī later follows Jābir's theory and adds salt. These compose the tria prima of Renaissance physician Paracelsus.
The word alchemy may come from the Arabian "al-kimya'," regarding preparation of a mythic Stone or Elixir of the Egyptians. Kimya' translates to chemistry and al- is "the". Also 'chemeia' is documented as a Greek word for metal-pouring, or creating metal alloys.
Zosimos of Panopolis, a c. 300 Greco-Egyptian alchemist and Gnostic mystic, bases his work on that of predecessors including Mary the Jewess or Maria Prophetissa working c. 1st century AD. In the 3rd-4th century, Cleopatra the Alchemist also works in Alexandria.
She's credited with the invention of the Alembic, an alchemical tool for distillation, two vessels connected by a tube. Mary and Cleopatra are both highly respected by their peers and considered two of the four female alchemists capable of finding the Philosopher's Stone
Throughout the ancient Western world the fundamental aims of alchemy are to find a panacea, potion or elixir, called in some places the Philosopher's Stone, which could
Turn base metals into gold (chrysopoeia) or silver (argyropoeia)
Find a panacea to cure all disease and ailments
Create an Elixir of Immortality, Elixir of Life or Eternal Youth
Alchemist and scholar Zosimos of Panopalis (c. 300 AD) defines alchemy as:
"... the composition of waters, movement, growth, embodying and disembodying, drawing the spirits from bodies and bonding the spirits within bodies."
In his Cheirokmeta he mentions a mysterious stone:
“... this stone which isn't a stone, this precious thing which has no value, this polymorphous thing, which has no form, this unknown thing which is known to all.”
Zosimos provides the earliest history writings, records and documentations about alchemy and alchemists, and a number of treatises on the subject.
Base and noble metals aren't defined until c. 1300 - 1400 AD in the Middle Ages. Noble metals are those most resistant in raw form to oxygen corrosion, such as silver or gold. Base metals such as copper or lead are often used as bases for silver or gold plating.
The power sought in the description of base and noble metals is undeniably transformative or transmutative. For wealthy individuals in positions of authority, including Emperors, kings, and lords, the pursuit of the Elixir of Life is a paramount objective.
Alchemy's roots in China trace back to 4th century BCE. It's certainly in use by the time of Qin Shi Huang, China's first Emperor (c. 259 - 210 BCE) who employs court alchemist Xu Fu. In 175 BCE, a Chinese edict threatens death for alchemists who produce fake gold.
For many years the element mercury is believed to have life-giving properties, and Elixirs of Life promptly send people to their deaths. Death by the Elixir of Life is common enough in China to gain the name Chinese alchemical elixir poisoning.
As late as the 17th century mercury is consumed for the purpose of life everlasting. Today it's still used in traditional medicine with understanding of its toxic effects.
Back in the West, early preparations hope to identify the prima materia or First Matter, the substance from which all other materials are made. Mercury is one suggestion. The concept of creating precious metals from base spreads through the alchemic world after c. 100 AD.
Alexandria is the largest city in the world until 270 AD, when it's supplanted by Rome. As a glassmaking center it caters to alchemy and medicine. The Library of Alexandria attracts scholars and philosophers, but the Romans aren't interested. The reputation of the city slides.
After Islamic conquest of Greco-Roman Egypt (642 AD), alchemy of Alexandria progresses to the Eastern Caliphate. Three major medieval caliphates rule: Rashidun Caliphate (632-661), the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750), and the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1517).
The sulfur-mercury concept is further developed by Jabir ibn Hayyan. He explains metals in the earth are created by vapors condensing in varying mercury-sulfur proportions. Under this theory metal transmutation involves finding the correct ratio. Abu Bakr al-Razi later adds salt.
Written c. 900 AD, the Turba Philosophorum, also Assembly of the Philosophers, is one of the oldest European alchemy texts. Translated from the Arabic it portrays the efforts of Islamic alchemists to incorporate Greek thought into the Eastern corpus.
In the work, nine Greek philosophers participate in a discussion. The statements of the philosophers are recognizable offshoots of Greek philosophy. They discuss matter, how it acts, and relate this to the finite and infinite cosmology,
In 1317 AD, Pope John XXII makes falsification of metals illegal in all Christian countries, which are most of Europe and colonies. The papal seat is in Avignon, France at the time, a region notorious for counterfeiting.
Much of alchemy is built on the falsification of metals, based on its ancient origin as a metal coloring skill. Thirteen centuries later, serious counterfeiting has taken hold. This would eventually lead to major changes in the concept of alchemy by nobles and masses alike.
Pope John's decree begins:
"Alchemies are here prohibited and those who practice them or procure their being done are punished. They must forfeit to the public treasury for the benefit of the poor as much genuine gold and silver as they have manufactured of the false or adulterate metal. If they have not sufficient means for this, the penalty may be changed to another at the discretion of the judge, and they shall be considered criminals. If they are clerics, they shall be deprived of any benefices that they hold and be declared incapable of holding others.
Poor themselves, the alchemists promise riches which are not forthcoming ... "
Here the term "alchemies" is equated with falsification of precious metals. One such method practiced for centuries is using a core of lead (preferable due to its weight) and molding gold around it.
Gold has a much higher melting point than lead. When it's put to a heat test, the tester cannot see the melted lead within, and believes the metal to be pure. Lead's association with gold is largely due to this practice. If the buyer is clever an Archimedes' principle test is also used.
In 1404, King Henry IV of England passes a law forbidding the making or multiplication of gold, or the Act Against Multipliers. It decrees:
"that none from henceforth should use to multiply gold or silver, or use the craft of multiplication; and if any the same do, they incur the pain of felony"
The Act forbids anyone from making or multiplying gold. Multiplication of gold and silver is usually done with asem, copper, tin or lead. About forty years later, in need of funding for wars, King Henry VI gets around the law by issuing special licenses to alchemists.
During the Renaissance period, spanning from 1350 to 1750 AD, the practice of alchemy experiences a remarkable flourishing into another Golden Age. Aided by the printing press, this era sees diverse individuals, such as Isaac Newton, delving into mysteries of alchemy.
Despite a wide range of practitioners, the secrets of alchemy are closely guarded by initiates, shrouding the practice in an air of mystery and exclusivity. Within the alchemical community, treachery and intrigue are ever poised to strike.
Practitioners seek to uncover the closely held practices of their peers and explore the enigmas of nature. The pursuit of creating the legendary Elixir of Life, a mythical substance of immortality, fuels competition. Alchemists vie to be first to find the elusive elixir.
This intense atmosphere of competition and secrecy inspires a relentless quest for knowledge and discovery. Alchemists devote their lives and fortunes for a glimpse into the mysteries of the universe, the power of transformation and esoteric knowledge.
Advances in sciences and philosophy change the world view. New discoveries, lands and technologies interweave with ancient elemental magic. Swiss physician and alchemist Paracelsus develops his interpretation of 'Gnomic elements' or gnomes, in the 16th century.
Based on the work of previous Greek and Islamic alchemists, he introduces the tria prima or three primes of alchemy:
Sulfur - fluid connecting the high and the low. Sulfur represents the expansive force, evaporation and dissolution.
Mercury - the omnipresent spirit of life. Mercury transcends liquid and solid states and is thought to transcend life and death or heaven and earth.
Salt - Base matter. Salt represent the contractive force, condensation, and crystallization.
Paracelsus is among the most famous of the Renaissance alchemists. A physician, he proclaims:
“... Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines.”
- Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim (Paracelsus) 1493-1541 AD
After the death of Paracelsus in 1541 AD, his massive collection of works is adopted by individuals and groups of diverse cultures and classes. These include the Rosicrucian sociological movement of the 17th century.
Although Paracelsus is a prolific writer, a large body of his works remain untranslated for various reasons. Many are published post-mortem. Those translated are open to interpretation from perspectives of both translator and consumer.
"Beware of reading health books. You may die of a misprint."
Mark Twain (1835 - 1910)
Alchemist Dippel (1673 - 1734), dwelling at Frankenstein's castle, tries to trade an animal oil he calls the Elixir of Life for ownership of the castle. His offer is declined. Dippel's Bone Oil or Animal Oil is later used to repel insects and as a weapon in chemical warfare.
Scientific minds come together as Renaissance thinking spreads. While political enemies are burned as witches, alchemists chew strange herbs and ponder the logistics of eternal life, but are themselves targets of accusation.
They walk a fine line between contemporary science and folk superstition. Even Dippel, who gains many followers in his time, is accused of working foul magic on human corpses dug from graveyards.
He may be suspected of experiments in soul transference in the quest for immortality, a common drawing room academic topic. He does dissect animals for Dippel's Animal Oil. Putrefaction and decomposition are vital to practical alchemy, but they smell like death.
In 1706, Dippel and fellow alchemist Diesbach attempt to create vivid red and accidently make Prussian Blue, a cyanide compound and popular artists' pigment. Dippel should have a piece of the action but instead publishes a maniacal rant against the church. Diesbach finds a different partner.
By the 18th century alchemists lose patrons and credibility as language and depiction has become profoundly mystical and ridiculous. Still some seek the Philosopher's Stone. James Price (1752–1783) asserts he can turn mercury into silver or gold.
Price is told to perform the conversion in front of credible witnesses. Instead he drinks cyanide and dies.
In 1919, psychologist Carl Jung forms his theory of the collective unconscious based on alchemical thought. He compares the dual nature of alchemy, comprising both the chemical process and a mystic component, to the transcendent nature of the psyche.
Based on his groundbreaking work, overembellished medieval symbolism and the lead-gold cliché, spiritual alchemy has become an explosive headache for actual alchemists.
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