The Ebers Papyrus is one of the most informative manuscripts about medicine in ancient Egypt, health, disease, remedies, surgery, recipes and magic spells. It includes a list of treatments based on herbs and other natural ingredients of Egyptian medicine.
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The Ebers Papyrus is named for Egyptologist Georg Ebers, who acquires it in 1872. The papyrus is the largest medical text so far discovered, including ~700 magic formulas and folk remedies. Content is from c.1630 -1350 BCE, based on earlier findings to c. 3400 BCE.
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The papyrus details incantations to repulse disease-causing demons, also with value on empirical observation and practical experience. It lists 328 botanical ingredients for 876 prescriptions. The scroll is 68 ft (21 m) long and 12 in (30 cm) wide, making 110 pages.
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The first doctor in Egypt is thought to be Imhotep (2667 - 2648 BCE). He lives and works during the time of the 3rd Dynasty of the Old Kingdom, at the time of pharaoh Djoser.
A scholar, scribe, architect and polymath, Imhotep functions as the grand vizier of Djoser. He's also high priest, chief builder and carpenter. His interests turn to medicine and he creates a practice to diagnose and treat diseases.
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Imhotep helps patients cope with afflictions such as arthritis, gout and tuberculosis. An early form of surgery practiced by the Egyptians is thought to originate from Imhotep. Early doctors and pharmacists are temple priests, most of whom also have scribal skills.
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Doctors are often priests of Sekhmet, Egyptian goddess of war, curses and medicine. The Ebers Papyrus page below details treatment for asthma, having the patient inhale the evaporating essence from a mix of herbs heated on a brick.
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Treatments also include topical ointments and wrappings, oral medication, mouth rinses and aromatherapy. Mental health afflictions are known, with recognition of conditions like depression and anxiety.
Ancient medics believe the channels of the human body are blocked by evil spirits or angry gods. They seek ways to unblock these channels, recording results of the treatments. Remedies include pills, poultices, plasters, teas, ointments, suppositories and broths.
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Doctors use a combination of natural (herbs, minerals such as salts, massage) and spiritual techniques such as chanting and spells to help cure disease. Doctor tools include scalpel, forceps, scissors, pincers, spoons, saws, incense containers, hooks and knives.
Medical training in ancient Egypt is rigorous and thorough. A would-be doctor or physician studies writings and drawings about medicine at a popular institution called a House of Life (Per Ankh). Study encompasses medical works already known and written.
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The doctor must treat the patient according to the laws of previous medical writers. If the patient fails to recover within four days, the doctor(s) may change the treatment.
According to the Hermetic Book of Thoth, if a patient dies due to deviation from the treatment, it's a crime akin to murder. A papyrus of fifteen columns, the Book of Thoth is written in Demotic script (after c. 500 BCE) by scribes from the House of Life.
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The Ebers Papyrus includes informational texts such as the "treatise on the heart". The treatise asserts the heart is the center of blood supply. Spiritually, in ancient Egypt the heart contains the soul, and is the one organ not removed when embalming a corpse.
According to the writings, function of organs such as the kidneys and brains are not well understood. The heart is the conjunction of various vessels, which carry the fluids of the body, including blood, tears, urine and semen.
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A chapter of the papyrus, named the Book of Hearts, describes mental disorders, discussing ailments such as depression and dementia. Egyptians are thought to treat mental and physical diseases in similar fashion.
The papyrus includes sections about contraception, pregnancy and gynecology; intestinal disease, parasites, eye afflictions, skin problems and dentistry. It covers surgical treatment of boils and tumors, setting broken bones and treating burns.
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Pharmacists also receive education at the House of Life. Pharmacy is the science and practice of discovering, producing, preparing, dispensing, reviewing and monitoring medications.
In ancient Egypt the practice of pharmacy involves gathering and preparation of herbs and other components. Head pharmacists are known as Chiefs of Fabrication. Clinical and personal hygiene are also important to the medicine of ancient Egypt.
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Specialists known in ancient Egyptian medicine include are ophthalmologist (eye doctor and surgeon), gastroenterologist, proctologist, "doctor who supervises butchers" and an undefined "inspector of liquids".
The ancient Egyptian term for proctologist, neru phuyt, literally translates as "shepherd of the anus". The latter title is in use by c. 2200 BCE.
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Evidence of oral surgery appears by c. 2900 BCE. The dentist is considered a specialized doctor. Dental treatments include:
cumin, incense, and onion to treat swollen gums
opium to treat pain
drilling holes into the jaw to drain an abscess
Tooth extractions are rare. Ancient Egyptian dental treatment involves drilling out cavities. Evidence shows early dentists pack teeth with various mixtures. One composite includes barley, an antiseptic herb and honey.
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Apart from medical teachings the House of Life is a compendium of scribal writings. The title 'foremost of the House of Life' appears on inscriptions for the goddess Seshat (meaning writing or scribe)
Two stelae of the late Middle Kingdom (1850 -1700 BCE) document a man named Keku with the title 'scribe of the House of Life'. He's placed beside an associate who has the title 'chief physician'.
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Although medicine is strictly by the book, in this fertile environment doctors and other practitioners develop new methods and ideas. The House of Life also relates to kingship as well as creation and preservation of knowledge in written and pictorial form.
Egyptians also experiment with prosthetics. Below is a wooden toe sewn to the foot of a noblewoman's mummy, Cairo c. 950 BCE. The toe has a leather attachment. It's possible the toe is placed after the woman's demise to give the body (Khet) wholeness in death.
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Medical professions are hierarchical. They include the common practitioner 'swnw' at the lower rung. The supervisor of doctors 'imyr swnw'; chief doctor 'wr swnw' is higher up.
Over these are the 'smsw swnw' or elder physicians; and the inspector of doctors 'shd swnw'. According to Willerton & Teaff, 1996a, the doctoral professions are practiced by both men and women.
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The lady Peseshet (c. 2400 BCE) is the first known female doctor in Egypt. A practitioner in royal circles, she may be mother of Akhethotep, a powerful courtier. A stela dedicated to her in his tomb names her imy-r swnwt, or "Lady Overseer of the Lady Physicians" .
Medical studies are various, including treatment of parasitic worms; diseases of the eyes; dermatology, gynecology, obstetrics, surgery and dentistry. Depression is described as 'despondency', a state similar to that of today's affliction.
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Medical knowledge of the ancient Egyptians is admired by later cultures such as the Greeks, who also have a driving curiosity about healing. In the 4th - 3rd century BCE, Hippocrates, Herophilos and Erasistratus study at the temple of Amenhotep in Luxor, Egypt.
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