Lead is a highly toxic metal with a silvery sheen when polished and a grey surface when oxidized. A metal of antiquity, lead is in use by c. 6400 BCE. Lead almost never appears in raw or native form. Cerussite, a lead ore, is often found with copper, zinc and antimony.
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The three lead ores are galena, cerussite and anglesite. They occur throughout the world in varying amounts. First evidence of lead smelting is at Çatalhöyük in Anatolia (Turkey), dating back to c. 6500 BCE.
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During the Bronze Age c. 3000 BCE, lead ore is mined in today's Asia Minor or ancient Anatolia. This area has a progressive metal culture with industrial quality steel produced by 1800 BCE, about six centuries before advent of the Iron Age.
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Lead occurs in the lustrous mineral galena (lead sulfide) also called lead glance, along with silver. Extracted lead also has a low melting point, liquifying at 700-800°F (370-425°C) within 5-10 minutes, and can be poured into molds.
As it dissolves in water, lead is also extracted by hydration. Of the lead ores galena is especially attractive as it melts in the hand like magic, and also contains silver. Silver is desirable for decorations, jewelry and trade.
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As a result, lead ore deposits are worked in the ancient near East since the early Bronze Age. In ancient Rome, silver has strong commercial value. Isolating silver elements progresses to widespread extraction and use of lead.
Lead is soluble in water, shown by the toxic nature of lead pipes, as levels of lead dissolve in water flow. Romans line coffins with lead, make pots and utensils. They use lead acetate as an artificial sweetener. Lead acetate solution is also a folk remedy for sore nipples.
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Beginning c. 2000 BCE, Phoenicians work lead ore deposits in the Iberian peninsula. By c.1600 BCE, lead and copper ore mines are established in Cyprus (then called Alashiya), Greece, and Sardinia.
Cyprus is mined extensively for copper ore, a common companion of sulfite and lead ores. Smelting facilities are set up on the island by the 2nd millennium BCE. During the Bronze Age collapse of c.1200 BCE, the isle of Cyprus escapes with little sign of violence.
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Lead ores are also prolific in the Aegean and Laurion, Greece, mined from c. 3200 BCE. The three regions dominate production of mined lead ore until c. 1200 BCE.
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Lead sling bullets come into popular use in the first millennium BCE, effective to 100 - 150 m (328 - 492 ft). Fighting as mercenaries in Carthaginian and Roman troops, the Balearic slingers, from islands south of Spain, are famed for shooting distance and accuracy.
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For hundreds of years lead is used in abundance to make weapons, tools, water pipes, sinkers for fishing, tablets for writing upon, bullets, candlesticks, plaques, everyday items and special projects. In extracted form as a solid it can be shaped with ease.
Lead is the metal of choice for people of the ancient world and antiquity who can't afford solid gold or silver objects. Lead is poured into a cast and used as the base metal for applications of gold and silver leaf, and an early version of tin foil.
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Tin has been used since 3500 BCE, before the advent of the Bronze Age. It's the addition of tin to copper which creates bronze. Tin is typically added in small amounts to lead for casting. It keeps the lead from shrinking as it cools.
Lead is instrumental in creating the early printing press. Letter blocks are made of 54 - 86% lead with addition of antimony, a lustrous grey metal with hardening properties, discovered in 1600 BCE. Antimony replaces tin in the creative process.
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After Roman mine sources expire, miners turn to East Asia and China, where other viable deposits are found. In the Renaissance with the increased popularity of alchemy, lead is often used in experiments, hydrations and extractions.
Blood poisoning from lead is thought to be the cause of death for Elizabeth I of England. She whitens her face with censure, or lead white.
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The face-whitening fad of aristocracy during the Renaissance is considered by the elite to be a sign of modesty. It grows to include powders and wigs.
Lead poisoning is given as one possible cause of the fall of the Roman Empire. This theory is still debated. However lead poisoning is identified as the cause death for 18 children at a battery collection site in Dakar, Senegal in 2008.
Almost half of all refined lead is recycled scrap. As it's heated to molten, inclusions come to the top in the form of dross, which is discarded. The lead can then be poured into molds or mixtures.
Lead remains in use today in industry and luxury items like leaded glass. It's used as a glaze on ceramics, especially yellow and red hues. It may be found in antique mirrors. The 'lead' in pencils, graphite, is non-toxic.
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Up to the 20th century visual artists use lead white paint, brightened by addition of lead, for its pure tone and superior coverage. It's still available as the elements are now non-toxic.
In spiritual lore, lead is a metal of resurrection, awareness and transformation. A small amount occurs naturally in the bodies of humans and other animals. 95% of that is concentrated in bones and teeth.
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According to scientists there is no safe limit of exposure for lead. It's toxic especially for children. It can lead to brain damage, kidney damage and death. Symptoms of lead poisoning include:
kidney affilictions & disease
colic-like abdominal pains
weakness in fingers, wrists, or ankles
high blood pressure
anemia
in pregnant women, miscarriage
in men, reduction of fertility
Lead can occur in food plants are grown in soil high in lead. Airborne lead contaminates crops. Animals ingest lead in their diets; or, lead enters the food a vessel or storage container containing lead.
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A main aim of alchemists is chrysopoeia, from the Greek 'gold-making'. The process involves turning base metals into noble metals, especially lead into gold. Alchemists handle so many toxic substances it's easy to see where the mad scientist prototype comes from.
Alchemy was banned for a while in 1404 CE because kings and rulers got nervous. If alchemy really does find a way to turn lead to gold, the whole economic system would collapse. The rich will no longer be rich, a terrifying concept for them.
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After a couple hundred years, lobbying by scientists such as Sir Isaac Newton brings alchemy back to the sphere of legality. More recently, research find the fungus Aspergillus versicolor effective in absorbing lead from industrial waste before it's dumped into rivers.
Other bacteria are also tested and found effective. One of the obvious questions here is why industrial waste continues to be dumped into water bodies in the first place.
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In the 1920s, tetraethyl lead is added to gasoline to reduce engine knocking, wear and tear and other problems. Almost immediately, industry workers become violently ill and several die.
At a manufacturing plant in New Jersey eight workers die between 1923 - 1925. When 44 workers at Standard Oil's plant are hospitalized, public outcry spotlights the crisis. Few changes appear until decades later, in the 1970s, when use of lead is phased out.
Lead relates to the planet and god figure Saturn. He eats his children, but Zeus makes him spit them up again. Saturn is god of time, abundance, wealth, agriculture, cycles, rebirth and liberation. Saturn's reign is described as a Golden Age of prosperity and peace.
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