Astrology prospers in the East after the 476 AD fall of the Roman Empire. Indian, Persian, and Islamic writers prolifically translate texts. Western astrology at this time pales in comparison, due to the absence of Greek scientific astronomy, and prevalence of Church censure.
Translation of Arabic texts into Latin began arrives in Spain in the late 10th century. A monumental transmission of astrological knowledge flows from Arabia to Europe in the 12th century.
Astrology: the study of the movements and relative positions of celestial bodies interpreted as having an influence on human affairs and the natural world.
Astronomy: the branch of science dealing with celestial objects, space, and the physical universe as a whole.
By the 13th century in Europe, astrology is integrated into routine medical practices. Physicians blend medicine influences of Greek physiologist Galen (129–216 AD) with celestial studies. Galen promotes the Four Humors theory of Hippocrates.
By the late 1500s, medical practitioners across Europe are legally required to determine the Moon's position before performing complex medical procedures, such as surgery or bloodletting. Every physician has to have a thorough knowledge of astrology.
Important astrology works from the 13th century include those of the British monk Johannes de Sacrobosco (c. 1195–1256) and the Italian Guido Bonatti from Forlì, Italy, the most celebrated astrologer of the 13th century.
Bonatti is advisor to Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, and serves communal governments of Florence, Siena and Forlì. His astrological manual, Liber Astronomiae (Book of Astronomy) c. 1277, is one of the most important Latin astrological publication of the 13th century.
Dante Alighieri depicts Bonatti in his Divine Comedy (written 1308 - 1320) by placing him in the eighth Circle of Hell. It's a realm where those attempting to predict the future are doomed to have their heads turned backwards, symbolizing a focus on past rather than future.
In medieval Europe, a university education is categorized into seven fields, each associated with a certain celestial body, known as the seven liberal arts. Dante links arts to planets, with a hierarchy based on ascending order for arts and descending order of planetary speed:
grammar is linked to the Moon
dialectic* to Mercury
rhetoric to Venus
music to the Sun
arithmetic to Mars
geometry to Jupiter
astrology/astronomy to the slowest planet, Saturn
*In this context the term dialectic, or dialectical method, refers to conversation between individuals with opposing views on a topic, seeking truth through logical debate.
The first five are the only planets known until Copernicus identifies Earth as a planet too. Discovery of Uranus is in 1781. The five first planets, sun and moon prevail in Renaissance alchemy. In metallurgy each of the seven metals of antiquity corresponds to a celestial body.
Seasons are also ascribed to the zodiac signs, based on the Aristotelian view of the four elements:
Spring (wet becoming hot) – Air – Gemini, Libra, Aquarius
Summer (hot becoming dry) – Fire – Aries, Leo, Sagittarius
Autumn (dry becoming cold) – Earth – Taurus, Virgo, Capricorn
Winter (cold becoming wet) – Water – Cancer, Scorpio, Pisces
Medieval writers incorporate astrological symbolism into their literary works. For instance, Dante's Divine Comedy contains various references to planetary connections in the architecture of Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise.
This is evident in the depiction of the seven layers of Purgatory's mountain purging the seven cardinal sins, which align with the classical planets in astrology. Geoffrey Chaucer, writer and astronomer, also explores similar astrological allegories and planetary themes in his writings.
The Medieval Church's view of astrology is multifaceted. Astrology is accepted as a crucial element of medical and scientific exploration and a tool for understanding the divine order of the universe. This is however approached with caution by the Church.
Astrology's predictions and interpretations can challenge established religious beliefs and authority. During the Renaissance the Church continues to support astrological studies, recognizing potential benefits.
Astrology is used to predict natural phenomena, guide medical treatments, and even inform political decisions. At the same time, concern grows within the Church about potential dangers of astrology leading to heretical ideas or undermining religious teachings.
Thus, the Church finds itself in a delicate balancing act during the Renaissance, oscillating between being a patron of astrological studies and a critic of their more esoteric or controversial aspects.
The meanings of the known celestial bodies in relation to seven deadly sins traverse the spectrum.
Sun - Pride/Humility.
Moon - Lust/Loyalty.
Mercury - Greed/Charity.
Venus - Gluttony/Balance.
Mars - Sloth/Effort.
Jupiter - Envy/Gratitude.
Saturn - Wrath/Patience.
Chaucer frequently includes astrological passages, assuming a basic knowledge of astrology among his readers. He has a thorough knowledge of astrology and astronomy of his time, as demonstrated by his writing of a Treatise on the Astrolabe for his son.
In the prologue of the Canterbury Tales, he marks the early spring season by referencing the Sun's position in Aries. He attributes "sturdy hardiness" to Mars through the Wife of Bath and associates Mercury with "clerks."
Richard Trewythian (b. 1393) is one of the earliest English astrologers to document his practice. His notebook reveals diverse clientele spanning various social backgrounds. Astrology in 15th-century England is not limited to educated, religious or political elite.
In the Renaissance, court astrologers also use observations and findings from astronomy. Many figures who are now recognized for challenging traditional astrology, such as Tycho Brahe, Galileo Galilei, and Johannes Kepler, are themselves astrologers.
By the end of the Renaissance, belief in astrology wanes along with Aristotelian Physics. The heliocentric theory of Copernicus (1543) gains followers, even though Copernicus himself dares not release it until he's on his deathbed.
Astrological references can also be found in the works of William Shakespeare and John Milton (Paradise Lost, 1667) during the early modern era. Shakespeare reportedly uses the court astrologer of Elizabeth I, John Dee, as inspiration for Prospero in The Tempest (1611).
The Prague court of Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, swarms with alchemists, astrologers, artists and literati. Rudolf piles honors on favorites like Michael Maier and Edward Kelley, until he discovers the latter deceiving him and has him thrown in prison.
While heliocentrism aligns with astrology, the astronomy of the 16th and 17th centuries causes a drastic shift in perspective. The world is no longer a cohesive interconnected entity, but an immense mechanism devoid of the traditional hierarchy between earth and heaven.
Few astronomers challenge these new ideas. Many are attached to the emotional comfort of a harmonious universe. By the 18th century, the intellectual support for astrology significantly dwindles.
Historian of science Ann Geneva writes:
"Astrology in seventeenth century England was not a science. It was not a Religion. It was not magic. Nor was it astronomy, mathematics, puritanism, neo Platism, psychology, meteorology, alchemy or witchcraft ...
"... It used some of these as tools; it held tenets in common with others; and some people were adept at several of these skills. But in the final analysis it was only itself: a unique divinatory and prognostic art embodying centuries of accreted methodology and tradition.
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