The Scientific Revolution, from 1543 to 1687, transforms human understanding of the natural world. This period involves events and intellectual developments seen as significant departure from medieval thinking. New methods and discoveries challenge long-held beliefs.
This period features a profound transformation in the way humans understand the natural world. Now called the Scientific Revolution, the era sees the advent of modern science as defined by modern scientists.
The Scientific Revolution is characterized by different approaches to inquiry, empirical observation, and mathematical reasoning. Certain factors, influential figures, discoveries and geographical context define the Scientific Revolution.
Much like the neolithic agricultural revolution c. 10,000 BCE, the scientific revolution is a series of developments altering humanity’s relationship with nature and knowledge. During the agricultural revolution the evolution of the lactose gene is significant.
In Renaissance science, it's heliocentric theory. The scientific revolution "officially" begins in 1543, the year Niklaus Copernicus dies. The Polish astronomer is so worried about the wrath of the Inquisition, he doesn't publish his heliocentric findings until he's on his deathbed.
It's a move away from Aristotelian views, which rely on philosophical reasoning and spiritual doctrine, towards a methodology based on observation, experimentation, and a systematic approach to inquiry, which is the call to action of many a scientific advancement over history.
During the European Renaissance primarily two spiritualities exist: Christian and heretic. The threat of the Inquisition is like a smog over the land.
Thus much scientific work from the early years AD, and more heavily in the medieval era of Europe, revolve around the doctrines of Christianity. Another reason is that from early medieval times, many scientists are friars.
The presumed lack of empirical observation is full of holes but it still flies. For example medieval friar and alchemist Roger Bacon in the 13th century discovers the secrets of gunpowder based on a Chinese firecracker, experiments and empirical observation, yet the medieval period is historically blanketed in ignorance and blind faith.
In the 16th century, Giambattista della Porta proves empirically garlic does not de-magnetize magnets. He is one of the best known Renaissance scientists and has a strong influence on development of the sciences. He gets in trouble with the Inquisition but talks his way out of it.
The period of scientific revolution emphasizes establishment of scientific laws. It signals a movement away tradition and authority, generally church doctrine, once again towards a focus on empirical evidence and reason as perceived at the time.
Preceding Events and Factors Driving Change
Several factors contribute to the emergence of the Scientific Revolution:
The Renaissance
A revival of classical learning in the 14th to 17th centuries, the Renaissance fosters humanism and encourages a critical reassessment of ancient texts. This leads scholars to pursue empirical observation and experimentation.
Rediscovery of Classical Texts
The Renaissance reignites interest in ancient Greek and Roman writings, emphasizing observation and rational thought. For example the Roman Pliny the Elder in the first century AD identifies amber as a resin by its smell and behavior when burned.
The Reformation
The Protestant Reformation challenges Church authority, encouraging independent thought. With religion no longer the sole authority on truth, people seek answers elsewhere.
Technological Advancements
Innovations such as the printing press facilitate the spread of new ideas, allowing scientists and thinkers to share their works widely and challenge established beliefs.
Advances in Mathematics
The introduction of algebra and geometry provides scientists with tools for more precise modeling, enabling better theoretical and experimental results. Together, these factors create an environment conducive to scientific inquiry.
Exploration and Discovery
The Age of Exploration exposes Europe to new cultures and discoveries. These create conflict in New World and Old, and a reevaluation of existing knowledge and methods of understanding the world.
Alchemy
Two thousand years of science becomes falls from favor due to buildup of misinterpretations over many centuries. Alchemy assumes an ever more esoteric factor. By the time of the Scientific Revolution it's full of pretty pictures and codes for the "in" crowd.
Alchemists have bad reputations in general, largely due to the many fraudsters emerging as time goes on. Emphasis is on the making of actual gold, which is a crock. Scientific work of early alchemists goes out the window as self-proclaimed legitimate scientists fight for credence by distancing themselves from, and bad-mouthing, alchemists and alchemical practices.
Another problem with alchemy is that women are actually succeeding at it, like Isabella Cortese and Caterina Sforza in 16th-17th century Italy. At the time, according to science, women are too stupid to understand science.
Before the Scientific Revolution, Europe languishes under the influence of universalism. Politics, economics and religion mingle, as they have for thousands of years. Artists create personal interpretations of stories they hear, without experiencing or seeing the subjects.
This leads to pictures of pelicans with bodies of swans and heads of eagles ripping open their own breasts to feed their children with blood. Christians adopt it as a symbol of sacrifice. In less grotesque news, stories of giant cinnamon birds told by traders to up the price of their wares cause their inclusion among imaginative beasts too.
Increased travel and encounters with real animals, people and conditions impress upon the scientists the importance of first-hand observation. Nonetheless many fantastic stories remain in folklore and superstition until the 20th century.
This is not the first time scientists call for empiricism and rationality. Sociologically these concepts work in cyclic patterns throughout history, (broadly) with themes of order and industrial progress followed by romanticism, nature and focus on natural health.
Geographic Landscape of the Scientific Revolution
While the Scientific Revolution had ripple effects across Europe, its epicenter can primarily be located in several key regions:
Italy: Birthplace of the Renaissance, Italy produces innovators like Galileo Galilei 1564‐1642), who observes the moons of Jupiter and gets in trouble with the Inquisition; and "father of anatomy" Andreas Vesalius.
Germany: Figures like Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630) make significant contributions to astronomy and mathematics. In the late 17th century Wilhelm Leibniz invents the modern binary numeral system. Mezzotint in art is invented by Ludwig von Siegen 1642 and becomes a preferred technique for landscape reproductions due to its shading intricacies.
Prague: Johannes Kepler works as a disciple of Tycho Brahe at the famous court of HRE Rudolf II in Prague. Brahe himself is against the concepts of heliocentrism, asserting empirically if the Earth moves he should feel it.
England: Isaac Newton, one of the revolution's defining figures, advanced concepts that shaped physics and mathematics and spends many years trying to turn lead into gold. The problem is, alchemy is developing an increasingly bad reputation and he almost loses credence with his peers. The founding of the Royal Society in 1660 is important in many ways. It receives the support of King Charles II, giving the participants freedom to experiment without fear of religious repercussion. The importance of collaborative scientific efforts is one of the features of the scientific revolution.
France: René Descartes and Blaise Pascal introduced crucial philosophical underpinnings that would influence scientific thought.
Netherlands: Tycho Brahe establishes the famous observatory Uraniborg in 1576. It's the last observatory before the invention of the telescope in 1608. His sister Sophie Brahe makes observations and keeps records of the skies. Johann Glauber (1604 - 1670) discovers a purpose for fulminating gold. Renowned for progress in optics, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek's (1632 - 1723) discoveries in microbiology revolutionize understanding of life at a microscopic level.
Influential Figures of the Scientific Revolution
The revolution is marked by the contributions of several significant figures:
Nicolaus Copernicus: His heliocentric model of the solar system challenges the geocentric view endorsed by the Church.
Galileo Galilei: Often called the "father of modern science," Galileo champions the use of scientific method and makes ground-breaking discoveries in physics and astronomy.
Johannes Kepler: Kepler formulates laws of planetary motion, reinforcing the heliocentric theory and adding precision to astronomy.
Isaac Newton: Newton synthesizes the findings of his predecessors and outlines the laws of motion and universal gravitation, culminating in his seminal work, "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica."
Francis Bacon: As a philosopher, he advocates for the empirical method and skepticism, which influenced scientific inquiry and the development of modern scientific practices.
Robert Boyle: Author of "The Sceptical Chymist" (1661) also calls for empirical observation. He's known for Boyle's Law of pressure and gas, and for his discovery of air as a compound.
Major Breakthroughs and Philosophical Shifts
The Scientific Revolution brought forth transformative breakthroughs:
The Scientific Method: Established as a systematic approach to experimentation and observation, it became the cornerstone of modern scientific inquiry.
Mathematics in Science: The integration of mathematics into scientific studies allowed for precise measurements and predictions, as seen in Newton’s laws.
Advancements in Anatomy: Figures like Andreas Vesalius redefined the understanding of human anatomy, emphasizing observation and dissection over traditional texts.
Physics: Newton’s discoveries not only explained motions on Earth but also celestial dynamics, altering the scientific narrative about the universe’s structure.
Biology and Medicine: The discovery of blood circulation by William Harvey in the 17th century was revolutionary, laying vital groundwork for modern medicine.
Chemistry: The transition from alchemy to chemistry marked a significant evolution, with Robert Boyle’s gas laws laying foundational principles that still guide the field today.
Philosophy and Methodology: The establishment of the scientific method fundamentally changed how knowledge was acquired through systematic observation, experimentation, and analysis.
Facts About the Scientific Revolution
Timeline: Although often associated with the years 1543 (publication of Copernicus's "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium") to 1687 (publication of Newton’s "Principia"), the Scientific Revolution extends beyond this period and overlaps with the Enlightenment.
Impact on Religion: The Scientific Revolution often undermined traditional religious views about the cosmos, leading to conflicts between science and the Church, a dynamic that would continue into the Enlightenment.
Legacy: The Scientific Revolution not only transformed scientific thought but also laid the groundwork for the Industrial Revolution, significantly impacting technology and society.
Galileo faced trial by the Catholic Church for his support of the heliocentric model, which they condemned as heretical.
The Scientific Revolution spurs a growing sense of individualism and skepticism toward traditional institutions, marking a shift in cultural attitudes.
The practices established during the Scientific Revolution still inform modern scientific methods and educational systems today.
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