Artists of Renaissance Europe cultivate palettes rich in colors sourced from elements both enchanting and lethal. The Renaissance is known for advances in artistic techniques and color theory.
Today the artist goes to the art store, but things are different in the Renaissance. Pigments are gathered, processed, refined and traded. Artists of this period had access to a stunning array of colors, each bringing its unique vibrancy and character to their masterpieces.
They grind their own pigments, perhaps collect their own lampblack which is a common commodity before electricity. Apprentices often have to do the grunt work, such as making brushes, priming surfaces or even underpainting for the Master.
Alternately they trade in the market. Pigments, dyes and colors are coveted trade items, along with spices and textiles. Traders visit customers at dye works or studios. Recipes for desirable colors are kept secret.
To bind pigments to surfaces, Renaissance artists use egg yolk, beeswax, oils such as walnut, later linseed, and gum arabic. The binders secure pigments influencing texture, translucency and drying time. Burning linseed oil also makes deep black soot if one runs out of lampblack.
Alchemists are early pigment makers, and this becomes a discipline in itself. Prussian blue is created by alchemist Dippel and colleague. The Leyden Stockholm Papyrus (c. 250 AD) is full of alchemical wisdom on coloring metals, gems and fabric with materials like realgar.
Realgar (Arsenic Compound)
Realgar, known for its brilliant red hue, is an arsenic sulfide mineral. In Renaissance Europe, it's prized for its vibrant shade. Realgar is typically produced by grinding the mineral into a fine powder.
Along with its striking color, realgar poses significant health hazards due to arsenic content. Prolonged exposure causes arsenic poisoning in artists and apprentices.
In terms of lightfastness, realgar is relatively stable, but its durability concerns arise due to the potential for fading and discoloration over time.
Crimson / Carmine (Kermes Beetles)
Derived from the dried bodies of the kermes beetle, crimson is a sought-after red pigment, often used to give life to Virgin Mary's robes and the flesh tones of figures. The process involved drying and crushing the insects, then extracting the dye through a series of steps.
While crimson is renowned for its rich hue, it can be less lightfast compared to later synthetic alternatives. The lack of durability in insects crimson also raises concerns, as it starts to turn brown when exposed to sunlight over time.
Azurite
This gorgeous blue pigment is sourced from the mineral azurite, which is formed through the weathering of copper ores. Artists value azurite for its beautiful hue and fine granulation.
To create the pigment, azurite is ground to a fine powder. While azurite provides excellent color, it's also quick to deteriorate when exposed to moisture, taking on a greenish patina from resident copper as it becomes malachite.
Consequently, preservation techniques were vital for masterpieces incorporating azurite. This mineral is beloved for its captivating blue tone reminiscent of azure skies.
Ultramarine (Lapis Lazuli)
One of the most coveted pigments of the Renaissance, ultramarine is derived from lapis lazuli, a semi-precious stone found in Afghanistan. The process to extract this brilliant blue involved intricate methods, including crushing the stones and washing.
The intensive labor significantly increases its value. Ultramarine is highly lightfast and durable. Its cost leads many artists to opt for cheaper alternatives, while others reserve it for the most important subjects. Ultramarine symbolizes wealth and prestige.
Indigo (Indigo Plant)
Extracted from the leaves of the indigo plant, this deep blue pigment is popular during the Renaissance for its rich, velvety color. The pigment making process includes harvesting leaves, fermenting them, and extracting the dye.
While indigo demonstrates excellent lightfastness and durability, it can show an inconsistency in color and slight bleeding into other tones. Nonetheless, it remains an enduring favorite among artists.
Verdigris (Copper Patina)
Verdigris, a green pigment made from corrosion of copper, is made by placing copper plates in vinegar in a covered clay vessel. Copper oxidizes naturally in 5 - 30 years. This process yields a brilliant blue-green color favored for fleshtones and landscapes.
While vivid, verdigris comes with significant health hazards. The pigment can cause skin irritation. From a durability perspective, verdigris is prone to fading when exposed to light, becoming unstable with age, like most of us.
Green Earth
This pigment, often derived from natural silicate minerals, produces muted green tones preferred by some artists for landscape paintings. Its sources include minerals like celadonite, and it's valued for its permanence and lightfastness.
The durability of green earth makes it a popular choice for under-painting, providing a stable foundation for layering techniques. This pigment offers a range of earthy tones to artists.
Its versatility makes it a valuable addition to Renaissance palettes. In underpainting, due to its lightfastness while the color on top can possibly fade, earth green is often the pigment responsible for the greenish cast to medieval faces.
Malachite
Malachite is another copper-based green pigment. Its virtues as pigment are known by the 4th Dynasty of Egypt (c. 2625–2500 BCE). The process of obtaining malachite involves grinding the stone into powder. On the Mohs scale of harness malachite is 3.5 - 4, "softer" than glass.
While malachite offers beautiful deep green hues, similar to verdigris, it also his durability issues. Light exposure can cause discoloration over time. This is because copper, the main ingredient in malachite, never stops reacting.
The pigment can be prepared from malachite by grinding, washing and levigating the raw material. Malachite can also be prepared in the laboratory by a reaction of copper (II) sulfate and sodium carbonate.
Naples Yellow
Naples yellow, an opaque yellow pigment, is made from lead antimonate. Its production involves roasting lead and antimony at high temperatures. This pigment exhibits excellent opacity, making it perfect for underpainting and mixing with other colors.
However, like other lead-based pigments, Naples yellow poses severe health risks, including lead poisoning. Despite this, its durability and lightfastness made it a favored option for artists.
Naples yellow has warm buttery tones. Its lightfastness makes it a popular Renaissance choice.
Lead-Tin Yellow
Lead-tin yellow is an inorganic pigment created by mixing lead oxide and tin oxide. It has a warm, opaque tone popular for highlights in paintings. A luminous yellow pigment, it graces artworks with a radiant glow.
It has strong coverage and offers good lightfastness and durability. However, like other lead-based colors, it carries the well-known risks associated with lead exposure.
Orpiment (Arsenic Compound)
Similar to realgar, orpiment is an arsenic sulfide mineral known for its striking yellow color. Its vibrant hue attracts artists, but like other arsenic-based pigments, it poses severe health risks. Orpiment may be found together with realgar and used in traditional medicine.
While effective for colors requiring vibrancy, its lightfastness and durability are questionable, as it can fade when exposed to light or humidity. Orpiment is a favorite color for angels' wings and garb due to its golden hue. Today the color has transmuted to an icky green.
Many of these colors first emerge during the Renaissance or medieval times, thus it's difficult for artists to judge lightfastness and color permanence. Others go back to antiquity or further. Arsenic based pigments like realgar and orpiment appear several times in the Leyden Papyrus.
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