The Catholic Inquisition is an institution in Christianity from the 12th to 19th century. Its purpose is to identify and eliminate heresy within the church but economic motives are a key factor. Here's an overview of significant Inquisitions in chronological order.
Origins
The Inquisition starts in response to perception of growing threats by heretical movements in medieval Europe. In the 12th century, the Catholic Church is on the defensive as groups like the Cathars and Waldensians preach alternate interpretations of Christianity.
The Cathars are a significant religious faction in medieval Europe, known as a major heretical Christian community with extensive territories in southern France and northern Italy. Their beliefs and teachings are rooted in Gnosticism.
In Gnostic belief, salvation comes from encountering divine revelation, awakening the divine spark within, and gaining knowledge for a return to spiritual origins in the transcendent realm. Gnosticism removes the church as middleman from the spiritual experience.
The Waldensians don't have distinct doctrines; instead, they emerge from an ascetic interpretation of the social Gospel. They emphasize poverty and stand against the Church's exploitation of the poor, and its economic pursuits in general.
This prompts Pope Gregory IX in 1231 to formally establish the Inquisition system, initially as a mechanism for the church to investigate, prosecute and punish heretics, and to gain their property. The Church strives to restore control, citing religious integrity and uniformity.
Medieval Inquisition (1231 - 1450)
The inquisitorial courts up to the mid-15th century are collectively known as the Medieval Inquisition. The Medieval Inquisition is the precursor to later inquisitorial movements. Pope Gregory IX authorizes bishops and inquisitors to root out heresy within their jurisdictions.
Led by the Catholic Church, this period features intense scrutiny and persecution of individuals deemed deviant from accepted doctrines. It uses confessional systems and trials where accused individuals are faced with intimidation and harsh penalties.
German Inquisition (1230s)
The German Inquisition arises in response to the growing presence of heretical movements in the Holy Roman Empire, such as the Waldensians. From the early 13th century, inquisitors enforce church doctrine with trials and local collaborations of church and state.
The German Inquisition emphasizes the importance of doctrinal purity and conformity. It contributes to the fragmentation of religious beliefs and practices across different German states.
French Inquisition (1245)
In France, the Inquisition gains prominence after the Albigensian Crusade (1209-1229) against the Cathars. The French Inquisition suppresses heretical ideas but also political dissent, and becomes infamous for harsh punishments and execution of heretics.
The main center of the medieval inquisition is the Languedoc in the south of France. The first inquisitors are appointed there in 1233. Due to resistance from local communities in the early years, most sentences concern dead heretics, whose bodies are exhumed and burned.
Between 1245 - 1246, Inquisitor Bernard de Caux investigates 39 villages in the regions of Lauragais and Lavaur. All 5,471 adult residents are interrogated, with 207 identified as heretics. None receive a death sentence, 23 are imprisoned, and 184 are assigned penance.
Papal Inquisition in Italy (1255)
The Papal Inquisition follows soon after, focusing primarily on northern Italy, where heretical groups such as the Cathars are prevalent. The Inquisition in Italy is characterized by its use of papal authority to conduct trials.
The Italian Inquisition is particularly active in regions such as Venice and Florence. It further solidified the Church's authority and fostered a climate of fear and suspicion among the populace.
In 1276, about 170 Cathars are captured in Sirmione, then imprisoned in Verona. There, after a two-year trial, on February 13 from 1278, more than a hundred are burned. Heretic burnings are often a public spectacle.
In Orvieto, at the end of 1268/1269, 85 heretics are sentenced, none executed. In 18 cases the sentence concerns people already dead, in another strategic property grab by the Catholic Church.
In Tuscany, inquisitor Ruggiero burns at least 11 people c. 1244 - 1245. Excluding executions of the heretics at Sirmione in 1278, 36 Inquisition executions appear in the March of Treviso 1260 - 1308. Ten people are executed in Bologna 1291 - 1310. In Piedmont, 22 heretics (mainly Waldensians) are burned 1312–1395, out of 213 convicted.
22 Waldensians are burned in Cuneo c.1440, and another five in the Marquisate of Saluzzo in 1510. There are also records of many executions of people suspected of witchcraft in northern Italy in the 15th and early 16th centuries.
Spanish Inquisition (1478)
The Spanish Inquisition marks a more extreme notorious phase of the Inquisition's history. Established by monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella, it targets converted Jews (Conversos) suspected of practicing Judaism in secret, as well as other non-Christians.
All Jews who had not converted were expelled from Spain in 1492, and all Muslims ordered to convert in different stages starting in 1501. Those who convert or simply remained after the edict become legally Catholics, and thus subject to the Inquisition.
The Inquisition in Spain is infamous for its brutal tactics, including torturing suspects to elicit confessions. It results in thousands of executions, alongside widespread fear and persecution.
Portuguese Inquisition (1536)
Similar to its Spanish counterpart, the Portuguese Inquisition is established to enforce Catholic orthodoxy, seeking to expose heresy among Jews, Muslims, and Protestants. Extensive trials and executions reflect broader anxieties within the Catholic Church.
The Portuguese counterpart mirrors the Spanish Inquisition in its methods of persecution and control. Its reach extends to Portuguese colonies, where it seeks to impose religious uniformity and eliminate divergent beliefs.
Roman or Italian Inquisition (1542)
The Roman Inquisition, formally known as the Suprema Congregatio Sanctae Romanae et Universalis Inquisitionis is a series of biased courts established by the Holy See of the Catholic Church in the latter part of the 16th century.
Its purpose is to try individuals accused of various offenses under Catholic law and doctrine, pertaining to Catholic religious practices or other religious or secular beliefs. Pope Paul III founds the movement as part of the broader Catholic Inquisition, alongside the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions, following the Medieval Inquisition era.
New World Inquisitions (16th-17th centuries)
As Spanish and Portuguese empires expand in the New World, so does the Inquisition. It addresses perceived heresy among indigenous populations, colonial settlers and enslaved people. The Inquisition extends to the Americas, forcing Catholic orthodoxy on newly acquired territories.
As European powers venture into the New World, the inquisitorial practices accompany them. Indigenous populations face the wrath of the Catholic Church's inquisitions, leading to cultural erasure and the imposition of new religious norms.
Other Inquisitions
Inquisitions are also carried such regions as the Balkans, Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic (Bohemia). Researchers cite 558 court cases finished with conviction in Poland from the 15th to 18th centuries.
Effects of the Renaissance & Reformation
The Renaissance and Reformation introduce new ideas, humanism, and increased scrutiny of religious institutions. The Inquisition faces an uphill battle as figures like Martin Luther and reformers criticize church practices and doctrine, leading to widespread calls for reform.
The Protestant Reformation incites the Inquisition to double down on efforts to suppress dissent and maintain church authority. This reactionary response from the Catholic Church culminates in the Counter-Reformation.
At this time, the Inquisition adapts methods and rationales, focusing not just on heresy but also the political problems of religious dissent. It provokes an atmosphere of fear and suspicion, as individuals can be accused of heresy based on flimsy evidence or political motivations.
Overall the intellectual and religious upheavals of the Renaissance era challenge the authority of the Church and encourage greater religious tolerance and diversity.
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