Iraq: Mesopotamia to Modern Middle East
- Sylvia Rose
- Mar 21
- 7 min read
Iraq is the place civilization begins. Ancient Mesopotamia emerges in the fertile crescent of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Today a republic torn by strife, its legacy lies in ruins. Rebuilding is a growing goal as Iraq seeks stability.
First People and Early History
Iraq is historically known as Mesopotamia ("land between the rivers"). The earliest inhabitants, the Sumerians, arrive c. 5500 BCE and establish city-states like Uruk, the oldest civilization; Ur and Lagash.
They develop cuneiform writing, irrigation systems and sophisticated governance. They excel in fields like mathematics, astronomy, and architecture.
Around 2300 BCE, Sargon of Akkad conquers the Sumerians, creating the first empire in Mesopotamia, the Akkadian. Subsequent empires, including Babylon and the Assyrians, wield influence still felt today.
Geography
In the heart of the Middle East, Iraq is surrounded by Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Syria, Turkey and Iran. The north of the country is mountainous, while the west is largely desert.
Iraq's geography is dominated by the fertile plains between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The rivers originate in the Taurus Mountains of Turkey and flow southeast through Iraq.
They eventually converge to form the Shatt al-Arab waterway before flowing into the Persian Gulf. Running about 1,850 km collectively, the rivers and their nutritious floods create Iraq’s Fertile Crescent.
The rivers provide irrigation and are vital trade routes in the ancient and later world. They facilitate commerce and communication throughout Iraq’s extensive history.
Agriculture: Tigris & Euphrates
Agriculture has always been central to Iraq's economy and way of life. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers are the lifeblood of the country, providing irrigation for crops such as wheat, barley, rice, and dates.
These rivers facilitate the development of early agriculture and the rise of complex societies. In modern times water scarcity, exacerbated by climate change and upstream damming by neighboring countries, is a threat to Iraq's agricultural future.
Agriculture employs nearly 20% of Iraq's workforce, with wheat production reaching around 3 million tons annually. Recent droughts complicate existing water shortages.
Past Civilizations & Notable Rulers
Iraq is also ruled by the Achaemenid Persians (539 to 330 BCE), liberated by Alexander the Great. After Alexander, the Seleucids rule Iraq from 312 BCE until annexation by the Roman Republic in 63 BCE.
The Parthians and the Sasanian Persians follow. In the 7th century AD, Arab Muslims conquer the region. Baghdad rises as a major center of Islamic learning and culture under the Abbasid Caliphate.
Notable rulers through Iraq's history include Hammurabi of Babylon in the late 18th century BCE; Nebuchadnezzar II, and Harun al-Rashid. The reign of al-Rashid begins the Islamic Golden Age in the 8th century AD.
The House of Wisdom is established to collect, translate and learn from literature. Translation of ancient texts include the work of the Alexandrian alchemists and medical writings of Dioscorides, physician in Nero's Army.
Imports & Exports
Iraq's economy is heavily reliant on oil. Crude oil accounts for the overwhelming majority of exports. Other exports include dates and agricultural products.
Iraq's economy relies on oil reserves, which make up 90% of government revenue and 80% of exports. Iraq also exports agriculture products, especially dates and barley. Iraq imports manufactured goods, machinery, vehicles, food, and pharmaceuticals.
Natural Resources
Iraq has vast oil reserves, ranking among the largest in the world. It also has reserves of natural gas, phosphates and sulfur. Resource management remains a problem. Iraq has the fifth-largest proven oil reserves globally, at about 145 billion barrels.
Iraq has deposits of sulfide minerals like lead, zinc, iron and copper, mostly the north and northeast near Zagros and Taurus mountains. The Kurdistan region claims further metals like magnesium and chromium nickel.
Economy
The fluctuating global oil market directly impacts the country's economic stability. Diversification efforts are ongoing, but progress is slow due to political instability, corruption and lack of investment in other sectors.
Iraq unemployment rate for 2023 was 15.53%, declining from the year before. Its poverty rate was 16.5% in 2024, also with a slight decline.
Conflicts
Iraq has endured decades of conflict, including the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), the Gulf War (1991), the Iraq War (2003-2011), and the subsequent rise and fall of the extremist group ISIS.
These cause immense human suffering, devastate infrastructure and a rise in sectarian tensions. Millions of people have been displaced, creating ongoing humanitarian crises.
Ethnic Groups
Iraq's population is largely Arabs (75-80%), Kurds (15-20%), and smaller minorities, including Turkmen, Assyrians, and Yazidis. The ethnic diversity is a source of both rich culture and political conflict.
Science, Technology & Education:
Historically, Iraq is a center of scientific and technological innovation. Under the Abbasid Caliphate (750 to 1258 AD), Baghdad is a leading center of learning.
The time of learning contributes to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. In recent times, decades of conflict and instability hamper scientific and technological development.
In recent years, Iraq gives less than 6% of national budget to the education sector. It's ranked lowest among Middle Eastern countries. Prolonged conflict impairs the government's ability to provide quality education.
While initiatives to revive the science and technology sectors emerge, infrastructure problems and limited funding hinder these efforts.
Relationship with NATO
Iraq is not a member of NATO, but cooperates with NATO forces, as in the fight against ISIS. NATO has provided training and support to Iraqi security forces.
Relations with Iran
Iraq's relationship with Iran is complex and multifaceted. The two countries share a long border, a Shia majority population, and economic ties. They're also rivals, as during the Iran-Iraq War.
Iran wields significant influence in Iraq, particularly within Shia political circles. This influence is often a point of contention for other regional and international bodies.
Historically strained by conflicts like the Iran-Iraq War, the two countries have formed closer ties since the 2003 U.S. invasion. Various Iraqi political factions align with Iranian interests.
Allies and Enemies
Iraq's relationship with Saudi Arabia has been turbulent, but improving in recent years, focused on economic cooperation. Turkey remains an important regional partner, with 2000 troops stationed in Iraq and occasional tensions related to Kurdish issues.
Russia has given support to Iraq. Conflicts arise with remnants of ISIS and other extremist groups.
The U.S. has been an ally since 2003. Its influence has decreased due to the growing presence of Iran. Recently, the US forbids Iraq to buy electricity from Iran.
Government of Iraq
The President of Iraq is Abdul Latif Rashid and the Prime Minister is Mohammed Shia' al-Sudani. The President is head of state; the Prime Minister is head of government.
Iraq operates as a parliamentary republic with a multi-party system. The President is elected by Parliament while the Prime Minister holds executive powers.
Difficulties include political fragmentation, as various factions compete for power within the parliament.
Status of Women
Women progress in education and some professional fields. They continue to face challenges related to legal discrimination, political representation and social norms. The constitution guarantees equal rights, but implementation remains uneven.
In recent years, improvements in women’s rights have emerged, with initiatives to promote political participation and combat gender-based violence. Advocacy for women's equality and empowerment continues.
Religion
Islam is the dominant religion in Iraq, with Shia Muslims forming the majority and Sunni Muslims a significant minority. There are also smaller Christian and Yazidi communities.
Religious freedom is constitutionally guaranteed, but minorities can face persecution and discrimination, most often in times of conflict. Religious diversity enriches culture but fuels sectarian tensions, especially since 2003.
Pollution
Iraq has environmental problems including air and water pollution. Oil spills, industrial waste and inadequate sewage treatment contribute to water contamination.
Air pollution is rampant in urban areas due to vehicular emissions and industrial activity. Desertification and soil degradation are also major concerns.
In 2017, 100,000 people in the southern Basra province are admitted to hospital for stomach ailments. Sludge and yellow water is recorded flowing out of the taps. Demonstrations and riots erupt. In Nov 2018, tons of carp die suddenly in fish farms on the Euphrates.
Accelerating urbanization, industrialization, and conflict contribute to water and air pollution. The Mesopotamian marshlands, once thriving ecosystems, suffer from environmental degradation. The marshes begin to be drained in the mid-20th century.
In the 1990s, the marshes are drained for political reasons, to displace the Marsh Arabs and punish them for involvement in the 1991 uprising against Saddam Hussein. The government claims the action is to reclaim land for agriculture and eliminate mosquito breeding areas.
Evidence brings accusations of genocide and widespread condemnation. The UN calls the 1990 draining of the swamps as on a par with the destruction of the Amazon rainforest.
Other Important Facts about Iraq
Baghdad, the capital city, is the largest city in the world during the Abbasid Caliphate.
Iraq is home to several UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the ancient cities of Ashur, Hatra, and Samarra.
In 2025 warnings against travel to Iraq, including the Kurdistan Region, are issued "due to the volatile security situation and the threat of terrorism, armed conflict, kidnapping and violent crime."
Iraq finds itself at a crucial juncture. Rebuilding, economic stability and political unity dominate national needs.
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