The Italian or Roman Inquisition is established 1542 by Pope Paul III, largely as a response to the Protestant Reformation. Reformers like Martin Luther and John Calvin undermine the authority of the Catholic Church. Pope Paul III struggles to reassert Catholic orthodoxy.
The Roman Inquisition is an extension of the Papal Inquisition which begins in the 13th century. The Inquisitions focus on identifying and prosecuting individuals accused of heresy, including those who support Protestant views or deviate from official Church teachings.
The Inquisition doesn't specifically target people as witches at first. However, if the alleged witches are calling up demons, that's officially heresy and Church business. During the witch hunts many regional Church authorities receive permission to investigate witchcraft as well.
Key People
Notable figures include:
Pope Paul III: The architect of the Inquisition, he establishes the institution to combat heresy and champion Catholic reforms.
Cardinal Giovanni Morone: A leading figure in the Inquisition, his work emphasizes the need for a unified front against Protestantism.
Andrea Palma: An inquisitor in the 16th century, known for his aggressive tactics in hunting down heretics.
These individuals, among others, are instrumental in shaping the policies and practices of the Inquisition, and their decisions led to unfortunate consequences for countless people. One significant "heretic" is Galileo Galilei.
On June 22, 1633, Galileo is ordered to kneel as he is found “vehemently suspected of heresy” due to his work in astronomy. The Inquisitors say, recant or die. He's forced to “abandon completely the false opinion” of Copernicanism (heliocentric view of the world).
Fear of the Inquisition is also why, almost a hundred years earlier, Copernicus doesn't release his theory of heliocentrism until 1543 when he's on his deathbed. Galileo must formally recant much of his life's work. He spends the rest of his days under house arrest.
Inquisition Methods
The methods employed by the Roman Inquisition include:
Surveillance: Informants are encouraged to report suspected heretics.
Interrogation: The Inquisition relies on rigorous questioning, often using such techniques as psychological manipulation and intimidation.
Witness Testimony: Tests against those accused of heresy can include public denunciations where community members are called to testify.
Torture: While the use of torture varies significantly, it's an accepted tactic to elicit confessions.
These methods cultivate a climate of fear and mistrust in communities. They affect social cohesion, local economic or political relationships and religious adherence.
How the Church Identifies a Heretic
The determination of heresy is often arbitrary and depends heavily on the fervor of local inquisitors. The medieval Church identifies heretics through:
Accusations: Ample opportunity exists for personal vendettas to shape allegations.
Confessions: Individuals who confess are often coerced or tortured into admitting guilt. Handbooks for Inquisitors outline methods for extracting confessions.
Theological Examination: Suspected heretics are sometimes called to defend their beliefs, frequently leading inquisitors to label them as heretics based on the complexity of their arguments.
This system fosters a dangerous environment where deviation from mainstream beliefs is met with suspicion, further driving individuals to comply with orthodoxy out of fear.
Arrest, Trial & Confession Procedures
The procedures surrounding an arrest for heresy follow a strict guideline:
Arrest: Suspects can be arrested based on accusations or mere suspicion, often in secret to prevent public commotion.
Trial: Trials are conducted by appointed inquisitors, who review evidence and testimony. Legal representation is often limited or unavailable for the accused.
Confession: Confessions are pursued aggressively, with strict penalties for those who refuse to cooperate.
Sentences: Punishments could range from fines and penances to imprisonment or even execution, with the infamous auto-da-fé (burning of heretics) being a public spectacle of punishment.
Italian scholar and alchemist Giambattista della Porta (1535 - 1615) starts a society with several of his friends in Naples. He's called before the Inquisition due to these "secret activities" and has to dissolve the group, but due his local influence is not further punished.
Alchemists abound amidst the Renaissance and witch hunts of Europe, considered natural philosophers. Astrology has more occult associations than alchemy does. This, and patronage, give alchemists some protection. As long as they don't conjure up any demons.
Della Porta also develops an ingenious way of writing messages inside eggs. He smuggles them to his less fortunate friends in prison. The guards check everything, but his eggs always get through.
Political Motivation
The Roman Inquisition has strong political motivations. The Church is deeply involved in politics of city-states and kingdoms in Italy and beyond. By eliminating heresy, the Inquisition hopes to consolidate power of the Catholic Church and influence political leaders.
Rulers who align with the Church find support, while those who wander into Protestant realms risk excommunication, which can destabilize their positions of authority. The Inquisition is a means of exerting political pressure over regions and leaders.
In collusion with ruling elites, the Church uses the Inquisition to suppress dissent, maintain social order and authority over the masses. Another primary factor is economic. Guilty heretics have their property seized by the Church.
The Church also finds many heretics guilty after they're dead or in their absence. If found guilty after death the corpse is exhumed and burned, and the person's properties go to the Church. If one is found guilty in absentia it's usually better to stay in absentia.
With the Reformation, the sale of indulgences, a large source of income for the Church, also goes down. And on the other hand, pressure also comes from many, like the Medici bankers, who are tied into the Catholic crisis and fear to go down with it.
Effects of Renaissance & Reformation
The Inquisition’s impact is firmly entwined with the broader movements of the Renaissance and the Reformation. While the Renaissance brings a newfound appreciation for humanism and science, the Inquisition seeks to quash ideologies contradicting Church orthodoxy.
The Reformation, meanwhile, prompts a deeper response from Catholic ecclesiastical authorities. The Church launches a series of counter-reforms designed to reclaim Catholic dominance and extinguish dissent.
The Inquisition continues to hold power in many regions throughout the Middle Ages and early modern times. It declines in later years and finally ends with a decree by Spanish queen regent María Cristina de Borbón on July 15, 1834.
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