Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries power phones, laptops, electric vehicles, satellites and spacecraft. Rechargeable energy storage devices, Li-ion batteries are characterized by movement of lithium ions.
The ions move between two electrodes: the anode and the cathode. The anode is usually graphite and the cathode is made of lithium metal oxides. A separator prevents short circuits. An electrolyte solution helps ions move.
Discharging (Powering a Device): When a device is powered on, lithium ions travel from the anode through the electrolyte to the cathode. At the same time, electrons flow through an external circuit giving energy to the device.
Charging: When the battery is charging, the reverse happens. An external power source forces lithium ions to move from the cathode back to the anode, storing energy for later use.
The type of materials used for the electrodes and electrolyte affect the battery's performance, including how much energy it can store (energy density); lifespan and safety. A lithium ion battery lasts 2-3 or 300-500 charges, whichever comes first.
Lithium-ion batteries need careful handling due to safety concerns. One problem is thermal runaway. A battery overheats and can ignite as lithium is highly flammable.
Manufacturers incorporate safety mechanisms. These include thermal fuses, temperature sensors, and specific battery management systems to monitor charge levels and temperature.
Li-ion Batteries in Space
Extreme Temperatures: In space, temperatures can fluctuate wildly depending on exposure to sunlight or shadow. Batteries must be able to operate reliably in both extremely cold and hot conditions.
Specialized thermal management systems, including heaters and radiators, are used to maintain optimal operating temperatures. Cold slows chemical reactions within the battery and high temperatures can accelerate aging.
Vacuum: The vacuum of space can cause outgassing in components of cadmium, magnesium or zinc, potentially contaminating sensitive equipment or degrading battery performance. Materials with low outgassing properties like stainless steel can be used.
Radiation: Space is filled with ionizing radiation. It degrades battery materials and electronics over time. Radiation generates radicals in organic components and defects in inorganic ones.
Radiation-hardened components and shielding are used to protect batteries from radiation damage. Components include redundant circuits and error correction systems to improve reliability in environments with high radiation levels.
Weight and Size: Every gram launched into space adds to the mission cost. Maximizing energy density while minimizing weight and size is paramount.
Reliability: In space, reliability is crucial. Lithium-ion batteries power spacecraft, satellites, and rovers. Missions can last years without an opportunity to recharge.
Mars Rovers like Perserverance and Curiosity use lithium-ion batteries to store energy from solar panels. The batteries endure the extreme Martian climate, where night temperatures drop to -62°C -80°F.
One reason for the popularity of lithium-ion batteries is their impressive energy density. While nickel-cadmium batteries offer around 50-150 Wh/kg, lithium-ion batteries surpass 250 Wh/kg.
This means lithium-ion batteries can store more energy in a smaller space. They also have a low self-discharge rate of about 2-5% per month. They hold onto their charge longer than many battery types when not in use.
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