The Guelphs and Ghibellines are feuding factions during the Italian Renaissance. Warfare and bloodshed between the two throw regions of Italy into terror and turmoil in the enlightened times of science and exploration.
The roots of rivalry go back to the Investiture Controversy, a pivotal moment in European history beginning 1075. This conflict emerged from the clash between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire over the right to appoint bishops and other church officials.
The Investiture Controversy or Investiture Contest is a conflict between Church and state in medieval Europe over the ability to choose and install bishops (investiture), abbots of monasteries and even the Pope himself.
The Investiture Controversy escalates tensions between the secular and ecclesiastical authorities, starting a prolonged struggle for supremacy. The Guelphs support the Papacy, advocating for independence of the Church from imperial control.
The Ghibellines align themselves with the Holy Roman Empire, seeking to uphold imperial authority over the Church and establish secular dominance. Rivalry between Guelphs and Ghibellines escalates over centuries, leading to war, political turmoil and shifting alliances.
Cities and regions across the Italian peninsula turn into battlegrounds for these competing faction. Allegiances constantly shift and betrayals are commonplace. Ultimately, the conflict between Guelphs and Ghibellines come to symbolize the broader struggle for power in Italy.
The division between Guelphs and Ghibellines is significant in cities such as Florence. The two factions incite frequent power struggles across various northern Italian cities. In Florence and other locations, the Guelphs typically consist of merchants and burghers.
The Ghibellines are predominantly noblemen. To distinguish themselves, faction members adopt unique practices like wearing a feather on a specific side of their hats or cutting fruit in a particular manner based on their allegiance.
Political alignments are driven by local or regional political considerations. Party allegiances vary from one guild to another within cities, and from one rione (neighborhood) to another. A city high in internal conflict easily switches parties.
In the early 13th century, Philip of Swabia, a Hohenstaufen, and Otto of Brunswick, from the Welf dynasty, vie for the position of emperor. Philip is backed by Ghibellines due to lineage as Frederick I's son, and Otto is supported by the Guelphs.
Despite the Guelphs' initial success in having Otto crowned as Emperor, Otto later clashes with the Papacy. This leads to his excommunication and subsequent replacement by Philip's successor, Emperor Frederick II (r. 1220 - 1250 AD).
Frederick II, adversary of both Otto and the papacy, sees the Guelphs align more closely with the papacy during his rule. The Ghibellines remain loyal to the Empire and Frederick in particular.
Pope Gregory IX excommunicates Frederick II in 1227 for his failure to join the Crusade, and later again during the Sixth Crusade (1228-29) while he's on the Crusade. This rift deepens, leading to hostilities between his regent in Italy and the Pope.
Papal Inquisition
In 1233, Pope Gregory IX establishes the Papal Inquisition. The institution is created to standardize the process of prosecuting individuals accused of heresy within the Catholic Church.
This marks a crucial development in the history of religious governance and the enforcement of orthodoxy. The Papal Inquisition investigates, judges, and punishes those deemed to be deviating from accepted beliefs and teachings of the Church.
The Papal Inquisition a defense against the perceived threat of heresy, which is viewed as a danger to the authority and unity of the Church. Heresy is any belief or theory contradicting established beliefs or customs, especially the laws of a religious organization.
Heresy in Christianity, Judaism and Islam can bring penalties from excommunication to death. With a standardized system for rooting out heretics, Pope Gregory IX wants to protect purity of the faith and maintain doctrinal conformity among the faithful.
Accusations of heresy require swift and decisive action. The Papal Inquisition wields significant power and influence, using a fearsome range of methods to identify, interrogate, and punish those suspected of heretical beliefs. These are the first many inquisitions.
Escalating Conflicts
The conflict between Guelphs and Ghibellines is intense in Genoa. Here the Guelphs are called rampini (grappling hooks) while Ghibellines are known as mascherati (masked). Genoa is under Guelph control in the early 13th century.
In 1270, rebellion creates a separate short-term government. Guelph families seek refuge in strongholds to the east (Fieschi) and west (Grimaldi). After many military campaigns, they end resistance and are readmitted into the city's political life after covering the costs of war.
Following the victories of the Tuscan Guelphs over the Ghibellines in 1289 at the Battle of Campaldino and Vicopisano, internal conflicts emerge among the Guelphs. By 1300, the Florentine Guelphs have split into Black and White factions.
The Black Guelphs remain loyal to the Papacy. The White Guelphs oppose Papal authority and the influence of Pope Boniface VIII. Divine Comedy author Dante Alighieri sides with the White Guelphs and is banished in 1302 when the Black Guelphs seize power in Florence.
At the end of the 16th century in England, William Shakespeare sets his classic "Romeo and Juliet", a tale of lovestruck tragedy, in 14th century Italy. The Montagues and Capulets are feuding families in Verona, a town of varying allegiances to the Guelphs and Ghibellines.
In medieval Italy, people with no ties to the Guelphs or Ghibellines consider neither group worthy of support. Citizens feel the impact of political shifts in the cities. Emperor Henry VII expresses disdain for supporters of both sides during his visit to Italy in 1310.
In 1325, the city-states of Guelph Bologna and Ghibelline Modena clash in the War of the Bucket. Modena's win causes a resurgence of Ghibelline influence. In 1334, Pope Benedict XII threatens to excommunicate anyone identified with either Guelph or Ghibelline factions.
In Milan, Guelphs and Ghibellines work together to form the Golden Ambrosian Republic in 1447. They're soon embroiled in fierce conflicts. Following the initial rule of the Ghibellines, the Guelphs take control during the election of the Captains and Defenders of the Liberty of Milan.
The Guelph administration becomes more authoritarian, prompting a Ghibelline rebellion plot. The conspiracy is unsuccessful, resulting in the massacre of many Ghibellines in 1449.
In the 1400s, the Guelphs back Charles VIII of France in his invasion of Italy at the start of the Italian Wars. Ghibellines side with Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. The names appear in cities and families until Holy Roman Emperor Charles V takes imperial control of Italy in 1529.
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