After the 642 AD Islamic conquest of Egypt, the center of alchemy moves to Muslim lands. Medieval Arab alchemists study and expand upon the Greek model. Metals are formed by vapors, which settle in various proportions. Deep in the earth, they age from lead to gold.
Much medieval alchemy happens during the Golden Age of Islam. Esteemed alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber, d. c. 816 AD) is credited with inventing the following chemical processes in the 8th century:
1. Pure Distillation (al-taqtir) using an alembic, a vessel invented in 3-4th century AD by Cleopatra the Alchemist of Alexandria.
One of Jabir's most significant contributions is the process of distillation. This technique heats liquid to create vapor, the cools the vapor to once more create a liquid, effectively separating mixtures based on differences in boiling points.
Some experiments call for multiple distillations. Jabir's sophisticated use of this process allows refinement of substances, leading to the extraction of essential oils and alcohols.
Pure distillation (al-taqtir) can fully purify chemical substances with the alembic
Filtration (al-tarshih)
Liquefaction, crystallization , purification, oxidization, and evaporation (tabkhir)
2. Crystallization (al-tabalwur)
Jabir explores the crystallization process, which involves the formation of solid crystals from a homogeneous solution. His method of crystallization allows for better representation and understanding of chemical compounds.
3. Sublimation
Sublimation (also possibly invented by al-Razi) is the transition of a substance from solid to gas without passing through the liquid phase. Jabir studied this process and documented his observations in relation to several substances. This concept was significant for later chemists and helped in understanding phase transitions—a crucial aspect of physical chemistry.
4. Precipitation
Precipitation happens when a solid forms from a solution during a chemical reaction. Jabir's studies on the interaction between various substances lead to better insights regarding chemical reactions and the formation of insoluble compounds.
This process is widely used in various applications today, from wastewater treatment to the synthesis of nanoparticles.
5. Use of Acid-Base Reactions
An acid-base reaction, also referred to as a neutralization reaction, is a chemical reaction involving an acid (H+) and a base (OH-). During this process, the acid and base combine to form a salt and water.
Examples of acids include:
hydrochloric acid (muratic acid, spirits of salt)
sulfuric acid (oil of vitriol)
nitric acid
lactic acid (formed in the body by breakdown of carbohydrates)
hydrobromic acid (one of the strongest mineral acids known)
Bases include:
potassium hydroxide (caustic potash)
sodium hydroxide (lye, caustic soda)
calcium hydroxide (slaked lime)
lithium hydroxide
cesium hydroxide
Jabir's work with acids and bases leads to a keener understanding of chemical reactions. He classifies minerals and chemicals according to their properties, providing insight into the reactive nature of acids and alkalis.
An acid-base reaction, also referred to as a neutralization reaction, is a chemical reaction involving an acid (H+) and a base (OH-). During this process, the acid and base combine to form a salt and water.
6. Introduction of Laboratory Equipment
Beyond chemical processes, Jabir is also credited with the invention and improvement of various items of laboratory equipment. He meticulously catalogues experiments and results, advocating for empirical observations over speculative philosophy.
He's the originator of the mercury-sulfur theory of metals, in which metals are created from ratios of mercury and sulfur vapors. Where the vapors settle in the earth a metal is formed, its qualities dependent on the sulfur-mercury combination.
A possibly related theory to the existence of various metals in the earth is that of aging. Arab alchemists are among the first to propose metals age for "thousands of years" progressing from lead to iron to copper to silver and gold.
Abu Bakr al-Razi, a Persian physician c. 865 - 945 AD, known as Rhazes in the West, is an early chemist and one of the key figures of the Islamic Golden Age. He invents or improves upon the following chemical processes:
Dry distillation
Calcination (al-tashwiya)
Solution (al-tahlil)
Sublimation (al-tas'id)
Amalgamation (al-talghim)
Ceration (al-tashmi
method of converting a substance into a thick paste or fusible solid.
Chemical Analysis
Al-Razi advocates for the systematic analysis of substances to determine their properties, a concept foreshadowing modern analytical chemistry. He placed a strong emphasis on the use of observation and experiment to identify the characteristics and potential applications of chemical materials.
Acids and Alkalies
He conducted extensive research on various acids and their properties, which contributed to a better understanding of acid-base reactions. Al-Razi was among the early thinkers to categorize substances based on their chemical properties, laying groundwork for later classifications.
Other chemical processes used or introduced by Muslim chemists include:
Assation (or roasting), cocotion (or digestion), amalgamation, ceration, lavage, solution, mixture, and fixation.
Destructive distillation is invented by Muslim chemists in the 8th century to produce tar from petroleum.
Steam distillation is invented by the sage Avicenna in the early 11th century for the purpose of producing essential oils
Water purification
Al-Razi and the Birth of Chemistry
While many scholars of the time practiced alchemy, al-Razi distinguishes himself by adopting a more empirical and methodical approach. He's instrumental in the transition from alchemy to chemistry, although the lines remain distinctly blurry.
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