Vermilion (vermillion) is a brilliant red, orange-red or scarlet pigment obtained by grinding cinnabar (HgS), a sulfur and mercury ore. A lethal beauty, red mercury sulfide or vermilion has been used since Neolithic times in art, ritual and burial practices.
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Early people find the rock cinnabar in the vicinity of sulfur hot springs or other volcanic vent region. It's sometimes called red sulfur. The first documented use of vermilion pigment, made by grinding cinnabar, dates to c. 8000 - 7000 BCE.
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In mineralogy and crystallography cinnabar is the red crystalline form of mercury sulfide HgS. Vermilion is the dense, opaque pigment of brilliant hue. It's found at the prosperous Neolithic center Çatalhöyük, known for early innovations in metals and dyes.
Vermilion is a color range rather than a specific hue. Mercuric sulfides create shades from bright orange-red to dull reddish-purple. Today's vermilion shades also vary by producer.
Differences in natural hues are caused by size of ground pigment particles or inclusions of other minerals. Large grains produce dull orange or earthy tones, and a finer grind brings out the brilliance of color. Originally, vermilion is a by-product of mercury ore mining.
In Spain cinnabar is mined by c. 5300 BC. The mines of Almadén are Spain are the most prolific sources of vermillion mercury ore on the planet. The mines begin operations c. 300 BCE.
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Due to toxic levels of mercury, cinnabar mining and processing, along with cramped and forced conditions in early mines are eventually fatal. The miners are convicts, slaves or prisoners of war.
A judicial sentence to labor in mines such as Almadén means a slow and painful demise. Mercury poisoning starts with shaking and confusion, and ends with seizures, madness and death.
In De Lapidibus, the first scientific book on minerals, Greek philosopher Theophrastus (371–286 BCE) describes the basic process of mercury extraction.
“Mercury is produced by grinding cinnabar with vinegar in a copper mortar with a copper pestle."
Vermillion is found in graves in Mesoamerica, along with large pools of liquid mercury beneath some Mesoamerican pyramids. Since the Neolithic and Copper Ages, vermilion is found sprinkled on corpses and in graves in the Old and New Worlds.
A famous later example is the Mayan gravesite of the Red Queen of Palanque (c. 600 - 700 AD). A noblewoman, she's buried with rich grave goods. Her grave and body are covered with vermillion pigment.
Toxic mercury poisoning due to use and handling of cinnabar is known in Mexico from early cultures such as the Olmec (c. 1650 - 350 BCE), but the color is used anyway. Ancient Romans are also aware of the toxic effects.
In Rome it's considered an occupational hazard, thus only outcasts of society are sent to the mines. In Rome, vermillion is used in frescoes, statuary decoration and as a cosmetic. In triumphal celebrations, faces of conquerors are covered with vermilion powder.
The Chinese may be the first to make synthetic vermilion as early as the fourth century BCE, Synthetic vermilion was made by either a dry or a wet method. The dry method invented in China involves heating mercury and sulfur in a sealed container.
Greek alchemist Zosimus of Panopolis (3rd - 4th century AD) mentions this method exists, but doesn't have the recipe. In the East, cinnabar is also added as a colorant to the sap known as urushiol to form lacquer work (Qidiao - 漆雕), popular through history.
In the early 9th century, the process of making vermilion is accurately described by Persian alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (722–804) in his book of recipes of colors. Its use is widespread in Europe.
The process described by Jabir ibn Hayyan:
Mix mercury with sulfur to form aethiopes mineralis, a black compound of mercury sulfide.
Heat this in a flask (the compound vaporizes and recondenses in the top of the flask).
Break the flask.
Collect the vermilion and grind it.
At first the substance is almost black. Ground to powder it turns red. The more it's worked, the finer the color. Italian Renaissance artist Cennino Cennini writes: "If you were to grind it every day, even for 20 years, it would keep getting better and more perfect."
Ground black sulfur, also known as sulfur black, is a different product. It's chemically created from sulfur solutions generally as a dye. If buying it, take care. Ingredients are banned in some countries and it's not considered safe to ingest.
Among other works, alchemists are instrumental in the development of pigments. Alchemy is an influential and controversial practice, from ancient firsts through medieval developments and after. In the West, it's banned by the Pope in the 14th century.
Later thinkers convince authorities to reinstate the practice, and alchemy prospers during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Alchemy centers on the tria prima - mercury, sulfur and salt - with the first two making up cinnabar.
In the 17th century, the Dutch method of producing vermilion, based on that of China, is popular. Yellow sulfur turns red when melted, for alchemists an association with life's essence or blood. Mercury and melted sulfur are combined to make black mercury sulfide.
Also called sulfur nigra or horse sulfur, it's then heated in pots sealed with clay to produce red mercury sulfide. To remove the impurities, crystals are treated with a strong alkali, washed, and finally ground under water to yield the commercial powder form of the pigment.
Artist Cennino Cennini advises:
“Always buy vermilion unbroken, and not pounded or ground. The reason? Because it is generally adulterated, either with red lead or with pounded brick.”
Red lead, also called minium, is commonly used in illuminated manuscript art, or "miniatures" in the Middle Ages. Romans sometimes refer to vermilion as minium. Cennini also mentions vermilion's noxious habit of darkening with age.
Vermillion (Vermilion) Name Terminology
Used first in English in the 13th century, the word vermilion comes from the Old French word vermeillon. This in turn evolves from vermeil, from Latin vermiculus, the diminutive of the Latin word vermis for worm.
The name originates because the vermilion pigment is a similar color to the natural red dye made from an insect, Kermes vermilio or cochineal bug, which is widely used in Europe. The first recorded use of "vermilion" as a color name in English is in 1289.
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