Iran has a critical and often controversial position on the world stage. In the eastern Middle East, Iran is a primarily Muslim country with an ancient history and powerful presence built on vast oil reserves.
Iran is bordered by Iraq to the west, Pakistan to the southeast, and Afghanistan to the east. Its proximity to vital bodies of water, such as the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf, adds to its geopolitical significance, enabling trade and energy exports.
Iran's history goes back to the ancient Elamite civilization c 1500 BCE. The Achaemenid Empire, founded around the 6th century BCE by Cyrus the Great, is a high point of Persian culture and politics, stretching from the Indus Valley to parts of Europe.
In 334 BC, Alexander the Great launches an invasion of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. He overthrows Darius III in 331 BCE and captures the entire Achaemenid Empire 330 BCE.
In 323 BCE Alexander dies in Baghdad after a celebration. Following dynasties, including the Parthians (247 BCE - 224 AD) and the Sasanids (224 - 641 AD), continue to shape Iranian culture and identity.
After invasion by Arab forces 633 AD and subsequent conquest in 656 AD, Iran emerges as a major center of Islamic culture. The arrival of Islam at this time creates profound changes.
Initially under control of the Arab Caliphate, Iran gradually establishes its own distinct Islamic identity, especially around Shia Islam. The Safavid dynasty (1501-1736) solidifies Shia Islam as state religion.
In the 20th century, Iran goes through great upheaval. The Qajar dynasty, weakened by internal strife and foreign interference, is overthrown in 1925 by Reza Shah, who establishes the Pahlavi dynasty.
Reza Shah and his son, Mohammad Reza Shah, pursue a program of modernization and secularization, often with Western support. Growing resentment toward the Shah's autocratic rule and perceived Western influence culminates in the 1979 Islamic Revolution.
Led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, it ends the monarchy of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. This brings in a theocratic regime and establishes the Islamic Republic of Iran under Ayatollah Khomeini.
Geography & Demographics
Iran covers over 1.6 million square kilometers in Southwest Asia. Its geography is diverse, with rugged mountains like the Zagros and Alborz ranges defining its north and western borders.
The Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Lut deserts dominate the arid central and eastern parts of the country. Fertile plains grow along the Caspian Sea and Persian Gulf. This varied landscape influences agricultural practices and population distribution.
The current population of over 88 million is unevenly distributed, with significant concentrations in urban centers like Tehran, Mashhad, Isfahan, and Tabriz. About 75% of the population lives in cities.
Tehran, the capital city, is the political, economic, and cultural heart of the country. In 2025, the government announces a planned move of the capital from Tehran due to oppressive air pollution.
Iran is ethnically diverse, with Persians the majority (around 61%). Other significant groups include Azeris (16%), Kurds (10%), Lurs, Arabs, Baloch and Turkmen. A vibrant cultural mix, it's often a source of social and political tensions.
Conflicts
Iran's history is marked by numerous conflicts. The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), a bloody and protracted conflict, leaves a deep scar on the nation. More recently, Iran has been involved in regional conflicts through proxy groups and support for various factions.
Currently, Iran's relationship with Saudi Arabia is a strong contention point. Both nations vie for regional influence and support opposing sides in conflicts in Yemen. Iran also finances powers in Lebanon and Syria.
During the 2010s Iran increases on-the-ground support for Syrian President Assad, sending hundreds more military specialists to collect intelligence and train soldiers.
Combined with munitions and equipment from Moscow, it helps maintain Assad's hold on power. As of 2024 the Assad regime in Syria falls, and rebels backed by Qatar and Turkey form a transitional government.
Iran's nuclear program and its long-range ballistic missile development have also raised concerns internationally. Tensions, especially with the United States result in extensive sanctions and diplomatic isolation.
The US fears Iran as a primary threat, due to Iran's military advances and its involvement in broader Middle Eastern politics and warfare. Its habit of backing organizations listed as terrorist is also a major factor.
Its oil reserves are valuable to the US if such control can be manipulated. In 2025 the US is playing a chronically shifty game in many matters of world affairs.
Economy: Resources & Industry
Iran is a major oil and gas producer and founding member of OPEC.
The oil and gas sector is the fundament of the Iranian economy, generating a primary portion of export revenue.
Iran holds the fourth-largest oil reserves and the second-largest natural gas reserves in the world. Oil exports making up nearly 80% of total export revenue.
Heavy reliance on this sector makes the economy vulnerable to fluctuating global oil prices and international sanctions. Iran also has a developing industrial sector, including petrochemicals, manufacturing and mining.
Agriculture includes crops like as wheat, rice, fruits, and vegetables. Drought, air and water pollution and poor land management create agricultural problems.
Its main imports include machinery, industrial inputs, grain and food products, pharmaceuticals and consumer goods. Regional trade relationships are vital to sustaining the economy.
Government & Leadership
Iran's political system is an Islamic Republic, a blend of theocracy and democracy. The Supreme Leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, now 85 years old, holds ultimate authority as head of state.
The president, currently Masoud Pezeshkian, is head of government and elected by popular vote. Parliament is responsible for legislation, subject to approval of the Guardian Council, which keeps laws in accord with Islamic principles.
Military Power
Iran has a substantial military force. It's composed of the regular army (Artesh) and the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC). Established after the 1979 revolution, the IRGC has evolved into a powerful entity overseeing military and political strategies.
Iran's military doctrine emphasizes asymmetric warfare and the development of indigenous defense capabilities. While Iran's military is promoted as defensive, advances in missile tech and continued support for regional proxies have raised world concerns.
In 2024, Iran deploys 185 drones, 36 cruise missiles, and 110 ballistic missiles in an assault on Israel. The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), a multi-service branch of the armed forces, initiates the attack, accusing Israel of assault on the Iranian embassy in Damascus, Syria.
The IRGC has a military force of 125,000+ personnel, including army, navy, and air units. It oversees the Basij religious militia, a volunteer paramilitary group devoted to the regime, often used to suppress anti-government demonstrations. Basij volunteers number in the millions.
OPEC and Relations with Member Nations
As a founding member of OPEC, Iran influences global oil prices and production levels. While it often aligns with other members on broader OPEC policies, its relationships with individual members are complex.
Its conflicts with Saudi Arabia, another major oil producer, are apparent in political and regional rivalries. Because Iran and Saudi must work together as OPEC members, they engage in proxy wars, most notably in Yemen.
In 2024, when US President Biden is asked whether Israel might strike Iran's oil facilities, he says, "We're discussing that." Within minutes of his comment, oil prices spike on the stock markets.
On Oct 26, 2024 Israel makes three waves of attacks targeting 20 sites in Iran, as well as additional locations in Iraq and Syria, under the codename Operation Days of Repentance (Hebrew: מבצע ימי תשובה). It's the most extensive assault on Iran since the Iran-Iraq War in the 1980s.
Controversies and Alliances
Iran's foreign policy is controversial. It's accused of supplying suicide drones to Russia for use in the war against Ukraine, a claim both countries deny but is widely supported by evidence.
Iran supports for the Houthi rebels in Yemen, who are fighting against the Saudi-backed government.
Due to perceived destabilizing influence in the Middle East and potential military threat, the US imposes sanctions, diplomatic pressure, and military confrontations. Iran has close ties with groups like Hezbollah in Lebanon and Hamas in Palestine.
While Hezbollah is regarded as a resistance movement by some, it's designated a terrorist group by over 21 countries, including most Western countries. Hamas is also listed as a terrorist organization, since 1997.
Iran's relationship with Russia deepens in recent years, especially due to international sanctions. Russia has a strong relationship to non-Western countries and is now playing the US to see what it can get out of Ukraine.
Life of the Average Citizen
The life of the average Iranian citizen is influenced by economic issues, social restrictions, and cultural pride. Iran has a rich cultural heritage and highly educated population but economic hardship, limited political freedoms and social constraints affect daily life.
Unemployment of 10-12%, inflation of over 40% and limited opportunities contribute to public discontent. Social restrictions, especially for women, limit personal freedoms.
There exists a vibrant youth culture striving for social freedoms and job opportunities. Movements advocating for change reflect a strong desire for progress among the younger population.
Status of Women
Women in Iran have made significant advances in education and professional fields, they face legal and social discrimination. They must adhere to strict dress codes, and have few rights in divorce, child custody and travel.
Iranian women are nonetheless actively involved in various sectors of society. Recent movements advocating for women's rights demand for equal rights and opportunities.
Religion and Major Festivals
Islam is the dominant religion in Iran. Religious observance plays a significant role in public life. Around 90% of Iranians are Shia Muslims. The remaining population includes Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians.
Major religious festivals include Eid al-Fitr, marking the end of Ramadan; Eid al-Adha, the Feast of Sacrifice; and Ashura, commemorating the martyrdom of Imam Hussein, a grandson of Prophet Muhammad.
Nowruz, Persian New Year, is an important secular festival in Iran and neighbor countries. The Persian New Year falls on the Spring Equinox in March.
Employment and Poverty
Iran faces significant economic challenges, including high unemployment, particularly among young people. The poverty rate is a point of contention, with official figures often disputed. Economic sanctions, mismanagement, and corruption contribute to economic hardship for many Iranians.
Iran’s economy faces substantial hurdles, particularly in employment. The unemployment rate fluctuates between 10-12%, with youth unemployment reaching nearly 25%. These figures indicate a pressing need for economic reform and opportunities.
Poverty is an ongoing challenge, compounded by sanctions and rising inflation. Many Iranians strive for better living conditions and greater economic prospects, hoping for improvements that seem just out of reach.
Pollution
Air pollution in Iran is a major health and environmental threat. The country is third most polluted globally and the sixth largest pollutant emitter in the world.
Pollution dominates urban regions of Iran, causing up to 40,000 deaths annually. Elevated pollution levels contribute to cardiovascular, neurological, and lung diseases, as well as birth defects.
Health expenses from premature deaths and medical treatments result in 3.2% annual loss of Iran's GDP. High concentrations of pollutants like carbon monoxide and particulates are linked to heavy traffic in cities.
In Tehran, vehicle emissions are blamed as the primary source of pollution. Government attempts to tackle the problem are unsuccessful. In Jan 2025, the Iranian government announces plans to relocate its capital from Tehran, largely due to pollution.
In north Iran, Lake Urmia dries up due to damming and unsustainable agriculture. It's now a saline desert littered with residues and particles toxified by chemical fertilizers, industrial and human wastewater. Strong winds spread the toxic particles far and wide.
Iran has a critical water crisis due to water pollution, overuse and poor management of water resources. Rivers and lakes dry up, groundwater is depleted, devastating agriculture, livelihoods and human health.
Iran endures intense heat, especially in the summer, with temperatures frequently surpassing 40°C (104°F) and occasionally hitting 50°C (122°F) in certain regions, notably in the southwest and southeast. Extreme heat is a lethal hazard worldwide, including the Middle East.
Other Important Facts
Iran has a rich literary tradition, with renowned poets like Rumi, Hafez, and Saadi.
Persian carpets are world-renowned for their artistry and craftsmanship.
Iran is home to numerous UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Iranian cuisine is famous for dishes like kebab and khoresh. Figs, dates and pomegranate grow well - Iran is the world's second largest producer of dates, after Egypt
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