Chemistry from 1600 to 1800 yields transformative discoveries influential today. This era is characterized by groundbreaking discoveries like Glauber's salt, Prussian blue and the glimmer of beginning photography. Here are nine chemistry milestones.
1625: Glauber's Salt by Johann Rudolf Glauber
One of the earliest significant developments in this era is discovery of Glauber’s salt (sodium sulfate decahydrate) by Johann Rudolf Glauber. Produced using the reaction of sulfuric acid with sodium carbonate, Glauber's salt finds uses from glassmaking to laxatives.
70% of Glauber's salt produced in its prime goes to the textile industry, where it's used for dyeing processes in manufacturing. Also known as mirabilite, Glauber's salt is a hydrous sodium sulfate mineral.
It's represented by the chemical formula Na2SO4·10H2O. This vitreous, colorless to white / whitish monoclinic mineral is formed as an evaporite from brines containing sodium sulfate.
1669: Discovery of Phosphorus by Hennig Brand
The year 1669 is a turning point in chemistry with Hennig Brand's discovery of phosphorus in Hamburg. Actually, in his urine. Brand ferments, heats and distills his pee, ultimately isolating this element.
Phosphorus is essential for life; approximately 1% of the human body is made up of this crucial element, which plays a vital role in DNA, ATP, and energy transfer. Phosphorus later appears in fertilizers, pyrotechnics, and the production of phosphoric acid.
Another chemical found in urine is niter or saltpeter, used to make explosives and nitric acid. During the US Civil War, a Confederate pharmacist solves a gunpowder shortage by making it with niter extracted from urine of the soldiers.
1706: Prussian Blue by Heinrich Diesbach
The formulation of Prussian blue in 1706 by Heinrich Diesbach in Berlin is another breakthrough in the field of chemistry. This vibrant blue pigment emerges accidentally while Diesbach tries to create a red dye and instead achieves a rich organic compound.
Prussian blue becomes popular in art and decoration, and is used in chemical analysis. A new acid, hydrogen cyanide, is first isolated from Prussian blue in pure form, characterized in 1782 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele. While Prussian blue is non-toxic, the acid is not.
It's eventually given the name Blausäure (literally "blue acid") as it comes from Prussian blue, and in English is known as Prussic acid. No account of Prussian blue is complete without mention of infamous alchemist Dippel who's in on the invention, but gets booted from the deal.
1717: The Birth of Photography
Another remarkable milestone in the 18th century is Johann Heinrich Schulze's experiment in 1717. He uses a light-sensitive mixture to create images of letters on glass.
Although not photography in the modern sense, this experiment breaks ground for the study of photochemistry and the eventual invention of photography. This innovation showcases the potential for chemistry to intersect with visual art and documentation.
Schulze’s work represents the early stages of combining chemistry with technology, which eventually leads to developments like the daguerreotype in the 19th century. Several types of photos follow, including tintypes, prompting the rise of the traveling or carnie photographer.
1724: The Fahrenheit Temperature Scale
In 1724, Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit introduced a temperature scale still prevalent in parts of the world today. His use of a mercury thermometer and establishment of fixed reference points contribute to the precise measurement of temperature.
It's another pivotal advancement in both chemistry and thermodynamics. By introducing a reliable and standardized method to measure temperature, Fahrenheit's scale enhanced the precision of scientific experiments and industrial applications
Scientists can conduct standardized experiments, leading to clearer communication of results and a more systematic approach to scientific inquiry. By improving measurement accuracy, Fahrenheit's work improves science until the rise of Celsius in the 20th century.
1746: Basic Theory of Isolating Zinc by Andreas Sigismund Marggraf
The basic theory of isolating zinc comes in mid-18th century. The discovery marks advances in metal extraction and understanding mineral composition. Marggraf's work is essential for later industrial applications of zinc.
Zinc became invaluable in various applications, particularly in galvanization. By the late 19th century, about 90% of zinc production was used for coating iron and steel to prevent rusting, demonstrating how Marggraf’s insights led to practical solutions to everyday industrial problems.
Late 1700s: Contributions of Carl Wilhelm Scheele
Carl Wilhelm Scheele, a prolific Swedish chemist active from around 1770 to 1785, makes significant strides in identifying various chemical elements, including molybdenum, tungsten, barium, and chlorine. Scheele also creates a green pigment later replaced with Paris Green.
While he discovers oxygen around 1773, Joseph Priestley publishes the findings first. Scheele’s extensive research in gases and elemental analysis points the way. Oxygen makes up 21% of the Earth's atmosphere and is crucial for supporting life.
His careful and methodical research expands the periodic table. In medicine, chlorine becomes critical in water treatment. This period highlights how new discoveries in chemistry can shape society's understanding and interaction with the natural world.
1789: Discovery of Uranium and Zirconium by Martin Heinrich Klaproth
In 1789, Martin Heinrich Klaproth, a key figure in analytical chemistry, discovers uranium and zirconium. These elements expand the periodic table again and make advances, especially in nuclear chemistry and materials science.
Uranium later becomes important to nuclear chemistry, while zirconium is desirable in high-performance materials. The significance of these elements underscores the ongoing relationship between chemistry and technological advancement.
1799: Production of Sugar from Sugar Beets by Franz Karl Achard
In 1799, Franz Karl Achard revolutionizes the sugar industry by producing sugar from sugar beets. This development marks the beginning of a new agricultural sector that would dramatically impact food production and economy in Europe and beyond.
The dawn of the 19th century signified a new phase for the sugar industry. Achard’s work emphasizes the role of chemistry in food production. The technique develops for a more sustainable sugar supply to improve food sources and influence economic trends.
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