The Black Sea coasts are occupied by Paleolithic people, later Bronze Age mountain raiders and a few centuries afterward, Ionian Greeks from Miletus. The sea is at first harrowing to seafarers, leading the Greeks to call it 'the inhospitable sea'.
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While history of prehistoric Black Sea trade, colonization and resources is sparse, more evidence continues to surface about early people who come to these shores. In Paleolithic and Neolithic times the coasts are rough and savage.
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According to Ryan et al 1997, c. 7600 years ago a natural dam separates the Mediterranean from the Black Sea basin. The thin barrier breaks and salt water floods into the Black Sea. This causes major ecological change, death of species, and human migration.
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A new ecology forms and with it, evidence of humans. Flint is used for hand axes, hide scrapers, knives, arrow and spearheads. It fractures to a sharp edge. Use of flint to make tools dates back more than three million years and is an identifying feature of the Stone Age.
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Signs of early people appear in the form of artifacts and lithics including the Stone Age flint scrapers below. The implements are found at Sinope, Ince Burun, on the south coast of the Black Sea, dating to c. 12,800 - 4800 BCE.
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Ancient World Colchians settle Black Sea coasts to the east, today's Georgia. According to historian David Lang, the Colchians are established in the Caucasus by the Middle Bronze Age c. 2000 - 1600 BCE. They call themselves Kartveli.
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On the south shore, Sinope peninsula extends 20 x 20 km or 12.4 x 12.4 mi. Sloping gently into the Black Sea it's an ideal site for exploration and trade. Extensive occupation of the peninsula continues from the late Paleolithic through the Ottoman period.
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According to some mythology Sinope is founded by Amazons and named for their queen, Sinova. Other ancient inhabitants ascribe the founding to Autolycus, a companion of Hercules in c. 1200 BCE.
In the 780s BCE Habrondas / Habron expands the habitation. By 782 BCE Cimmerians destroy the settlement and kill Habron. At the same time coastal raids occur throughout the Black Sea regions. Sinope is re-occupied in c. 630 by Ionian Greeks.
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The implements above come from the ancient Black Sea village of Borodino, in modern Moldova at the western coasts. The hoard dates to the early 2nd millennium BCE. Jade used to make the axes comes from southern Siberia.
Black Sea water can be frigid, with strong currents. In winter, water temperatures range from 31 °F (-0.5 °C) in the NW to 48 to 50 °F (9 to 10 °C) in the SE. At first the Greeks call this place Á-xe(i)nos or "inhospitable" sea.
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Later Greeks and Romans, more familiar with the waters and possibly due to bad omens associated with the name, change it to Pontus Euxinus, "hospitable sea". The current Turkish name, Kara Deniz, means Black Sea.
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The Black Sea has two main layers of water. Plunging down to a depth of 2 mi (3.2 km) into gigantic cracks and crevasses, the majority of water is anoxic. At deeper layers is a fluorescence signal called “deep red fluorescence”, found in dark oceanic waters.
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Only the top shallow layer of water absorbs oxygen to enable life. Water circulation in the Black Sea is poor. The sea's only outlet to the connected major seas and oceans of the world is the Bosporus Strait, a canal leading via the Sea of Marmara to the Mediterranean.
The Mediterranean in turn has only one outlet or inlet to the next major water body, the Atlantic Ocean, at the Strait of Gibraltar. Because of this, tides on the Mediterranean are almost nonexistent.
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Lack of tides in the Mediterranean results in less water mingling between seas, and water layers forming in the Black Sea. Lower levels are cold and dense. Below 150 - 200 m (492 - 656 ft) is a permanent hydrogen sulfide zone.
Hydrogen sulfide is the compound which gives off a strong 'rotten egg' smell. As a gas in water it's corrosive and flammable. Hydrogen sulfide reserves in the Black Sea begin at depths of 200 meters. At water surface they may be seen as mysterious flares in the night.
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Although sulfur seas are lethal to marine life, some organisms create a basic ecosystem. At the bottom of the Black Sea live hydrogen-sulfide producing bacteria. They're responsible for the high density of H2S at deep levels.
According to Black Sea research by U of Washington other microbes in the depths consume H2S, using it as an electron donor for energy. The sulfur microbes also produce a slime to help other bacteria survive. It's not clear if H2S content affects underwater artifacts.
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Late Paleolithic (c. 40,000 - 10,000 ya) signs of humans appear at Ince Burun (Sinope), extending c. 25 k (15.5 mi) out to sea. The area is once a valley, now submerged. Surveying the undersea coast in 95 m (312 ft) of water, researchers find squared stone blocks.
These are possibly the foundations of a human-made structure. The Black Sea coastline has changed radically over the years. Shores which may have held Paleolithic and Neolithic settlements are now under water.
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The oxygenated shallow waters hide sand-burrowing fish with toxic spines and painful stings. Poisoning victims might step on one hidden under sediments and get stung. The fish are often caught in fishing nets dredging the ocean floor. They're sold in markets as bycatch.
Other creatures of the Black Sea are bottlenose dolphins and about 180 fish species such as tuna, anchovy, herring, mackerel and white sturgeon. Black sea bass, despite the name, don't live in the Black Sea.
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The coasts are fringed with rocky islands, increasing the danger to ships of ancient times. One of the best known is Snake Island, now in a area of war. In antiquity it's an active religious center of temples and sacrificial rites.
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Snake Island is used by both Greeks and Romans. In Ukrainian it's Ostriv Zmiinyi. There is evidence of submerged ancient buildings. The region is famous for grey fish-eating snakes. It's also thought to be the burial place of Greek hero Achilles, killed in the Trojan war.
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The steam sailboat is a popular mode of travel in the late 19th century. Powered by coal, early Victorian era steamers have sails and often paddle wheels too. The Snake Island Lighthouse is built in the autumn of 1842 by the Black Sea Fleet of the Russian Empire.
The Black Sea is susceptible to strong currents, endangering early maritime travel. During the Bronze Age ships are typically single-masted with one maneuverable sail, a person on the rudder and a galley of rowers.
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Wood is in great demand and the forests of the occupied coast are quickly replaced with agriculture, herds and orchards of fruit trees. In the 15th century the Ottoman Empire deforests the peninsula for ship building.
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A colony of Sinope, Cerasus, is named for cherries, which are thought to originate here and come to the Mediterranean with traders. Ships often follow coasts. If needed shelter might be found, not always. Cliffs are a sheer drop to scattered boulders and churning seas.
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Evidence of maritime trade and travel on the Black Sea is sparse, due to the necessity of net-dredging fishing, ongoing conflict and other complications. Dredging smooths the sea floor, breaks and scatters artifacts.
Nonetheless several shipwrecks are known to be off the coast. The advantage of anoxic water is the slow rate of decay of the ships and their cargoes. Excavations at Sinope also turn up a pottery jug dating c. 2500 BCE.
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Prehistoric artifacts help place human settlement around the Black Sea from the Paleolithic, based on flint tools, to the modern era. Reports of early Greek settlers tell of hostile tribes such as Cimmerians. In bits and pieces the Black Sea story comes to light.
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