Genetic engineering, manipulation or modification (GM) makes direct changes to DNA, influencing the characteristics of organisms. It's first applied to a bacterium in the 1970s, and has come a long way since then.
Genetic engineering is pursued in hopes of enhancing desired traits or eliminating unwanted ones. In agriculture, it's used to design crops to resist drought, pests, and diseases.
This has been done from the time of the agricultural revolution c. 10,000 BCE, but with crossbreeding. Early farmers develop spindly grasses like wheat into plump and bountiful crops. Microscopy takes it further.
Types of Genetic Manipulation
Single Base Modifications
At the simplest level, genetic engineers target and alter individual DNA bases. This is often done with the gene-editing technology CRISPR-Cas9.
The system allows researchers to alter the genes of rice plants to increase resistance to disease. It can correct genetic mutations causing disease, or introduce subtle changes to gene function.
Gene Insertion & Deletion
This manipulation inserts a new gene into an organism's genome, or deletes an existing one. It can be used to introduce new capabilities or remove undesirable traits.
The insertion process relies on vectors, such as viruses or plasmids, to deliver the desired gene into the target organism's cells.
DNA Region Manipulation
Entire regions of DNA, encompassing multiple genes or regulatory sequences, can also be modified. This enables complex changes affecting entire biological pathways or processes.
Transgenesis
DNA from one species is transferred and incorporated into the genome of another. It creates organisms with novel traits. Glow-in-the-dark fish are made with genes from jellyfish.
The method is known since 1978 when scientists produce human insulin from genetically engineered bacteria. This innovation brings wider availability and lower costs for insulin. Now we have glow-in-the-dark fish.
Created for research in the 1990s, they're genetically engineered zebra fish. They become exotic pets in the early 2000s. In 2022 "Glo-Fish" appear in Brazilian streams. Brazil bans the fish, but they're raised by fish farms anyway.
Gene Therapy
Gene therapy hopes to treat or prevent diseases by directly modifying genes in a person’s cells. Successful cases include treatments for inherited retinal disease. Patients' vision improves after gene replacement therapies.
Uses of Genetic Manipulation
Medicine
Genetic engineering is revolutionizing healthcare. Gene therapy aims to correct genetic defects responsible for diseases like cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia.
Genetically engineered bacteria are used to produce vital pharmaceuticals like insulin for diabetics. Furthermore, genetic engineering is crucial in developing new diagnostic tools and vaccines.
Modern antibiotics owe much of their effectiveness to genetic engineering. By modifying bacteria, researchers have improved antibiotic production levels and potency.
Scientists engineer a strain of E. coli to increase yield of the antibiotic tetracycline, providing better defenses against bacterial infections.
Microorganisms are used in food production, especially in fermentation. Genetic engineering tries to enhance their benefits, as in GM probiotics.
Agriculture
Genetically modified crops are introduced into modern agriculture, with increased yields, pest resistance, and herbicide tolerance. Golden rice is engineered to produce Vitamin A.
Bioremediation & Biomining
Genetic engineering holds potential for cleaning up pollution and biomining. Genetically modified bacteria break down pollutants, as in oil spills, to render substances less harmful.
One example is the use of genetically enhanced Pseudomonas putida, which can metabolize toluene, a toxic solvent of industrial discharges. In biomining, microbes devour metals or ore to release desired substances. Cupriavidus metallidurans can even turn toxins to gold (without GM).
Industry
Genetically engineered microorganisms are used in industrial processes, such as producing biofuels and bioplastics or synthesizing chemicals and enzymes. The concept is also of interest in robotics, especially nanorobotics.
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