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Sylvia Rose

Fungal Biofilms: Ecology of Biofilm-Producing Molds

Fungal biofilms are integral to ecosystems. Often unnoticed, these living structures exemplify microorganism cooperation in survival, nutrient cycling and ecological health. With focus on Aspergillus and Candida specifically we explore these prolific creations.



look at the pretty colors

Biofilms are hidden communities in diverse environments, from natural ecosystems to artificial substrates. These metropolitan structures can appear where microorganisms adhere to surfaces and each other, encased in a self-produced matrix of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS).


The formation of a biofilm typically involves these stages:


  1. Initial attachment: Microorganisms adhere to a surface.

  2. Maturation: Cells begin to multiply and produce EPS, creating a protective matrix.

  3. Dispersion: Cells may detach from the biofilm to colonize new areas.


Biofilms can exist in single-species or multi-species communities, depending on ecology and conditions, and other microorganisms present. Cooperation among different microbes help them form. Biofilms can also contain exopolysaccharides, proteins and nucleic acids.



microscopic fungal filaments
microscopic fungal filaments

Fungal biofilms are dominated by fungal organisms. These biofilms are composed primarily of filamentous fungi, yeasts and other fungal species. Fungi are unique among biofilm-forming organisms due to their filaments (hyphae) and the complex nature of their growth patterns.


Fungal biofilms can be found in environments like decaying wood, soils, water and the human body. Like other biofilms, they are essential in nutrient cycling, ecological balance, and significantly influence their surrounding environments.


Fungal biofilms are problematic in healthcare settings. Specific fungi can form biofilms on medical devices like catheters and joint implants. An estimated 80% of all microbial infections involve biofilms.



Fungal Mycelium or root structure
Visible fungal mycelium or root structure

How Do Fungi Produce Biofilms?


Fungi produce biofilms in the natural ecology including human body, and health systems, through a sequential process that begins with adherence to a substrate. Key steps in this process include:


  1. Surface recognition: Fungal spores or hyphae detect favorable surfaces, such as organic matter or host tissues, using environmental cues. They can form on tiny particles in the water, and come together to create a larger, visible community.

  2. Adhesion: Hyphae attach to surfaces using specific adhesion molecules.

  3. Matrix production: Once adhered, fungi secrete EPS including polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids. This matrix serves as both a protective shield and a structural framework allowing the biofilm to retain moisture and nutrients.

  4. Growth and maturation: The biofilm expands as fungi continue to proliferate and further develop their EPS matrix, leading to the establishment of complex three-dimensional structures.



fungi in a biofilm
microscopic fungal garden in a biofilm

Fungus: Aspergillus & Candida


Aspergillus spp.


Appearance: Aspergillus fungi typically have a fuzzy, powdery look. Aspergillus species are often green, black, or grey. The spores, or conidia, are produced in tall structures or conidiophores.


Habitat: Like many fungi, this mold thrives in diverse environments, including soil, decaying organic matter, and indoor settings where moisture and organic materials abound.


Characteristics: Known for their high adaptability, Aspergillus can tolerate a range of pH levels and moisture conditions.



compost organic matter


Function in Nature: These molds break down dead organic matter, recycling nutrients back into ecosystems. Aspergillus species can decompose up to 90% of organic waste.


Hazards: While many Aspergillus species are beneficial, others pose threats. For example, Aspergillus flavus produces aflatoxins, potent toxins linked to liver cancer, affecting about 4.5 billion people globally through contaminated food supplies.


Benefits: Aspergillus species are also pivotal in biotechnology, being used in the production of enzymes, organic acids, and fermentation processes in products like soy sauce and sake.



Pouring Sake (Saki)
Pouring Sake, Japanese rice wine

Candida spp.


Candida is a significant group of fungi known for forming biofilms, particularly in medical environments and the human body.


Appearance: Candida fungi typically appear as creamy white to yellowish colonies, often seen in moist environments. C. albicans may manifest as creamy white, fluffy colonies and can switch between yeast and filamentous forms, a process known as dimorphism.


Habitat: Candida species are commonly found in the human microbiome, particularly in the mouth, digestive tract and vagina, as well as on skin surfaces.


Characteristics: A yeast, Candida can switch between yeast and filamentous forms, allowing it to adapt to varying environments.



Cultured Candida
Cultured Candida - very sociable

Function in Nature: In natural ecosystems, Candida contributes to the decomposition of organic matter and nutrient cycling. Candida species are part of the human microbiota, aiding digestion and nutrient absorption. In a healthy individual, around 30% of people carry Candida in the digestive system without issues.


Hazards: Overgrowth of Candida, particularly C. albicans, can lead to infections, especially in those with weakened immune systems. Candida can become pathogenic. It forms biofilms on medical devices, contributing to conditions like candidiasis, an infection affecting over 750,000 people annually in the U.S. alone.


Benefits: Certain Candida species are used in biotechnology applications, including baker's yeast and fermentation processes.



Oral thrush is usually caused by the yeast Candida albicans
Oral thrush is usually caused by the yeast Candida albicans

Other Fungal Biofilms


While Aspergillus and Candida spp. are among the most studied fungi in terms of biofilm formation, other molds such as Penicillium, Fusarium, and Rhizopus can also form biofilms.

These molds can adhere to surfaces and produce similar protective EPS layers. Penicillium species are used in cheese production.


Facts About Biofilm Fungi


  1. Resilience: Fungal biofilms can withstand harsh conditions, surviving nutrient shortages, drought, and antimicrobial exposure. Studies have shown up to a 1000-fold increase in resistance against antifungal agents in biofilm forms compared to free-floating cells.

  2. Indicators of Environment: The presence of specific fungal biofilms can indicate the health of an environment, whether in a natural ecosystem or a medical context.

  3. Research Focus: Ongoing research aims to understand the mechanisms behind fungal biofilm formation and associated resistance, paving the way for innovative treatment strategies in healthcare settings.

  4. Communication: Fungal cells communicate chemically to coordinate their activities in biofilms, promoting collective behavior and effective resource management.



Aspergillus niger spore "head"
Aspergillus niger spore "head" under powerful microscope

Non-Fiction Books:


Fiction Books:

READ: Lora Ley Adventures - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series

READ: Reiker For Hire - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries




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