Sucrose, commonly known as table sugar, is a disaccharide or double sugar of glucose and fructose. Most sucrose eaten by humans comes...

Cyanobacteria, also called blue-green algae, are historically entwined with the evolution of Earth. They convert sunlight, water, and...

Wort is the sweet liquid forming the basis of yeast fermentation in brewing. Made from malt grains, the sugary wort gives yeast a...

The Maillard reaction is a process in browning and flavor enhancement for food such as chicken, steak, bread and roast marshmallows. As...

Fermentation is an easy, ancient process of preservation. Salt is dissolved in natural juice and/or water to make brine. Fermenting...

Syphilis is a sexually transmitted infection (STI) of obscure origins, a spotty history and massive impact. In the Renaissance its...

Rennet is a complex set of enzymes central to many cheeses. It coagulates milk to form curds.  The primary enzyme in rennet is chymosin...

Lactase is an enzyme important to breaking down lactose, a sugar found in milk and dairy products, into digestible elements. Lactase is...

Yeasts are lactose intolerant; but for every rule there are exceptions. These three species are able to use lactose, or milk sugar, as a...

Chocolate is one of the world's most beloved indulgences. The journey from cacao bean to chocolate bar is a series of artful processes,...

Yeast strains and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in artisan baking and beverage production can affect the flavor profile of the product, like...

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are industrious microbes working to transform ingredients such as milk into cheese and cabbage into sauerkraut...

Bona Dea, the "Good Goddess," has a special place among ancient Roman deities. Her mysteries are only for women. Goddess of fertility,...

Prokaryotes and eukaryotes are the two major types of cellular creatures on Earth. Prokaryotes are among the first life 3.4 billion years...

Cell division is a core process of life in the microworld. Mitosis and meiosis are two types of reproduction in microbes such as algae,...

Yeast is a unicellular fungus essential in daily life. This gift of nature is used in baking leavened bread and in food fermentation. Its...

Yeast is a single-celled fungus essential for fermentation. It transforms simple sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide, a process...

Ancient microbes in harsh conditions are the earliest life forms. Fossil records appear in rock formations up to 3.7 billion years old....

The Nine Years War, also known as the War of the League of Augsburg, is a key conflict in European history. Fierce battles erupt,...

Pyrometallurgy is the high-temperature processing of ores to extract and refine metals. It uses alchemical processes in a modern...