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Brownian motion vividly illustrates the appearance of chaos at a microscopic level. This phenomenon, first observed by botanist Robert Brown in 1827, is the erratic, seemingly random movement of small particles in fluid. This action affects science and human life. Killer Yeast: Assassins of the Microworld Difference Between Gram-Positive & Gram-Negative Bacteria S. pasteurii : Calcium Eating Limestone-Making Bacteria Small particles suspended in a fluid liquid or gas collide with rapidly moving molecules of the surrounding medium. Brown first identifies this phenomenon in 1827 while studying pollen grains in water. Particles such as dust or pollen are influenced by surrounding molecules. Because these molecules are in constant motion due to thermal energy, they exert varying forces on the suspended particles, causing them to move in seemingly unpredictable directions. This motion continues indefinitely unless acted upon by external forces. The Pauli Effect - Quarks or Quacks? Scheele's Green: History's Most Toxic Pigment Predators of the Microworld: Vampirovibrio & Lysobacter particle activities Under a microscope, these particles exhibit a zigzagging motion caused by their constant collisions with surrounding molecules. Microscopic particles suspended in a fluid can move more than 100 times their radius per second due to Brownian motion. The Physics Behind Brownian Motion Brownian motion can be described using principles from statistical mechanics, a branch of physics concerned with behavior of systems with a large number of particles. The motion is often modeled as a type of stochastic process, which involves randomness and probability. Yeast: Potent Power of the Active Microworld Panacea: Goddess of Universal Health Renaissance Apocalypse: End is Nigh In 1905 Albert Einstein provides an explanation of Brownian motion by linking the random movement of particles to the molecular theory of heat. He suggests the motion can be described mathematically through the “mean squared displacement” of particles over time. From this, scientists derive an equation relating the diffusion coefficient of the particles to the temperature and viscosity of the fluid. Brownian motion falls under the kinetic theory of matter. In the theory, all matter is made of atoms and molecules in perpetual motion. In gases, these molecules fly apart at high speeds. In liquids, they are closer together, which affects how they interact. Oil-Dwelling Microbes: Bacteria, Yeast, Fungi Heliozoa: Microscopic Sun Animalcules Khaos: Primal Goddess of Greek Myth Key Principles Thermal Energy Temperature directly impacts molecular kinetic energy. As temperature rises, molecules move faster, creating more collisions and increasing Brownian motion. At 100 ° C, the speed of molecular motion about twice that at 25 ° C. Randomness The movement of suspended particles is inherently random. While individual paths may look chaotic, their collective behavior can reveal observable patterns, like diffusion, vital in fields like pharmacology. Atomic Theory When Albert Einstein mathematically describes Brownian motion, he provides evidence for existence of atoms. The concept of atoms goes back to the ancient Greeks, especially the philosopher Democritus in the 5th century BCE. Democritus: Laughing Philosopher Ahead of His Time Vorticella: Mysterious Microscopic Pond Life Rotifers (Rotifera): Animalcules Under the Microscope Democritus, dubbed the Laughing Philosopher due to his belief in the power of laughter for healing and well-being The Mathematical Model In "mean squared displacement" (MSD) the average distance a particle travels over time is proportional to the elapsed time. For instance, in a two-dimensional plane, the distance traveled can increase linearly over time, which helps in understanding diffusion processes. Formula: M S D ( τ ) = E [ ( X ( τ ) - X ( 0 ) ) 2 ] Brownian Motion in Microscopy Microscopy allows scientists to see Brownian motion directly. The microscope is associated with Dutch draper and self-taught naturalist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) , who masters the technique of lens grinding. Initially he wants to see details of fabric threads. With advanced techniques such as fluorescence microscopy, researchers can monitor the movement of single molecules. This has significant implications, especially in understanding how cells operate and interact. Democritus - Atomic Theory 400 BCE Biofilm Communities: Metropolitan Microbes Amoebae: Microbial Predators on the Move Early microscope (replica) Dutch Museum Brownian motion also occurs within cells. The apparently random movement of nutrients and signaling molecules ensures they reach their destinations efficiently. In large cells like neurons, this movement supports faster communication and function of the cell. In materials science, observing Brownian motion helps researchers understand the stability of colloids and nanoparticles. Substances engineered on a nanometer scale are considered to move more effectively within the body due to Brownian motion. Glycerin (Glycerol): Darling of Cosmetics, Health & Science The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Interesting Facts about Brownian Motion Historical Impact : The study of Brownian motion is considered a major step from classical to modern physics, influencing areas such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics. Practical Applications : Brownian motion is crucial in various fields, including chemistry and biology, particularly in the context of diffusion processes, drug delivery systems, and the behavior of colloidal suspensions. Nobel Prize Recognition : Understanding of Brownian motion influences the work of several Nobel Laureates. In the early 1900s French physicist Jean Perrin conducts experiments confirming Einstein’s theories. His findings provide experimental validation of the existence of atoms and atomic theory. He gets the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1926. Fractal Dimensions : The paths traced by particles undergoing Brownian motion can be mathematically described using fractal dimensions. This means that the trajectories are infinitely complex, revealing striking connections with concepts in chaos theory and complex systems. Link to Financial Markets : Mathematics behind Brownian motion extends beyond physics and biology. In finance, the “random walk theory” describes stock prices as following paths analogous to those of Brownian motion. Cupriavidus metallidurans : Metal Eating Gold Making Bacterium Synchronicity: Psychology of Coincidence Women Scientists of the Ancient World A Study of Thermodynamics : Brownian motion exemplifies fundamental principles of thermodynamics. Random motion of particles illustrates the concept of entropy, where continual mixing of particles in fluid is a manifestation of the 2nd law of thermodynamics, in which heat flows spontaneously from hotter to colder regions of matter.. Brownian Ratchet : This theoretical concept proposes a device to convert random thermal energy into useful work. Even though it is primarily theoretical, it highlights the intersection of thermodynamics and molecular physics. Impact on Diffusion : Understanding Brownian motion is vital for fields ranging from chemistry to biology. For example, it affects how drugs diffuse in the bloodstream, impacting their effectiveness and release rates. Quantum Brownian Motion : The principles of Brownian motion extend into quantum mechanics, where random behaviors at the quantum level are studied. This connection explains how randomness is a universal feature across physics. Science of Rust Earth Pigments & Colors Metal Salts: Ancient History to Modern DIY Andreas Libavius: Science & Controversy of Alchemy Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Killer yeasts secrete toxic proteins. Known as killer toxins, the proteins can eliminate susceptible cells within their own species or related species. The beer-brewing, bread leavening Saccharomyces cerevisiae is also one of the primary killers. Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld Ethyl Alcohol: Science of Solvents & Booze Honey Mead: Most Ancient Ambrosia About Yeast Also known as baker's or brewer's yeast, S. cerevisiae is a single-celled fungus. Considered one of the first domesticated organisms, it's used in production of many fermented foods and drinks such as wine, beer, coffee, bread and chocolate. In traditional wet processing of coffee, for instance, creators add yeast to facilitate mucilage breakdown before the bean drying process. In chocolate making, the cocoa beans go through a fermentation process in which action of yeasts and bacteria are vital. Honey Bees (Apidae): Nature & Myth Chamomile - Herbology & Folklore Difference Between Gram-Negative & Gram-Positive Bacteria Chocolate Truffle - made with yeast In history, the relationship between humans and delectable fermented products goes back to c. 7000 BCE when signs of intentional brewing appear. Yeast use in beer brewing and wine making is recorded in Sumer and other early civilizations by c. 6000 BCE. The earliest known records of yeast in baking bread comes from ancient Egypt c. 1500 BCE, and China c. 500 BCE. Humans rely on yeasts for inner and outer body workings. This ubiquitous friend who facilitates human life is also a ruthless killer. Predators of the Microworld: Vampirovibrio & Lysobacter Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health Killer Yeast A killer phenotype in yeast is first discovered in certain strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in 1963. Killer yeast toxins can wipe out whole colonies of susceptible cells. In fact, two colonies can fight to the death. This is no small feat for microbes who cannot move, and rely on reproductive strength or Brownian motion to spread their dose of death. The phenomenon of killer yeast and yeast warfare raises questions about its ecological roles, interactions and possibilities for use. It could be used in medicine and health, for example. Microbial Alchemy: Fermentation, Digestion, Putrefaction Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses Alchemy: How to Make Rosaceum Oil Ruthless assassins Specifically, killer yeast toxins are polypeptides composed of amino acids. The toxins infiltrate the cell walls of a sensitive cell by making holes in a target cell's membrane, causing the cell to rupture, collapse and die. Saccharomyces cerevisiae killer cells are immune to their own toxins, enabling them to flourish while competitors perish. The focused attack of killer yeast on sensitive cells is part of the complex dynamics of an unseen microworld ecology. Fermentation & Rot: Comparing Processes Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Eight Dye Plants & Natural Dyes in History Yeast spores, electron microscope (10,000x) A strain of killer yeast might effectively kill other, non-killer strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae , as well as some wild yeast species. The selectivity of these toxins creates an evolutionary advantage, allowing killer strains to dominate. Killer yeast can reduce competing yeast populations by as much as 80%, giving the killer a critical advantage in its environment. By eliminating other yeast cells, killer yeast gains access to valuable resources like sugars and nutrients. Resource control functions promote the growth of the killer yeast. For instance, in laboratory settings, Saccharomyces cerevisiae  has shown a 40% increase in growth when competing with non-killer strains under nutrient-limited conditions. Oil-Dwelling Microbes: Bacteria, Yeast, Fungi Ammonium Carbonate: Sal Volatile Smelling Salts Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future Killer Yeast - Favorite Food Like other yeasts, killer yeast is heterotrophic, meaning it derives its nutrition from organic substrates. Killer yeast feeds mainly on fermentable carbohydrates, particularly glucose. These sugars are abundant in its natural habitats, which include fruit, soil, and various fermented products. When conditions are favorable, killer yeast metabolizes these nutrients through fermentation. Killer yeast's ability to outcompete others for sugars ensures its survival and dominance in the environment. The fermentation process produces of over 100 billion liters of beer and wine globally every year. Science of Alchemy: Hydrochloric Acid Acid-Producing Bacteria in Sulfuric Acid Creation Amoebae: Microbial Predators on the Move Killer Yeast in Nature Killer yeast is found naturally in diverse environments. It forms especially where yeast populations are high, such as in fermented foods, beverages, soil, and plant tissues. The presence of killer yeast and its toxins significantly influences ecological interactions. In the wild, killer yeast helps regulate the populations of sensitive strains, helping maintain diversity and stability. It often grows on skins of ripe grapes. Yeast doesn't appear on fruit until it's ready to harvest, when the sugars are sweetest. In grape fermentation, killer yeast can help control spoilage. By ensuring only the strong survive, a higher quality wine is created. Thus the killer attributes of this yeast are overall for the good of humanity. Malevolent Microfungi: Hazards of Health & Home Radioactive Gas: Radon (Rn) Noble & Deadly Science of Onion Tears: Demystifying Acids Killer yeast has a drawback in its potential to turn good booze bad during fermentation. Yeast can be de-activated by lowering fermentation temperatures, using sterile filtration to eliminate yeast from the wine, or fortifying with brandy or neutral spirits to destroy yeast cells. Killer Hangover A killer hangover is also indirectly caused by yeast. Acetaldehyde is a compound formed by all yeast. As yeast undergoes fermentation, glucose is turned into pyruvate then acetaldehyde, and finally ethanol. Ethanol is the alcohol in alcoholic drinks. It's reconverted by the liver into acetaldehyde. If the body can't process the acetaldehyde fast enough, as in a night of heavy drinking, it builds up in the system, causing hangover symptoms such as headache, dizziness and vomiting. Silent Destroyers: Microbes of Concrete Corrosion Stylonychia: Wonderful World of Ciliates Noisy Spirits of German Mythology Yeasts With Potential to Kill Not all yeast species have the ability to produce killer toxins. The capacity to secrete these proteins is restricted to certain strains and species, which have evolved this trait. While many yeasts are more competitive than they look, they're not necessarily lethal. Relationships among yeasts can vary widely. They range from mutualism, in which the yeasts bond together and form intricate cooperative colonies much like multi-celled organisms, to outright biological warfare. Lunar Caustic AgNO3: Lapis Infernalis  of Alchemy Foodborne Fungi and Mold: Facts & Dangers Copper (Cu) Effects on Human & Plant Health Yeast Killer yeasts share characteristics with other microorganisms. Some other fungi and bacteria also produce toxins to inhibit competitors. In bacterial communities, some strains secrete bacteriocins, or antibacterial proteins, to kill closely related bacteria species. Certain molds and filamentous fungi are also powerful territorial defenders. They produce mycotoxins to keep others from inhabiting the same space. Heliozoa: Microscopic Sun Animalcules S. pasteurii : Calcium Eating Limestone-Making Bacteria Algae in Glass Houses: Diatomaceous Earth Toxic as they are, killer yeasts are not hazardous to humans. As most of the known killer yeasts, particularly Saccharomyces cerevisiae , are widely used in the food industry for baking and brewing, there's no significant evidence these yeasts pose a risk to human health. However, it can be a cause of vaginitis or pharyngitis. Potentially fatal systemic disease due to S. cerevisiae has been recorded in bone marrow transplant patients and in those immunocompromised as a result of cancer or AIDS. Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Niter (Saltpeter): Science of Alchemy Glycerin (Glycerol): Darling of Cosmetics, Health & Science Reproduction of Yeast Facts about Killer Yeast Discovery : Killer yeast was identified in the 1940s, leading to extensive investigations into its properties and potential applications. Strains : The most studied killer yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae , often used in baking and brewing. Multiple killer strains of S. cerevisiae exist. Toxins : Killer toxins can vary significantly between different strains, each with distinct toxic effects. Immune System : Killer yeast has built-in resistance mechanisms that protect it from its own toxins. Genetic Basis : The genes responsible for toxin production and immunity are often located on plasmids (small DNA molecules within the cell). Applications : Research into killer yeasts may offer potential applications in biotechnology, such as using killer toxins to manage harmful yeast strains during fermentation. Killer yeast presents a fascinating case study of microbial competition and adaptation. Through production of potent killer toxins, these yeasts attain of a standard of living higher than that of sheer survival. Silent Destroyers: Microbial Corrosion of Concrete Nitric Acid: Aqua Fortis the Acid Queen Heavy Metals Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Chromium & Arsenic Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Vampirovibrio and Lysobacter are types of bacteria known to attack, kill and eat other bacteria. Hunting tactics are similar to the strategies of wolf packs and vampire bats. Vampirovibrio prefers aquatic environments, and Lysobacter lives in water or soil. Yeast: Potent Power of the Active Microworld Invisible World: Prokaryotes & Animalcules Difference Between Gram-Negative & Gram-Positive Bacteria Vampires are eternal Biologically they belong to the class Gammaproteobacteria of the phylum Proteobacteria ( Pseudomonadota ). These bacteria can be benevolent but are also well-documented for versatile predatory abilities in soil and aquatic environments. Vampirovibrio  species are found in fresh or sea water. As the name suggests, they have a vampiric lifestyle, attaching themselves to prey. Vampirovibrio chagasii  targets Escherichia coli  and siphons nutrients directly from these bacteria. Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health Bacteria: Unseen Driving Force Behind All Life Above: V. chlorellavorus (white arrow) attached to green algae Chlorella sorokiniana . Scale bar 5 μm, magnification 10,000x. Vampirococcus is a related epibiont genus. It's an ovoid predatory prokaryote first described in 1983 as a small, anaerobic microbe about 0.6 μm wide, named Vampirococcus in 1986. A freshwater obligate predator, it attacks species of the photosynthetic purple sulfur bacterium, Chromatium . Vampirococcus attaches to the cell surface of the prey and "sucks" out the cytoplasm using a specialized cytoplasmic bridge. Lysobacter uses a cooperative hunting strategy. These bacteria work together in groups to surround and consume their targets. Lysobacter enzymogenes can form clusters to enhance hunting efficiency and take down larger bacterial populations. Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Metal to Rust: Unseen Organisms in Action Lycobacter sp. looking very boring and harmless As these genera prey on other microorganisms, they occupy various ecological niches. They are important in controlling bacterial populations and of course nutrient cycling. These bacteria emerge in the Proterozoic Eon, roughly between 2.5 billion and 541 million years ago. Predatory behavior in bacteria begins over 2 billion years ago when multicellular life first starts to diversify. At this time, Earth is dominated by single-celled organisms, like amoebae and others of the protozoans below. Fermentation & Rot: Comparing Processes Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Eight Dye Plants & Natural Dyes in History Protozoans clockwise from top left:  1. Blepharisma japonicum , a ciliate; 2. Giardia muris , a parasitic flagellate; 3. Centropyxis aculeata , a testate (shelled) amoeba; 4. Peridinium willei , a dinoflagellate; 5. Chaos carolinense,  a naked amoebozoan; 6. Desmarella moniliformis , a choanoflagellate. Multiple credits  exist for this pic. Hunting Techniques Vampirovibrio and Lysobacte r exhibit sophisticated hunting techniques. Vampirovibrio typically uses a vampirism method. It attaches itself to the surface of its bacterial prey. Vampirovibrio punctures the cell and injects enzymes, often using specialized flagella to disintegrate the cells and access the rich soup of internal nutrients. It siphons off nutrients much like a vampire bat drawing blood. This aids their survival in nutrient-poor environments. Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides Silent Destroyers: Microbes of Concrete Corrosion Heavy Metals Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Chromium & Arsenic Vampire Bat Conversely, Lysobacter  operates like a coordinated pack. They release enzymes into their surroundings, which break down bacterial cell walls, making the nutrients easier to absorb. This collective effort enables them to tackle larger prey effectively. Prey Preferences & Digestion Vampirovibrio prefers specific bacterial species such as Pseudomonas and various Gram-negative bacteria. It's known to target bacteria from the Proteobacteria  ( Pseudomonadota ) and Firmicutes  groups, which are common in aquatic environments. They favor Vibrio  species, abundant in marine ecosystems. Below : Lactic acid bacteria, often hunted by Lysobacter sp. Song of the Loreley - Lethal Beauty Rot & Decay: Process of Organic Putrefaction Wolfsbane (Aconitum) Ancient Poisons lactic acid bacteria sp. Lysobacter bacteria are versatile and can feed on a broad range of bacterial species from water and soil. They often target Bacillus sp such as lactic acid bacteria. Their prey choices are influenced by availability of target species within their environment. Lysobacter is highly opportunistic, adapting to feed on different bacterial communities. Its ability to glide without flagella or cilia is a source of intrigue to scientists. Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses Microfungi: Mysterious Web of Life & Death The Microscope: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Lysobacter has a broad range of prey and habitat options due to its remarkable powers of adaptation The digestion processes of both these predatory bacteria are similar. They secrete enzymes to break down cellular components into simpler nutrients, which are subsequently absorbed directly from the prey. The waste products of this process are organic molecules such as unprocessed cellular debris. After digestion about 45% of the prey's biomass remains as waste, including simple sugars, amino acids and other metabolic byproducts to be used by other microorganisms. Great Advances in Chemistry 1600-1800 Secret Lives of Sulfuric Acid-Eating Bacteria Amoebae: Microbial Predators on the Move Bacterial Intelligence While bacteria are simple organisms they exhibit remarkable behaviors in a form of collective intelligence. Bacteria can communicate through chemical signals in the process of quorum sensing, allowing them to coordinate activities like predation and biofilm formation. Their sophisticated behaviors are the result of survival mechanisms formed by millions of years of evolution. Bacteria display complex behaviors and environmental responses. They communicate through signaling processes, emitting and responding to chemical signals enabling coordinated action among groups. This swarm behavior, evident in Lysobacter clusters, creates an impression of human-defined intelligence, though it's largely instinctual. Malevolent Microfungi: Hazards of Health & Home Radioactive Gas: Radon (Rn) Noble & Deadly Microbial Alchemy: Fermentation, Digestion, Putrefaction Likewise, some species of bacteria or cell colonies such as yeast know when they're under attack or even when attack is imminent. They begin producing toxic defensive enzymes. This action is taken up by the surrounding cells and spreads quickly through a group or colony. The characteristic is observed in trees such as acacia of the African Savannah. A favorite food of giraffes, when over-browsed the tree sends a warning to others by releasing ethylene gas. Nearby trees pass on the message and alter their flavor so they're bitter to the taste. Gum Arabic (Acacia Gum) Art, Food & Medicine Khella - Ancient Health & Herbology Herbology & Lore: Poison Hemlock Tastes a bit off, you think? Facts About Predatory Bacteria Ecology : Predatory bacteria like Vampirovibrio and Lysobacter are important in maintaining microbial balance within ecosystems and controlling bacterial populations. Enzymatic Arsenal : They possess a diverse array of enzymes capable of breaking down a wide range of bacterial cellular components, aiding in their predatory lifestyle. Nutrient Cycling : The waste products expelled by these bacteria can be consumed by other microorganisms. Research Potential : Scientists are exploring the potential of predatory bacteria for use in biocontrol, bioremediation, and as sources of novel antibiotics. Their existence sheds light on the evolution of predation and symbiosis in microbial communities. Bacterial Warfare : Vampirovibrio and Lysobacter engage in a form of warfare, asserting dominance over territory and resources by efficiently outcompeting other microorganisms. Ecological Presence : They are found across various ecosystems, including freshwater, saltwater, and soil. Evolutionary Learning : Diverse Adaptation : The hunting strategies of these bacteria illustrate the wide-ranging adaptations that have developed in the microbial world. Stylonychia: Wonderful World of Ciliates Testate Amoebae: Single Cells with Shells Silica (SiO2): Nature of Glass & Gems Hmm ... whose cytoplasm shall I suck today? Overall, Vampirovibrio  and Lysobacter  are not hazardous to humans. They primarily target other bacteria and benefit the environment. Certain members of the broader Lysobacter  genus are studied for potential in biocontrol and antibiotic production to fight bacterial infections. Vampirovibrio and Lysobacter exemplify the complexity and diversity of life in the microbial world. Their predatory behavior highlights the relationships among microorganisms and hidden dynamics crucial to environmental health and stability. Acid-Producing Bacteria in Sulfuric Acid Creation Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Catalase: Unseen Enzymes Essential to Life Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Built in 1825, she's named for Agrippina the Younger , a powerful Roman empress of the first century AD. Mother of Nero and sister of Caligula, Agrippina is always embroiled in a scheme. She plots her son's path to the throne, then has to evade his attempts to kill her. Victorian Trends: Sailor Suits to Taxidermy German Myth - Father Rhine River God Rhinestones: Sparkling Treasures of the Rhine The riverboat steamer Agrippina on the Rhine River, Germany His most spectacular assassination attempt takes place on her personal barge, when he has henchman rig the floor to break open, dumping her into the sea. That's one version. In another, a lead roof collapses and should have killed Agrippina, but a corner catches on a couch and she squirms out from underneath. At this point the crew, having been paid or threatened by Nero, promptly sink the boat. One of Agrippina's friends, hoping to be saved, calls for help, crying "I am Agrippina!" The henchmen bludgeon her to death in the water, while Agrippina swims to shore and takes refuge among peasant girls. Pioneering German Women - Bertha Benz Castle Frankenstein - Legend & Lore Klabautermann - Germanic Sea Kobold Agrippina the Younger, Marble ~ 52 AD Nero then sends an assassin, and this time the plot prevails. Agrippina dies at the age of 43. The tempestuous life of the Empress might have been a warning for the woes of the steamship Agrippina. In the 19th century, steam rules Europe and the West. Steam engines fed by coal drive machinery, trains, ships and more. River boats operate on wind, steam and paddle-wheel power. The Agrippina has two paddle wheels, one on each side, smokestack and sails. Wild Women and Winter Tales Germanic Mythology - Brook Horses Modern Mirrors, Elevators & Kindergarten Paddle Wheels Ships like Agrippina develop from engineering and industrial breakthroughs. Built in 1825 as a Rhine river boat, Agrippina is a forerunner in strength and style, with three masts and fifty beds. The building of this ship is a highlight of the Romantic Era in Germany. The Rhine River of Germany captures hearts and imagination. Flowing from Basel to the North Sea, the Rhine is a path of international travel, trade and adventure for centuries. Rumors circulate of hidden treasure. Rhine cruises came further into vogue in the 1800s, although steamship Agrippina knows little of them. Her dynamic engines are top of the line, but alas, the weight makes her too heavy to pass draft tests for the Rhine. Steam & Coal in Victorian Germany 19th Century: Home Gym, Bicycles, Antiseptic German Folklore - Irrwurz or Mad Root Swimmin' in the Rhine .... just swimmin' in the Rhine Originally designed for use in the Middle Rhine, she's put to work as a freighter on the Lower Rhine. This also fails and engineers uses Agrippina 's engines as part of the innovative tugboat Hercules , thereby creating the first effective compound steam engine. In 1829 Agrippina is the first towed barge on the Rhine. In 1836 she's briefly in miliary use as a troop transport vessel, decorated with the arms of Prussia. She takes a battalion of about 600 men to Koblenz. In 1837 she receives some luxury use as she carries the King of Württemberg, family and entourage from Cologne to The Hague. According to a later traveler the cabins of the Agrippina are luxurious, with gleaming mirrors and polished wood. Pioneering German Women - Anita Augspurg German Traditions - the Linden Tree Schrat: German Nightmare Forest Elf Then a major accident in Rees, Germany in January 1841 causes extensive damage and shipboard flooding on the way upstream. The captain has to beach the boat and put the passengers ashore. After an overhaul, Agrippina goes into work service to became the first steamboat to tow an iron barge on the Rhine. In the 19th century iron barges are quickly replacing wooden ones. In 1843 she's struck by a coal ship while in port and immediately sinks. Although she is raised, and tows barges afterward, Agrippina soon goes to her final resting place in a ship junkyard, and is taken apart in 1846. Elderberry Tree: Germanic Nature Lore Night Raven (Nachtkrapp) Germania Angel of Long Point - Abigail Becker Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Anna Connelly saves countless lives when she invents and patents the first modern fire escape in 1877. After the Civil War, Americans leave the land to work in cities. As buildings grow taller than ever before, so does the danger of death by smoke and fire. Pioneering German Women - Bertha Benz Great 19th Century German Woman Artists Amazing Legacy of Alexander von Humboldt Fire safety is hazardous until end of the 19th century Industrial revolutions in Europe spark discoveries in science, engineering and health. Steam powers factories and fast transport like trains. As overcrowded conditions increased the spread of disease, accident and fire hazards, building codes force higher standards. In 1860, a bakery in New York catches fire, with lethal results for families living above. At this time fire escapes are limited. Early attempts at creating fire escapes include a machine designed to bring a person to street level, an escape chute and portable ladders. 19th Century: Home Gym, Bicycles, Antiseptic Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper Pioneering German Women - Anita Augspurg Fire Escape Patent 1887 In 1870 fire safety laws in America state "fireproof balconies must be connected by fireproof stairs". As building owners stagger at the cost, Anna Connelly sees the need for a better solution. Anna thinks big. She wants to create a fire escape for the mass market to improve building safety and consistency in cities. In 1877 she received her first patent and continued making improvements to her fire escape. It's a simple but detailed design of metal ladders and handrails, and becomes the basis for modern fire escapes. Today they're found more often on older buildings as use of sprinkler systems and other fire safety developments increase. Angel of Long Point - Abigail Becker The Mystic Victorian - Fortune Telling Great Women Artists - Käthe Kollwitz Anna Connelly In the late nineteenth century, patents, science and business are almost exclusively the man's domain, whether he likes it or not. Anna Connelly is a pioneer and inspiration to many women who come to realize their own talents and skills. Little is known about her early life. Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Anna works as a reeler at a cotton mill. 1920 census lists her as a widow. She dies in Pennsylvania in 1969, at the age of 100. Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Verdigris: Coveted Blue Green Copper Pigment Famous Women of Renaissance Alchemy Fire escapes Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Kur is the vast and timeless Underworld of ancient Mesopotamia. Here is the abode of demons and vengeful spirits, creatures of the night, Old Gods and deities of fate, fertility and Death. Ruled by a beautiful Goddess, Kur is also the site of power struggles and legends. Edimmu: Evil Demons of Vengeance Disease Demons & Doctors: Ancient Mesopotamia Ninhursag - Great Mountain Mother Barren Wasteland of Kur, the Underworld Ereshkigal, Goddess of the Underworld, also called Queen of the Great Earth, rules the endless land of hot winds and barren wastes. She herself lives in a glamorous castle, Ganzir, with attendants, her sukkal the demon Namtar , and her scribe(s) Geshtinanna and Belet-Seri . The deceased must pass through seven doors before reaching the inner sanctum of Ereshkigal's court. Here it's sumptuous and calm, with sparkling fountains and rare white peacocks. Sin (Suen): Moon God of Mesopotamia Caspian Tiger: Bronze Age Wild Predators Papsukkal - Grand Vizier of the Gods White peacock with golden crown The wild tiger lays his head in her lap. Musicians play stringed instruments, trees are fruitful, and the sky twinkles with stars. She's also Goddess of the Night. When Sin the Moon God  travels through the Underworld his silver light creates a magical glow in her realm. One by one the deceased stand before her. No matter what a person has done in life, all are equal in death. There is no judgment. Ereshkigal declares the person dead, and her scribe notes down the name and reason for death. Figs - Food of the Ancient World Ninurta (Ninĝirsu) - God of the People Girsu (Tello): Ancient Sumerian City Ereshkigal, Goddess of Night & the Underworld The deceased is escorted out, quickly as there's a lineup to get into Kur. Now the deceased is free to wander the hot dry wasteland for the remainder of eternity. It's not a good start. Here is nothing to eat but dry dust, and only dirty water to drink. People wander around looking glum and not much happens. It's all one long dreary twilight. Nanshe - Nature Goddess of Justice Kish: Glory Days in Ancient Babylonia Herbology & Lore: Poison Hemlock Must be Monday Sometimes the Galla demons drag unwilling mortals into the Underworld, which is always a break in the tedium. The gallu or galla are a class of demon responsible for keeping the dead in Kur. They are also the resident torturers, using tri-pronged red-hot pokers to make their point. As helpers to the Underworld Gods they can walk or fly among the living to plague mortals and carry out tasks for the gods. Abu - Ancient Vegetation Snake God Nergal - Ancient Underworld Gods Belet-Seri: Underworld Scribe Goddess Evil Udug Demon Another type of demon residing in the Underworld is the evil Udug . Sickness-causing entities of various types, Udug demons are those most likely to possess people. The udug subgroup of Edimmu demons includes the vengeful undead. The Edimmu are wind and air demons ruled by Pazuzu , Lord of the Wind Demons. Other significant demons of the Underworld include the hideous Asag and of course disease demon Namtar, sukkal to Ereshkigal. Hurrian Primordial Gods & Creatures Sacred Scarab: Lucky Bug of Ancient Egypt Arabian Leopard: Bronze Age Predators Disease Demon Namtar, sukkal to Ereshkigal After the 3rd century BCE, Nergal the destroyer becomes Lord of the Underworld by marrying the unwilling Ereshkigal. Neither are prone to monogamy and numerous fights erupt between them, to become the stories of legend. A popular Underworld myth is the Descent of Inanna . Queen of the Heavens Inanna (Ishtar, Shaushka ) is the younger sister of Ereshkigal. She makes a journey to the Underworld. Various reasons are given, including her desire to attend a funeral there. Ullikummi - Rock Monster of Legend Hattusa Green Stone - Mystic Secrets Inanna (Ishtar) - Goddess of Ancients Road to Kur Ereshkigal tricks her by making her take off a piece of clothing at each of the seven portals. By the time she reaches Ereshkigal she's naked, and has no power. Ereshkigal orders her killed, and hangs her body on the wall.   Fortunately for Inanna she's made arrangements with attendant deities to come get her if she's away for more than three days. When she doesn't return they seek her. She is resurrected and they make their harrowing escape chased by clamoring gallu demons all the way. Flooding of the Nile - Nature & Myth The Way to Aaru - Egyptian Paradise Allani - Hurrian Underworld Goddess They make their escape The Gallu don't want to go back to Ereshkigal empty handed, and demand an individual to take Inanna's place. She sees her consort Dumuzi living it up with fine wine and dancing girls while everyone else is in mourning for her death. It's not wise to offend Inanna. Enraged, she tells the galla to take Dumuzi to the Underworld and torture him mercilessly, which they're happy to do. Unfortunately, because Dumuzi is an agriculture God, when he's in the Underworld everything starts to die. Pazuzu - Demon God of Mesopotamia Ancient Deities: Proto Indo European Gods Curse of the Evil Eye & Apotropaic Magic Inanna later relents and lets Dumuzi return to her court, but he must remain in the Underworld six months and his sister Geshtinanna the other six. While he's 'dead' the Overworld land is barren. Despite bitter complaints from galla demons, no torture is involved. This is how Geshtinanna comes to be a scribe of Ereshkigal, and why the seasons change. Agriculture or fertility gods are often found in the Underworld, also known as the Great Earth. They nourish the plants from their roots, and some deities relate to groundwater. Asray: Ugaritic Underworld Goddess Nekhbet - Vulture Goddess of Egypt Sprites: Ethereal Creatures of Faerie Underworld Caverns with Groundwater But, for the sad dead person left to wander the deserts of Kur, there is no water and no solace. The happiness of the deceased depends on the richness of grave goods left for comfort or trade in the Afterlife, and libations and offerings of family to honor the dead. If the person dies without burial or has no one to provide comforts, the deceased may become Edimmu . The person/demon seeks revenge on the neglectful relatives or, if the death is murder, the murderer. The spirit can also take its wrath out on someone innocent. Lelwani - Hittite Underworld Goddess Lamashtu, Baby-Eating Demon Goddess of Mesopotamia Rise of Pan: Fertility Goat God Péh₂usōn Sickness demons and vengeful spirits arise to torment mortals Old Gods also dwell in the Underworld. As deities they have all the comforts they need. Although it's home to evil entities the Underworld is not considered a place of evil itself. Torture in the Underworld, like that of poor Dumuzi, is not the usual fare. The story's well known, though, echoed centuries later by that of Persephone. The three-pronged pokers of the Galla demons survive to appear in Christianity as the pitchforks of Satan and his helpers. Ancient Arabia - Stone Age to Bronze Ambrosia: Divine Nectar & Immortal Gods Stone Age Botai - First Horse People Dumuzi being tortured by Galla demons Other demons known to inhabit Kur include the baby-eating demon Lamashtu . She's among the most powerful of malevolent entities. Demon Pazuzu is her sworn enemy and he can be invoked against her evil. Another fearsome demon is the consort of Ninhursag , Shulpae (Šulpae). He's a strange mix of benevolent warrior deity and destructive disease demon. He causes bennu ( benu or epilepsy), a condition greatly feared by ancients. Bennu or benu is not connected to Benu, the Egyptian heron god . Shulpae is not known to live in Kur at all times. He does occasionally touch base with Sin the Moon God. It's believed Shulpae acts on the instructions of Sin, thus associating the moon with madness. Cinnamon - Spice Trade of Ancients Kushuh (Kušuḫ) Hurrian Moon God Heqet, Frog Goddess of Egypt Crescent, symbol of Sin the Moon God, or his lunar barque Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

The mighty Rhine River is famous for legends, mystic secrets and hidden treasure, including small sparkling rock crystals known as Rhine stones. Flowing from the Swiss Alps to the North Sea, the Rhine provides nourishment, work, trade and transportation for thousands of years. German Myth - Father Rhine River God Steam & Style - Agrippina of the Rhine German Myth & Folklore: Elves Crystal comes from the Greek word κρύσταλλος or krýstallos , simply meaning crystal. Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder considers clear quartz to be water permanently frozen. He points out quartz is sometimes found near glaciers in the Alps, but not on volcanic mountains. Pliny believes it forms spheres to cool the hands. The concept continues into the 17th century. Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future Sodium Silicate: Alchemy of Water Glass Glass & Arts of Ancient Glass Making Carved into brilliant objects like vases and urns, quartz pleases crafters and collectors with its clarity, smooth surfaces, medium hardness and prismatic light. As clear as water and ice, rock crystal can even contain rainbows within, due to reflected light from cracks or fractures. Most rock crystal in large amounts comes from Russia, the US, Madagascar and Brazil. During the Renaissance Milan, Prague and Florence are the main centers for crystal cutting, while Venice is the Queen of glassworks. Herbology & Lore: Poison Hemlock Silica (SiO2): Nature of Glass & Gems Plight of the Lutzelfrau: German Myth Rhinestones are known in 13th century Austria. Small clear stones of quartz are gathered from the shores of the Rhine. Rock crystal rhinestones are used in jewelry and accessories. Cut in the style of diamonds they sparkle with warm light. Jewelers of the time coat the back with silver or various metals to boost luster and color. Besides clear, quartz manifests in a bounty of beautiful colors such as purple (amethyst), yellow (citrine), aqua (beryl) and pink (rose quartz). It's the second most abundant stone on Earth, almost pure silica (SiO2), and varies from clear to translucent to opaque, as in agate. Gramophone, Player Piano & Motion Pictures Etch Carnelian Beads Like It's Indus Valley 2500 BCE Chalcedony Gems: Secrets of Silicon Dioxide Coloration in quartz happens due to variations in the stone and because it absorbs only certain wavelengths of light. The color humans see comes from those wavelengths left behind. If the crystal absorbs red and blue, it appears as a yellow gem. If it absorbs yellow, the combination of blue and red make purple as in amethyst . Amethyst is a desirable gem since Roman times, when it has the theoretical power to stave off drunkenness. Amethyst - Divine Purple Quartz Gemstone Ancient Traders & Buyers: Art of Testing Metals Alchemy & Renaissance Glass: Antonio Neri If red light waves are absorbed, the resulting color is aquamarine, like the ocean or mountain streams. Clear quartz absorbs no wavelengths and reflects all colors. It's famous for creating the marvelous prismatic or rainbow effect, also seen in spray of waterfalls and fountains. How to tell if quartz is real? Clear rock crystal quartz has a Mohs hardness scale level of 7. Scratched on glass, which has a hardness of 5.5, the crystal should leave a white mark or streak. German Myth - White Ladies & Changelings Germanic Mythology - Brook Horses Modern Mirrors, Elevators & Kindergarten Clear quartz has a mystical property, the pyroelectric effect. Two pieces of quartz rubbed together in a dark room produce a light glimmer or flash. The pyroelectric effect happens due to a heat change in stones which have undergone considerable pressure. Friction such as rubbing causes the crystals to heat up, release the charge and make a flash. Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus and German scientist Franz Aepinus study the effect in the mid-1700s. Antimony (Stibnite, Kohl) Ancient Metal of Science & Beauty Silverpoint Drawing: Art of the Renaissance Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor The first demonstration is in the 1880s by the French physicists Jacques and Pierre Curie. The brothers uses tourmaline, topaz, quartz, cane sugar and Rochelle salt (potassium sodium tartrate) to test the effect. Quartz and Rochelle salt show the greatest amount of pyroelectricity. Rochelle salt is a man-made double salt first created in 1675 by apothecary Pierre Seignette in La Rochelle, France. Great 19th Century German Woman Artists Angel of Long Point - Abigail Becker Amazing Legacy of Alexander von Humboldt Because of the pyroelectric effect quartz comes to be used in clocks and watches to create a precise electrical signal. Intended for radios, the crystal surges in demand as a timepiece regulator when scientists find it more accurate than a pendulum. Faux Rhinestones, Leaded Glass and Austrian Crystal Faux rhinestones hit the market in the 18th century. As natural rhinestone sources dwindle, Alsatian jeweler Georg Friedrich Strass (1701-1773) develops imitation diamonds by coating the lower side of lead glass with metal powder. These are the type of rhinestones sold today. Glass of Antimony: Renaissance Purgatives Diana's Tree: Silver Crystals of Lunar Caustic Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg The term crystal is also used for leaded glassware or beads. Leaded glass crystal is light and more resilient when heated to a liquid, so can be made thinner than regular glass. It has a musical ting when tapped. When a wet fingertip is run around the rim, the glass sings a chime. Food or drink shouldn't be stored long in leaded glass vessels due to lead leakage. Although clear quartz is found in the Alps, Austrian crystal is man-made treated glass. The technique has been refined and modified with precision so Austrian crystal becomes one of the most alluring and magical of creations. It's ever popular in ornaments and jewelry. Isabella Cortese: Renaissance Writer, Alchemist, Entrepreneur Herbology & Lore: Poison Hemlock Nature Spirits of German Mythology Today's rhinestones are metal-backed glass or synthetic stone available in countless hues. Heat can create changes in color. Light refraction of multiple wavelengths and facet reflections add sparkle and gleam to draw the eye, and a magical sheen for mystique. But if you happen to be on the shores of the Rhine, especially up the alpine way, take a look around. A real quartz rhinestone might be winking in the sunshine - a rare and lucky find. Natural Purple Dyes: Ancient & Medieval Gum Arabic (Acacia Gum) Art, Food & Medicine White Pigments of Ancient Artisans Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Afterlife beliefs affect burial practices of the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age emerges at various times cross-culturally, such as Indus Valley c. 3300 BCE and China c. 2000 BCE. Cultures like Egypt, Mesopotamia, Indus and Yellow River develop complex civilizations and burials. Tumuli - Burial Mounds of the Bronze Age Ereshkigal & the Mesopotamian Underworld Myrrh - Mystique, Death & Divinity People of high rank or esteem of course have more elaborate burials. In ancestor worship several days of rituals and reverence to honor the dead, avoid a curse of bad luck. Some cultures favor simple coffin-like inhumation, often in tumuli  or hills of earth and stone. Ornaments, weapons, clothing, personal items, even servants and musicians, might be buried with the corpse. A tumulus of Neolithic times is made of layers of habitation, as each generation builds upon the ruins of the previous. The Neolithic tumuli often include corpses placed in walls, under floors, in pottery jars or nooks and crannies. At this time people literally live with the dead. Lelwani - Hittite Underworld Goddess German Folklore - Irrwurz or Mad Root Kur - Underworld of Mesopotamia Above : The Dilmun Civilization flourishes in ancient East Arabia for thousands of years. A prosperous trade center, Dilmun eventually declines due to factors including piracy on the sea routes. Dilmun is described in the saga of the Sumerian myth Enki and Ninhursag as a paradise. Predators do not kill, pain and diseases are absent, and people do not get old. 19th century scholars consider its potential as the biblical Garden of Eden. Urea: Body Waste & Organic Health Finding the Philosophers' Egg Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth In Egypt, natural desiccation is observed in the desert. Mummification includes such rituals as organ removal (expect the heart ), treatment with preservatives such as cinnamon , myrrh and tarry bitumen . The body is rubbed inside and out with the natural salt natron and left 40 days. During this time rites and worship take place. Pharaohs are honored with vast tombs and rich burial items to facilitate their mystic journey. The body below is lower on the social ladder, mummified in a flexed position often found in burials, and having modest grave goods. Amentet Goddess of Death Egypt Destiny & Death: Fate in the Ancient World Song of the Loreley - Lethal Beauty After the natron treatment of Pharaoh or noble, the cleansed organs are wrapped and placed in the body cavity. The body is wrapped in strips of linen, which also hold amulets and spices. This work is done by the priests. It's important for the well-being of the deceased to keep the body as whole as possible. If not the deceased has no intellect, is clumsy and cannot communicate with the gods. Over the Bronze period in China (beginning c. 2000 BCE) graves evolve considerably. From simple earthen vertical pit tombs with a few pottery vessels they grow into multi-chambered underground or hillside tombs furnished with silk, jade, bronze, lacquer, clay and bamboo. Jade - Jadeite, Nephrite & Jade Roads Mulberry Tree (Morus): Uses, Folklore & Myth Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Chinese jade is usually white or creamy. Green jade is a later product of Myanmar (Burma). Jade is valued for its longevity, musical properties, and aesthetic appeal. Its delicate, translucent hues and protective attributes connect with Chinese ideas of soul and immortality. In China, prior to the spread of Shang and Zhou culture throughout the area, the Baiyue people of the Yangtze Valley and southeastern China build many hundreds of tumuli. Throughout the world these burial methods are used both by high and lower social classes. Burial mounds contain the grave, deceased and burial items such as pottery, personal artifacts, metals like copper and gold . Occupation of the deceased might be shown with items like dyes or tools. Some Mesoamerican cultures use vermilion (cinnabar) in graves. Vermilion - Scarlet Pigment of Death Cinnabar (Mercury Sulfide) Red Death Red Ocher (Ochre) Ancient Pigments Many early people have no specific belief in an afterlife but honor the dead with a funeral of feasting, feats of strength, fights or athletic games. Others embark on complex traditions of ancestor worship. In the case of the walking undead  of Germany or others who rise from the grave, measures to keep the dead contained include rosemary or caraway sprinkled on and around the burial site. Herbs like rosemary, caraway and cinnamon are also known insect repellents. Rosemary: Immortal Essence & Balm of Kings Mugwort (Wormwood) Herbal Lore Alchemy of Mystical Herbal Elixirs & Cures In herbology lore, rosemary banishes evil spirits. Caraway protects against malevolent magic. In Mesopotamia it's important to libate the ancestors through a pipe to the grave, to avoid unwanted hauntings. Talismans interred with the corpse also keep the dead from wandering. In the variable settlements and thick forests of north and central Europe, evil spirits lurk in the wild hills and crept around homes at night. Malevolent people can throw curses. As early as12,000 BCE people use or wear ornaments of protection against harmful forces. Spagyria - Botanical Science of Alchemy Zircon - the Primordial Gemstone Amber Trade - Bronze Age on the Baltic The Chinese culture of the Yellow River, c. 11,000 - 3000 BCE, usually bury their dead in coffins inserted into hills. Artifacts of stone, copper and later bronze such as drinking vessels and urns might be buried with them. The best place to bury a person in ancient China is near the water. Water has strong associations with portals and the spirit world across many cultures and time periods. Spiritually water is also linked to intuition, harmony and wealth. Abzu - Primal Waters of Creation Tiamat - Queen of Chaos & the Sea Rhinestones: Sparkling Treasures of the Rhine In China, ancestor worship is popular from c. 6000 BCE. Mourning periods can last up to three years. In folk religion, a person has dual souls. Hun and po correspond to yang and yin. When a person dies, hun and po separate. Hun ascends to heaven and po goes into the earth and/or lives in a spirit tablet. The number of souls can vary. Separately, distinct practices arise to accommodate perceived needs of the dead. In China white and yellow chrysanthemums symbolize death and grief. Divine Twins: Germanic & Greek Mythology Earth Mother - Goddess of Life White Pigments of Ancient Artisans In the Indus Valley of South Asia, civilization lasts from c. 3300 to c. 1400 BCE. The culture goes through dynamic changes but funeral customs are simple. The dead person is wrapped in a shroud and buried in a coffin, possibly in a tumulus, with head pointing north. Again, items of wealth or personal use is found in burial sites. From the Indus Valley Culture come early developments in metallurgy to produce and work with copper, bronze, lead, and tin. Arsenic: Murderous Metal & Miracle Cure Baltic Amber - Gold of the North Phosphorus: Element of Fatal Fascination In the Bronze Age, personal items almost always accompany bodies, often including copper or bronze utensils and weaponry. Their purpose is based on speculation. Are these to help the dead in the spirit world? Or are they to keep the dead from haunting the living? In Egypt, a tomb dating back to 3rd millennium BCE contains inscribed instructions to the pharaoh, his wives and various members of the nobility and elite about navigating the land of the dead . These rituals are for royalty and the very wealthy only. If a powerful Pharaoh dies, he becomes the God Osiris and is worshipped in this form. His son assumes the role of a living God to rule the land. Osiris relates to agriculture, death and resurrection. Weapons & Warfare of Bronze Age Europe 2 Mythic Fire Gods: Hephaestus of the Greek What is the Philosopher's Stone? Also in the 3rd millennium, Minoan culture sprouts on the Greek island of Crete. Funerary practices are similar to those observed in Egypt, Mesopotamia and among Steppe nomads. The body is interred, sometimes in an engraved coffin of rank, along with personal items. Around 2000 BCE, cremation is a common choice. Is it due to the population explosion happening at the same time? The occupants of the known world have less space to share with each other, and with the dead. Partly or fully cremated remains are found in large urns. In ancient Greece, funerary ashes are kept in painted Lekythos vases. Cremation and grave burial dominate at different times and places in history, often occurring in cycles. Mythic Fire Gods - Vulkan of Germania Urnfield Culture: Bronze & Iron Age Europe Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future Behind burial beliefs and practices, tribal Bronze Age cultures have a fundamental belief system or cosmology involving elemental Gods such as the Earth Goddess or Mother Earth; the Sky God ; the Sun or Dawn God/dess. Earth is the origin of life and the body's final dwelling place. Mythology expands and adapts with appearance of fire gods, weather gods, gods of tradespeople, gods with jobs such as gatekeeper; gods of the hunt, herds and agriculture, or patron gods of specific regions. As mythology broadens so does the view of spirits, the dead and associated rites, rituals and protocol. Gods of the Dead and Underworld come to life. Weapons & Warfare of Bronze Age Europe 1 Hyssop (Hyssopus) - Plant of Mystic Lore Silver - Queen of Precious Metals The necropolis or City of the Dead develops as civilizations age and coalesce. A necropolis is more than a graveyard. Some even have roads, gardens, decorations, habitations, friendly neighbors, offerings and gifts, everything the dead might need. Ancient cities such as Memphis, Egypt develop the necropolis to its furthest level, including the building of the Pyramids of Giza. They're part of a complex of tombs, passages and burial sites extending over 30 km (19 mi) west of Memphis. Women of Alchemy - Mary the Jewess Bronze Age: Ancient Tribes, Metal & Myth Primeval Deities: Goddess of the Dawn The Egyptians choose the west for the City of the Dead because it's the direction of the sunset, while east represents life or new life with the sunrise. In ancient Egypt, the soul has three to nine parts. One is Ba, the impersonal life force of the soul, or essence of a person's individual nature and unique characteristics. The second is ka, the quintessential spirit, which makes a being alive. Finally the akh is the transformed spirit who survives death and takes a place with the gods. Khet, the Body: Death Rites of Ancient Egypt Natural Glass Gemstones: Cataclysmic Fusion Çatalhöyük (Catalhoyuk) Neolithic Anatolia Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Alchemy through the ages is a science affected by personal spirituality and religion. Rooted in ancient practices, alchemy takes shape in the religious and metaphysical systems of diverse cultures and epochs. Here are a few historic and modern influences of religion in alchemy. Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor What is the Philosopher's Stone? Alchemy: Science, Philosophy, Magic Influence of religion on alchemy through history is an intriguing story of historical evolutions and cultural frameworks guiding practitioners. Alchemy involves transformation of matter through processes such as distillation, alloying, sublimation, dyeing and calcination. The emphasis on transformation becomes a soul quest in the early centuries AD. The first known alchemist, Mary the Jewess of Greco-Roman Alexandria, is a practical alchemist. She explains how to alloy metals and achieve diplosis, or doubling of gold. Through Mary, four colors of alchemy, black, white, yellow and red, come into use inspired by Greek artists of the time. They would place their palettes, containing those basic colors in a wax medium, over a small brazier to keep them fluid. Women of Alchemy - Mary the Jewess Alchemy of Islam: Medieval Golden Age Ancient Greek Discovery & Use of Mercury Mary uses these colors to explain the progression of a copper treatment. However they've found their way into later alchemy in a highly spiritualized fashion. She also uses the concept of the brazier to invent the kerotakis , an important piece of equipment in practical alchemy. In spiritual or speculative alchemy the quest for the philosopher’s stone is a prevalent cliché even today. Lapis philosophorum first appears in writing in 14th century Europe, though offhand references to various rocks go back to philosopher Democritus in the 5th century BCE. Mysticism in alchemy is highly influenced by Islamic practitioners after the conquest of Egypt 642 AD. Spirituality is distinct from religion, and alchemy absorbs it all. Here are a few religious practices with creative influence on the work of alchemy. Kerotakis: Ancient Alchemical Equipment Panacea: Goddess of Universal Health Democritus: Laughing Philosopher Ahead of His Time Hermeticism Hermeticism, derived from the teachings attributed to legendary Hermes Trismegistus , merges elements of Greek, Egyptian, and Christian thought. Central to Hermeticism is the belief in the correspondence between the macrocosm (the universe) and the microcosm (the individual). Hermes Trismegistus is a combination of Egyptian god Thoth and Greek Hermes, emerging from the pagan religions of the ancient world. In the context of history Hermeticism is not as ancient as it first appears. Hermeticism initially proposes the concept of God as a magician. This idea emerged from texts translated in the late 1400s by Ficino in Florence, Italy, known as the Hermetic Writings or Hermetica . They're purported to date from c. 300 - 1200 AD. Alchemy: How to Make Emerald from Quartz Alchemy: Philosophers' Stone History & Lore 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine The writings are said to be by an ancient prophet, Hermes Trismegistus. The principle "As above, so below" is foundational in alchemy, attributed to Cleopatra the Alchemist of Alexandria in her work Chrysopoeia of Cleopatra. It's often re-attributed to Hermes, specifically the Emerald Tablet of late antiquity. The original Chrysopoeia is lost and the remnants of today are Islamic copies. The Ouroboros or snake with tail in mouth is a common alchemical symbol. Cleopatra the Alchemist of Alexandria Argyropoeia: Silver Making of Ancients Alchemists of Ancient Alexandria Hermetic texts, such as the Corpus Hermeticum , provide alchemists with philosophical frameworks combining spiritual and material realms. In this way, some alchemists feel they are legitimizing their experiments as part of a divine cosmic order. The Emerald Tablet is a foundational Hermetic text. It emphasizes unity and the divine relationship between humans and the cosmos. For spiritual seekers, alchemy becomes more than metals and herbs, creating pathways to understanding the divine within. Renegade Renaissance physician Paracelsus is a proponent of the Seven Hermetic Principles . Natural Health: Paracelsus & Hermetic Principles Alkahest: Panacea & Solvent Alchemy Mercury: Miracle Metal of Madness Gnosticism Gnosticism, an early Christian sect characterized by its dualistic worldview, profoundly impacts alchemical thought. Gnostics believe in achieving spiritual enlightenment through knowledge (gnosis), often seen as secret or mystical insights. Many alchemists adopt the idea, expanding their work to include personal transformation and enlightenment theories. The Gnostic text The Gospel of Truth (c.140-180 AD) posits the belief of understanding and transcending the material world is a precursor to divine knowledge. Gnosticism: Five Essential Gnostic Principles Spagyria: Botanical Science of Alchemy Chrysopoeia - Turning Lead into Gold This emphasis on inner transformation resonates with alchemists seeking self-purification and spiritual ascension. Alchemical texts of the Gnostic tradition often use symbolic language, linking material reactions of substances to allegories of the soul's ascent to divine knowledge. Many Gnostics, such as Zosimos of Panopolis c. 300 AD, are ascetics, shunning pleasures of the world. His treatises stress the importance of foundational truth. Zosimos is among the most prolific Alexandrian alchemical writers and practitioners, revered by later Islamic alchemists. Gnosticism reshapes alchemical thought. Gnostics emphasize personal spiritual knowledge, believing physical matter is a flawed reflection of a higher, spiritual truth. The universe is a battleground between materiality and spiritual enlightenment. Flowers of Antimony: Pure Medieval Purgative Alchemical Salt: Essential Salts of Alchemy Elderberry Tree: Germanic Nature Lore Neo-Platonism Neo-Platonism emerges in the 3rd century AD. It introduces metaphysical ideas and heavily influences alchemical thought. Emphasizing the notion of an ineffable One from which all existence emanates, Neo-Platonism advocates for the soul's return to this divine source. Some alchemists adopt this framework to conceptualize their work as a means of achieving spiritual enlightenment and unity with the divine. The transformative process in alchemy reflects the soul's journey towards divine knowledge and union. Niter (Saltpeter): Science of Alchemy Classic Elements & Concept of the One Soul Perspectives: Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato Neo-Platonism asserts a connection between the material realm and the ultimate reality, referred to as the One. This perspective invited alchemists to see their laboratory work as a route to reconnecting with the divine source. This philosophy influences many throughout the Middle Ages, as some alchemists align their work with a greater metaphysical purpose. Neo-Platonism appears in both Christian and pagan forms. Early proponents include Stephanus and Hypatia of Alexandria. Silver - Queen of Precious Metals Stylonychia: Wonderful World of Ciliates Expulsion of Intellectuals Alexandria 145 BCE Islam During the Islamic Golden Age, alchemy soars with the influence of Islamic scholars. Figures like Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) synthesize earlier Greek, Roman, and Arabic alchemical knowledge, integrating it with Islamic teachings. Islamic alchemy emphasizes the pursuit of knowledge as a form of worship, viewing the material world as a reflection of God's creation. At the time of the Islamic Golden Age, the mythical philosophers' stone is not yet known. Islamic Alchemy: Abu Bakr al-Razi Alchemy of Islam: Medieval Golden Age House of Wisdom: Medieval Scholarship in Baghdad Up to the 10th century Islamic alchemists believe in the maturation of metals in the ground, disproved by Avicenna . At this time they cease pursuit of precious metals and focus on metaphors for spiritual renewal and enlightenment, aligning closely with Sufism. Islamic alchemists believe understanding the universe is essential to comprehension of divine will. Writings of Jabir ibn Hayyan greatly influence later alchemists, emphasizing the enduring legacy of Islamic thought and the mystic allure of the East in alchemical practices. Avicenna (Ibn Sina) Medieval Islamic Scientist Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Microbial Alchemy: Fermentation, Digestion, Putrefaction Judaism Jewish mysticism, particularly Kabbalah, significantly contributes to alchemical thought. Kabbalistic teachings explore the relationship between the divine and the material, emphasizing the concept of Tikkun Olam (repairing the world). Alchemists draw parallels between their transformative processes in science and Kabbalistic notions of creation and spiritual elevation. The use of sacred names and symbols in both practices link Jewish mysticism with alchemy in a quest for physical and spiritual well-being. Nitric Acid: Aqua Fortis the Acid Queen Science of Alchemy: Hydrochloric Acid Myth & Metallurgy - Metals of Antiquity Concepts like the Sefirot, which represent divine aspects, informed Jewish alchemical practices. Jewish alchemists pursue applications in medicine. The Kabbalistic alchemist Isaac Luria (1534 - 1572) puts forth theories about divine sparks in all matter. This view inspires later alchemical experimentation. Luria suggests healing processes can restore both physical and spiritual balance. Of course the first known alchemist is Mary the Jewess, also called Maria the Jewess, and Maria Prophetissa around the 16th century in Europe. Raphael Patai (1910 - 1996) thoroughly describes the history of Jewish alchemy in his writings. Alchemy and the Art of Gold-Making Eight Dye Plants & Natural Dyes in History Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe In The Hebrew Goddess (Patai 1967) the author argues that historically, the Jewish religion has elements of polytheism. He stresses the idea of the worship of goddesses and a cult of the mother goddess. Buddhism Buddhism stresses the quest for enlightenment and the concept of transforming the self through discipline and meditation. Some sects within Tibetan Buddhism incorporate elements of Tantric practices aimed at achieving spiritual realization and enlightenment. Buddhism's emphasis on inner change resonates with alchemical thought, particularly around the idea of personal transformation. Rather than seeking material transmutation, Buddhist principles encourages practitioners to focus on self-improvement and spiritual development. Nāgārjuna: Buddhist Mystic & Alchemist Medici & Alchemy: Italian Renaissance Women Scientists of the Ancient World Alchemical processes are thus seen as allegorical representations of personal growth. The Buddhist doctrine of impermanence aligns closely with the alchemical cycle of dissolution or decay and rebirth. Buddhism sees transformation is an essential part of existence. Hinduism Hindu texts and theories, such as the concept of rasa (elixir; mercury) and siddhi (spiritual knowledge, success), have influenced some alchemical practices in India. The practice of alchemy, rasa-shastra (mercury manual or rules), is a way to achieve spiritual enlightenment. Unlike the gold-obsessed Europeans, alchemists in Hindu traditions aim to attain immortality or enhance life. This is often interpreted as a parallel to the alchemical quest for the mythical philosopher's stone . Turmeric (Curcuma longa): Ancient Uses & Medicine Etch Carnelian Beads Like It's Indus Valley 2500 BCE Rasayana: Alchemy & Health of India Alchemical practice in Hinduism combines physical practices with philosophical and spiritual objectives rooted in the belief in divine consciousness. In Hindu lore, amrita is the elixir of life. In the sacred Puranas, two power hungry groups battle it out. Due to the defeat of the devas at the hands of the asuras, preserver deity Vishnu tells the devas to churn the ocean of milk, so they may retrieve amrita to empower themselves. In Hinduism, the cyclical nature of life and the universe informs alchemical principles. The beliefs surrounding creation, preservation, and destruction influence practices. Alchemical purification is often seen to parallel a spiritual quest for higher consciousness. Magic of the Circle: Spirituality & Lore Alchemy: How to Make Rosaceum Oil Alchemy: Ancient Purification of Tin Taoism Taoism profoundly impacts alchemical practices in China. Taoist alchemy seeks to achieve immortality and harmonize with the Tao, or the fundamental principle of the universe. Transformation within this context further develops inner alchemical processes leading to the quest for spiritual illumination and unity with the cosmos. The Taoist pursuit of the elixir of life shapes Imperial Chinese history, literature and philosophy. Chinese alchemy predates Western alchemy by several hundred years. In the 3rd century BCE Qin Shi Huang becomes first emperor of united China. He employs court alchemist and magician Xu Fu to seek out the elixir of life. Pill of Immortality: Chinese Alchemy Anqi Sheng & the Elixir of Immortality Ge Hong: Teachings Alchemy Medicine Taoism introduces the duality of yin and yang, emphasizing harmony between opposing forces. This philosophy is fundamental in Taoist alchemy, guiding practitioners to balance energies both in the lab and in life. Taoist alchemists pursued immortality through internal cultivation rather than relying solely on substances. This holistic approach shaped alchemical practices into a comprehensive lifestyle, where bodily health and spiritual well-being are interconnected. Chinese Alchemy: Mind Body Spirit Chinese Alchemical Elixir Poisoning Chun Yuyan & Death of Empress Xu Christianity There are many kinds of Christianity and many kinds of alchemy. Christian influence on alchemy is most pronounced in the Middle Ages, with many alchemists being clerics or deeply religious. Christianity infuses alchemy with symbolic interpretations of biblical texts. The alchemical process can be seen as a metaphor for spiritual salvation and ascendance of the soul. The concept of resurrection is likened to alchemical transmutation of substances, with the mythical philosopher's stone becoming a symbol of Christ's redemptive power. Christianity re-interprets or claims common symbols such as the Pelican, a flask given the name because its handle(s) resemble a pelican preening. In Christian iconography the pelican becomes a symbol of sacrifice because it tears open its breast to feed its young with blood. Alchemy: Circulation & the Pelican Phantasy Leap to Flames: Why Did Empedocles Jump into Mount Etna? Poison Pigments of Painters: Renaissance Christian alchemists in medieval Europe adopt the concept of self-sacrifice associated with the pelican flask and bird. Many have never seen a pelican and depend on the information of the day. The interplay of alchemy and religion happens on a broader scale of seeking divine truth through material experimentation. Many alchemists view their work as a way to explore God’s creation and help humanity, legitimizing their practices within a religious framework. Prominent alchemists, such as Ramon Llull and Roger Bacon integrate Christian theology into their works. Older writings are translated or re-written to include spiritual interpretations, praises and prayers, further solidifying the bond between faith and alchemical practice. Isaac Newton: Alchemy & the Occult Alchemy & Prague: Countess Barbara von Zweibrücken-Neuburg Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg One strongly religious fire and brimstone alchemist is Jean de Roquetaillade , also a Franciscan friar. He writes about the Apocalypse and the coming new world order. HIs predictions include societal collapse, human extinction and other final events in human history. Alchemists occasionally enter a monastery because these places have the best equipment due to brewing practices, and large libraries. While many practitioners belong to a holy order, others are "honorable" members and still others are known to opportunistically switch orders. Bernard Trevisan: Legends of Alchemy Protestant Reformation of Renaissance Europe Catholic Inquisitions: Chronology & Overview Christianity is an important influence on alchemy. Especially in medieval Europe, failure to align science with God is heresy. A famous example is Polish polymath Copernicus, who refuses to publish his theory of a heliocentric universe until he's on his deathbed. While he's not noted as an alchemist, the plight of Copernicus affects all sciences at this time. During the Renaissance and early modern era in Europe, the split between practical alchemy and spiritually-focused alchemy becomes one on the greatest divides in the history of science. Arnaldus de Villanova: Medieval Alchemist Renaissance Apocalypse: End is Nigh Andreas Libavius: Science & Controversy of Alchemy By the 18th century alchemy has acquired a scurrilous, non-scientific reputation due to fraudsters and those who promise what they cannot deliver. Dropping the "al", chemists strive to distance themselves from alchemy's bad rap. The truth of alchemy lies with the ancient Alexandrians. Here we arrive at the end of one cycle, and the beginning of another. Mercury II Oxide: Red & White of Alchemy Alchemy & New Thought in Ancient Alexandria How to Make Asem: Essential Alchemy Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Maria or Mary the Jewess c. 100 AD is considered the first true alchemist. In her works she mentions a clear white herb growing on small mountains and links it to the stone of the Greek philosophers. A few plant species match her description. But is it more than simple botany? Women of Alchemy - Mary the Jewess Diplosis: Gold Doubling & Multiplication in Alchemy Mary the Jewess: Gold-Making & the Philosophers' Stone Working c. 100 AD, Maria is a Jewish sage and teacher who influences alchemy throughout its existence, about 2000 years. Educated and well-spoken, she's praised by Zosimos and Michael Maier , revered in Islam and c alled Maria the Prophetess in Renaissance Europe. " Maria utters wonders briefly, for she thunders such things She fixes the fugacious matter with the double gum in the last hour She binds three powerful substances into the ends of the tubes Maria, the light of the dew, binds a band in three hours Daughter of Pluto, she unites love's affinities Delights in things roasted, sown, assembled in threes ." ~ Arnaldus de Villanova (1245-1313) Zosimos of Panopolis: Father of Alchemy Michael Maier: Rosicrucians, Art & Alchemy Alexandria: Jewel of Ancient History Above is a woodcut / engraving of Maria with her herb, from a translation by Michael Maier in the 17th century. It's been reproduced many times. In a later addition, the symbol for sun ☉   gold / sulfur is seen on the left channel of fumes and that of moon ☽ silver / quicksilver on the right. The sulfur-mercury theory is one of the central principles of alchemy. Sulfur Mercury Principle of Alchemy Emerald Tablet - Sacred Alchemy Text Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor The identity of the herb can't be deduced from its depiction above because the art follows the Renaissance symbolism of five branches indicating the five planets known to mankind: Mercury, Mars, Venus, Saturn and Jupiter. The planets are also associated with metals - going clockwise from lower left branch: Mercury: Quicksilver (metal Mercury after 700 AD) Venus: Copper Mars: Iron Jupiter: Tin Saturn: Lead The art illustrates the fumes to which Maria refers, flowing from the pots top and bottom to surround the precious plant on its small mountain and flow together again. This suggests alchemical processes of separation, purification and (re)unification of opposites. Unity of Opposites: Spiritual Alchemy Eirenaeus Philalethes: Alchemy & Death in Renaissance London Women Scientists of the Ancient World The clear white herb grows on the small mountains, says Maria, and later mentions it also grows in the high mountains. Maria lives in Alexandria, a shining port city on the Mediterranean on the west side of the Nile Delta, not very close to mountains. Mary's plant could be lunary ( Botrychium lunaria ) or moonwort, prized in nature magic. It's said to embody the cosmic powers of the moon and should be picked on a full moon night. While B. lunaria does grow on hills, it's not really white, and Maria stresses the white. Moonwort (Botrychium Lunaria): Folklore, Magic and Medicine Albertus Magnus: Alchemy, Arsenic, Astrology Alchemy: Philosophers' Stone History & Lore It could be another lunary. Lunaria annua is known as lunaria , silver dollar plant, honesty, money plant and moonwort. There are various species of Lunaria . They produce white or pale disc-shaped seed casings translucent in light. Lunaria annua is best known for this trait and often brightens up flower bouquets. It's considered lucky for money and as a guardian of truth. Ancient Greek Alchemy: ios and iosis Basil Valentine: Secrets of Medieval Alchemy Alchemy: Science, Philosophy, Magic This matches the description by Maria as a clear white herb growing on small mountains, except these Lunaria species don't like to grow on mountains, preferring well drained lowland soil and meadows. Another possibility is the khella plant, which grows everywhere. It's revered for its medicinal properties and produces large heads of white flowers. Khella - Ancient Health & Herbology Medicine in Ancient Egypt: Ebers Papyrus Roger Bacon: Medieval Science & Alchemy While white herbs, flowers and plants abound, the nearest mountains are in the Sinai Peninsula and the Egyptian desert. But is she speaking literally? The language of alchemy is often vague, symbolic or metaphorical, and Maria has a way of befuddling the uninformed. The herb is mentioned among her instructions and recommendations for the opus. In its most famous reference it enters a conversation between Maria and the philosopher Aros. Living Metals & Genders in Ancient Alchemy Democritus: Laughing Philosopher Ahead of His Time Gold-Making of Maria: Tetrasomia Four Metals Maria tells multiple times of the "clear white precious herb found on the hillocks." Hillocks are synonymous with small hills or mounds, possibly "small mountains". On the third occasion, she clarifies "the two fumes represent the essence of this Art" and "the pure and white substance is extracted from small mountains." Almadén Mines: Ancient Mercury Extraction Ancient Greek Discovery & Use of Mercury Herbs & Natural Remedies - Ancient Egypt Mary said unto him: "Aros, and this is more wonderfull concerning this, that it was not among the Ancients, nor did it come to him by curing, or by the Medicinall Art, and that is take the white, clear and honored Herb growing on the Hillocks, and pound it fresh as it is in its Hour, and that is the true Body not flying from the Fire." Symbolically, when she speaks of the pure and white herb, and the pure and white substance extracted from small mountains, applied to metals it is mercury, known at the time as " argentum vivurn " alive silver or quicksilver. The Great Library of Alexandria Mercury II Oxide: Red & White of Alchemy The true Body not flying from the Fire is consistent with mercury's resistance to fire. However the word zibeic below is also equated with mercury, so this interpretation can be debated. Parallels continue in the significance of mercury to a mystic stone. And Aros says, "It is the Stone of Truth?" And Mary says "Yes. But yet men know not this regimen (rule or way of working) with the speediness thereof." Aros says, "And what afterwards?" Mary says, "Vitrify upon it Kibric or Zibeic (mercury) and there are the two fumes comprehending the two Lights, and project upon that the complement of the Tinctures of the Spirits, and the weights of Truth, and pound it all, and put it to the Fire, and you shall see wonderfull things from them. "The whole government consists in the temper of the Fire, O how strange it is, how it will be moved from one color to another, in less than an hour of the Day, untill it arrive at the mark of redness and whiteness, and cast away the Fire and permit it to cool ... " Alchemy: Red King & White Queen Ancient Traders & Buyers: Art of Testing Metals Cinnabar (Mercury Sulfide) Red Death " ... and open it and you will find the clear pearly Body to be of the Color of the Poppy of the Wood ( celandine ) mixt with whiteness and that is it which is incerating [incinerating], liquefying and penetrating, and one golden piece thereof, the weight of a small golden Coin, falleth upon a thousand thousand and two hundred thousand. That is the hidden secret." Celandine: Plant Toxins & Medicine Remarkable Islamic Women in History Zodiac, Astrology & Jungian Psychology Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

The Philosopher's Stone (Latin: lapis philosophorum ) conjures elements of primal lore and eternal powers. In history and legend, the Philosopher's Stone is sought by many alchemists for such purposes as healing, immortality and transmutation of base metals into precious ones. Alchemy: Philosophers' Stone History & Lore Emerald Tablet - Sacred Alchemy Text Mary the Jewess: Gold-Making & the Philosophers' Stone The fabled Philosophers' Stone can produce the Elixir of Life , the secret to immortality or extreme longevity; a panacea for all disease; and effect the transmutation of base metals to noble. For some, it's the ultimate goal of alchemic research and experimentation. While regions such as China , Egypt and Arabia also use alchemy for centuries, the term 'Philosophers' Stone' is used primarily in the West. It appears in isolated early medieval texts. A mystic stone is mentioned by 5th century BCE philosopher Democritus but it's not known if this is the same mystic stone. Mystic stones in history include an ancient rock on Amazon Island, known today as Giresun Island in the Black Sea; and the Green Stone of Hattusa . Alchemy: Science, Philosophy, Magic Cleopatra the Alchemist of Alexandria Spiritual Magic - Numbers Three & Nine A rock is mentioned by Mary the Jewess (c. 100 AD) as igneous, and Zosimos (c. 300 AD) in Alexandria calls it "the stone that is not a stone". It's not named philosophers' stone until the 14th century, arguably first mentioned c. 1130 AD under another name. In Jungian analytical psychology, the lapis philosophorum is an image of the beginning. Metaphorically the Stone is both inception and end, as one often comes full circle. The Stone represents cycles and the quintessence of life itself. Colors of Alchemy: Rubedo Magnus Opus Alchemy Symbols: Tail of the Peacock Pope vs Alchemy 1317 AD: Falsification Islamic alchemists pick it up after the 642 conquest of Egypt. In Arabian theory the Elixir of Life is often thought to be a dry red powder (also known as al-kibrit al-ahmar , red sulfur ). It's considered a mystical substance of multiple powers. By 1025, Islamic practitioners are convinced metal transmutation is not possible. Europe continues to hold on to the idea of a metal-changing magical substance until the early modern period. Isaac Newton risks his scientific reputation seeking a way to change metals into gold. Ouroboros Glyph: Snake Eating its Tail Isaac Newton: Alchemy & the Occult Women of Alchemy - Mary the Jewess While the quest for the Philosopher's Stone ignites speculative imaginations today, many consider it an impossible pursuit. There are always alchemists who forever try to achieve the impossible. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Andreas Libavius (c. 1550-1616) is one of the most influential figures of Renaissance alchemy, active in the Elizabethan era. His book Alchemia is pivotal in science. Opposing Paracelsian thought, Libavius believes in the possibility of turning base metals into gold. Chrysopoeia - Turning Lead into Gold Alchemy and the Art of Gold-Making Gold-Making of Maria: Tetrasomia Four Metals Born in Halle, Germany as an underprivileged child, Libavius shows impressive mental acumen and rises above his circumstances to enter university at age eighteen. He pursues formal education and eventually becomes a scholar of considerable repute. He teaches history and poetry, becomes poet laureate in 1581 and holds prestigious academic positions at various institutions including Rothenburg, Coburg, Basel and Jena. He receives his medical doctorate in 1588. Cobalt (Co): The Little Goblin Who Could Calcium (Ca): Earth Metal of Structure & Strength Gnomes: Earth Spirits of Renaissance Mythology Alchemia : A Groundbreaking Textbook In 1597, Libavius publishes Alchemia , aka Alchymia, a monumental textbook recognized today as one of the first comprehensive treatises on chemistry. This work details discoveries and practices of alchemists up to this point. Controversy surrounds the book. Alchemia reveals trade secrets and provides a systematic approach to alchemy. Libavius's synthesis of alchemical knowledge into a coherent form is a pivotal moment in the evolution of science. By exposing techniques and processes traditionally kept secret, Libavius incites heated debate. Some praise his dedication to transparency, asserting knowledge should benefit society. Others feel betrayed, fearing loss of exclusive knowledge. Natural Glass Gemstones: Cataclysmic Fusion Literature: Great Literary Patrons in History Isabella Cortese: Renaissance Writer, Alchemist, Entrepreneur Alignment with Aristotle Libavius's alignment with Aristotelian thought rather than the radical ideas of Paracelsus (1493 - 1541) piques lively discussion in philosophical circles. Paracelsus sums up his views on alchemy in his well known quotation: “... Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines.” -  Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim (Paracelsus (the Great)) 1493-1541 AD Natural Health: Paracelsus & Hermetic Principles Ancient Traders & Buyers: Art of Testing Metals The Pseudos: Underground Alchemy Writers Paracelsus also introduces Spagyria , or the botanical alchemy of healing, into Europe. He collects ancient wisdom from secluded villages in the Swiss Alps, bringing these into current practice. He also introduces the concept of chemicals in medicine. Making Gold in the Elizabethan Era However, Libavius maintains a dedication to transmutation, or the transformation of base metals into gold. Queen Elizabeth herself holds this belief, taking back her ex-astrologer, John Dee , in hopes of his enticing Edward Kelley to her court. Before this can happen, Kelley dies in Prague of injuries sustained while trying to escape imprisonment for attempting to con Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II , twice. Rudolf, a supporter of alchemy, has a star-studded roster of writers, astronomers and alchemists at his court. Turning base metals to precious ones is a fundamental objective of some alchemists, creating ongoing problems with legitimacy. Fraudsters cannot empirically prove their projections and transmutations, while practicing alchemists balk at revealing their experiments. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Isaac Newton , perhaps inspired by the earlier writings of Libavius, continues the trend of trying to turn lead into gold. He almost loses his scientific reputation to his pursuit of the magical medium . Flowers of Antimony: Pure Medieval Purgative Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files Anqi Sheng & the Elixir of Immortality Libavius favors the ideas of Aristotle and by extension Galen , an early purveyor of Hippocrates' Four Humors theory. This concept rules medicine until the 18th and 19th century despite previous condemnation by Paracelsus (and followers). Libavius does accept the Paracelsian principle of using occult properties, or astrological factors to explain phenomena, but rejects their possible connection to the divine. He's also critical of alchemists who claim to produce a panacea, or cure-all. Panacea: Goddess of Universal Health Asclepius: Greek Medicine Snake God Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor While he believes a panacea is possible, alchemists refuse to disclose their formulas. He asserts anyone who manages to create a panacea is duty bound to teach the process to as many other people as possible, so it can benefit mankind. Renaissance Medicine By accepting the anti-Paracelsian ideas, Libavius puts medicine back to the Humors philosophy. This leads to activities from scientific to desperate. Medicine includes trepanning, or drilling a hole in the skull to let out bad humors. This practice is thousands of years old. Purging is a major medical treatment to balance the humors. Purging includes emetics to induce vomiting, laxatives, sudoforics or medications to cause profuse sweating; diuretics and everyone's favorite, bloodletting with leeches (see leech jar above). Seven Deadly Diseases of the Renaissance Eirenaeus Philalethes: Alchemy & Death in Renaissance London Women Scientists of the Ancient World By the time of Libavius, the ghost of Paracelsus has risen in the ranks of mysticism, and this happens largely due to the ironically non-existent Rosicrucians of the early 17th century. Followers of the Rosicrucian 'philosophy' walk in a highly spiritualized and esoteric world. Today, Paracelsus may be mentioned as "mystic" due to alchemy and astrology, the latter being termed occult even in the Renaissance. At the time astrology is a requirement for physicians wanting a doctorate in medieval Europe and alchemy is a common practice. Emphasizing rationality, Libavius advocates for meticulous experimentation. He seeks to understand nature's laws and believes 'true' or scientific alchemy is the pathway. German Peasants' War: Rebellion of Despair Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Poison Pigments of Painters: Renaissance Libavius draws criticism from those who incorporate spiritual elements into alchemy. His focus on observation and experimentation solidifies the scientific approach. Notable Discoveries Throughout his career, Libavius makes several significant contributions, including discoveries of hydrochloric acid, ammonium sulfate, and tin chloride. Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) One of the earliest acids known, hydrochloric acid is essential in processes such as human digestion. Also known as muriatic acid, it's significantly explored by Libavius. With records of its properties and reactions, he provides a foundation in inorganic chemistry. Science of Alchemy: Hydrochloric Acid Acid-Producing Bacteria in Sulfuric Acid Creation Flowers of Sulfur (Brimstone): Creation & Uses Hydrochloric acid combines with nitric acid to create the famous aqua regia , royal water or Green Lyon of alchemy. This compound creates a solvent which can dissolve gold. The gold can be recovered by another process as follows: The method for extracting gold using gold-bearing aqua regia involves mixing the aqua regia with ammonia water, filtering the mixture to obtain gold hydroxide. It is allowed to sediment, then heated and baked to re-produce metallic gold. Arsenic Trioxide: Paris Green Paint Pigment & Pesticide Peracetic Acid: Origin, Reactions, Hazards Nitric Acid: Aqua Fortis the Acid Queen Ammonium Sulfate ((NH4)2SO4) A salt formed from ammonium and sulfate ions, ammonium sulfate is widely used in fertilizers and as a protein precipitant in biochemistry. Libavius's identification of this compound shows the importance of chemical interactions in nature. Ammonium sulfate is an inorganic sulfate salt formed by the reaction of sulfuric acid with two equivalents of ammonia. A high-melting white solid it decomposes above 280 °C . Very soluble in water (70.6 g/100 g water at 0°C; 103.8 g/100 g water at 100°C), it's often to fertilize alkaline soils. Secret Life of Rust: Power of Bacteria Uric Acid: Kidney Stones & Peeing on Plants Gum Arabic (Acacia Gum) Art, Food & Medicine Tin Chloride or Stannous Chloride (SnCl2) Libavius's work with tin chloride contributes to the understanding of metal salts and their reactions, which became crucial for advancements in inorganic chemistry. Hobbyists and professionals use stannous chloride to detect gold salts. When SnCl2 interacts with gold compounds such as chloroaurate salts, it produces a vivid purple colloid Purple of Cassius. A similar reaction with platinum and palladium salts result in green and brown colors. Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure Aristotle: Intellect & Psyche the Soul Hypatia: Scholar & Martyr Alexandria He's not the first person to invent the tin chloride process. Franciscan friar Ulmannus discovers it earlier and writes about it in his Buch der heiligen Dreifaltigkeit (Book of the Holy Trinity) in 1415. Religious Views An orthodox Lutheran, Libavius is not only a scientist but a theologian. Writing under the pseudonym Basilius de Varna , he critiques Catholic practices, particularly those of the Jesuits, whom he believes distort the Gospel. He later criticizes Calvinism, firmly defending his Lutheran beliefs through theological treatises. He assert the need for clarity in religious doctrine. The intersection of scientific and theological inquiry are in keeping with a broader movement toward enlightenment in both fields. Protestant Reformation of Renaissance Europe Religious Wars Catholics & Protestants France Catherine de' Medici & the Occult Facts About Andreas Libavius Pioneering Educator : Beyond his texts, Libavius revises educational theories of his time. He emphasized the importance of systematic education and the importance of universities in advancing scientific knowledge. A Diplomatic Figure : His connections with other scholars and his ability to navigate controversial academic discussions illustrate his skill as a diplomat in the intellectual salon of his day. Legacy in Chemistry : Libavius's work influencing contemporaneous and future chemists. Linguistic Contributions : He writes several of his works in Latin, which is the lingua franca of the scholarly community. Again this is an anti-Paracelsian move as Swiss-born Paracelsus shuns Latin and gives lectures in German so everyone can understand them. Jan Baptist van Helmont: Renaissance Medicine Famous Women of Renaissance Alchemy Theriac: Miracle Snake Venom Potion Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top