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Transition metals are integral to nature, science, health and technology. Common transition metals include iron (Fe), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr) and silver (Ag). Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Heavy Metals Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Chromium & Arsenic These elements reside in the center or d-block of the periodic table. They're located between the alkali and alkaline earth metals and the main group elements. They form strong bonds with others. There are 37 transition metals altogether. They manifest diverse oxidation states and colored compounds. Many are valued as effective catalysts. Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy Mercury: Miracle Metal of Madness Zinc (Zn): Technology, Nature & Health Periodic table fragment with silver and gold, & roentgenium, a transition metal lab-made in 1995 Catalysts speed up chemical reactions without being consumed in the process. Transition metals are fundamental to many types of reactions, from industry and aerospace to biological functions. Science: Chemical Reactions Transition metals form complexes with other molecules, fundamental to catalysis. The Haber-Bosch process in agriculture converts atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia, a plant-friendly ingredient in fertilizers. This process relies heavily on iron-based catalysts to speed up the reaction driving essential chemical transformations. Study of transition metal complexes gives scientists insight into biochemical reactions. Metal Smelting & Metallurgy in the Ancient World Blacksmiths: Iron, Metal, Gods & Myth Vermicompost: Composting with Worms Technology Electronics: Copper and nickel are widely used electrical wiring due to excellent conductivity. Gold and silver are used in connectors and other components for their corrosion resistance. Silver is the best conductor among the metals. Materials Science: Titanium alloys are prized for high strength-to-weight ratio. They're used in aerospace applications. Steel, an alloy of iron and carbon, is a fundamental material of building worldwide. Chromium enhances the durability and corrosion resistance of steel, and zinc galvanizes it. CubeSats: Science, Technology & Risky Business Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials galvanized steel Energy: Nickel-metal hydride batteries power hybrid vehicles. Platinum -based catalysts are used in catalytic converters to reduce emissions from gas engines. Manufacturing: Tungsten 's high melting point makes it ideal for filaments in incandescent light bulbs and cutting tools. Advancements in nanotechnology explore the unique properties of transition metals. Nanoparticles of gold and silver are used to create more efficient catalysts for chemical reactions. Ammonium Carbonate: Sal Volatile Smelling Salts Sustainable Gardening: Compost & Old Beer Nickel (Ni): Metallurgy Facts & Folklore tungsten carbide ring Nature & Human Health Transition metals are vital components of life. Enzymes, the biological catalysts driving essential reactions in bodies, contain transition metal ions. Ions include: Iron: binds to hemoglobin, helping oxygen transport and cellular function. About 70% of the body's iron is in hemoglobin. Zinc: 300+ enzymes, in processes like immune function or skin health Copper: essential for enzymes of energy and antioxidant defense Manganese: photosynthesis in plants; carbohydrate metabolism Gold: functions in brain health Silver: antibacterial action Vanadium: blood sugar regulation Chromium: enhances action of insulin Molybdenum: processes proteins; antitoxin properties Cobalt: a major component of vitamin B12 Seven Trace Minerals: Nature's Little Helpers Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Compost: Heart of Sustainable Gardening Transition metals also have environmental implications. Mining and processing can cause habitat destruction and pollution of air, land and waterways. Mercury and lead, two heavy metals, are serious health risks to humans and ecosystems. Lead exposure is linked to developmental disabilities in US children. This can happen due to lead-based paint, as in old houses. Transition metals like mercury and cadmium are toxic. Mercury is known from ancient times and cadmium appears in the 19th century. It's first found in condensation of vapors from a furnace roasting zinc oxide. Calcium (Ca): Earth Metal of Structure & Strength Gnomes: Earth Spirits of Renaissance Mythology Antimony (Stibnite, Kohl) Ancient Metal of Science & Beauty zinc oxide, used in skin treatments and cosmetic powders Metalloproteins are involved in processes like oxygen transport and electron transfer. A metalloprotein is broadly defined as a protein with a metal ion cofactor. Many proteins fall under this category. For example, at least 1000 human proteins have zinc-binding protein domains, and there could be as many as 3000 human zinc metalloproteins. Platinum-based drugs are tested in cancer therapy. These drugs can target cancerous cells, helping destroy them while sparing healthy tissue. Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Women Scientists of the Ancient World Salt (NaCl): Science, History & Cuisine . 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During the Western Renaissance, new exciting artists' pigments appear in brilliant colors, vibrant scarlet red, deep rich blue, scintillating yellow. Pigments must be ground to powder to mix with egg, oil or other medium. This leads to centuries of new and creative ways to die. Seven Deadly Diseases of the Renaissance Alchemy: Science, Philosophy, Magic 3 Great German Artists for Art Lovers an artists' palette with many beautiful colors The Renaissance is an age in which doctors learn astrology and astrologers practice alchemy and alchemists make medicine. The sun and all the planets revolve around the earth, and garlic stops magnets from working. A revolution of arts and architecture, it's also a dangerous time. Copernicus, sitting on his secret for forty years, releases his concept of a heliocentric planetary system on his deathbed in 1543. It's said the final two printed pages are presented to him just before he dies. Pope vs Alchemy 1317 AD: Falsification Medici & Alchemy: Italian Renaissance Chinese Alchemical Elixir Poisoning During the Renaissance oil paints are made of pigment powder added to oil, usually linseed oil. Walnut oil might be used for superior luminosity in white pigments. Artists might heat the oil to make the paint more resilient when dry, less likely to shrink and crack when dried. Tempera is also widely used by Medieval and Renaissance artists especially for large pieces like altars and wooden walls. Tempera uses egg yolk instead of oil as the binder. Egg tempera is the main painting method up to c. 1500 AD when oils are more popular. It's still used today. Alchemy & Astrology: Cosmic Connections Art of Egg Tempera: Paint Like the Old Masters Alchemy: How to Make Rosaceum Oil Madonna & Child with Saints, Giovanni Bellini (1424–1516 AD Venice), oil & tempura on wood Artists using egg tempera sometimes add honey to keep the paint from drying too quickly. Unlike oil painting, in which oil and water don't mix, water can be added to egg tempera to thin the paint. Crazy artists and mad scientists become stereotypes based on manufacturing and working with toxic constituents such as lead, arsenic or cyanide. I8th century doctor Bernardinus Ramazzini is first to suggest the illness of artists and workers may be pigment poisoning. 3 More Great German Artists Spiritual Alchemy - Attuning the Self Alchemy and the Art of Gold-Making He writes: “Of the many painters I have known, almost all I found unhealthy … If we search for the cause of the cachectic and colorless appearance of the painters, as well as the melancholy feelings that they are so often victims of, we should look no further than the harmful nature of the pigments…” Vibrant yellow orpiment is an arsenic mineral. Valued as pigments, the vivid yellow powders of orpiment enthrall Renaissance painters. Besides their toxic nature, these yellows darken over time to an unimpressive green. Orpiment is also an ingredient in alchemical gold-making . Arsenic: Murderous Metal & Miracle Cure Sophie Brahe Writer, Alchemist & Astronomer Golden Ages of Alchemy: Renaissance Orpiment, or ″yellow arsenic blende″ occurs in fumaroles, low-temperature hydrothermal veins and hot springs. It can form through sublimation. Latin auripigmentum ( aurum , "gold" + pigmentum "pigment") refers to its intense yellow color and a historical belief it contains gold. The Greek for orpiment is arsenikon , deriving from the Greek word arsenikos , meaning "male", from the belief metals are of different sexes, a theory promoted by Alexandrian alchemist Mary the Jewess . The Greek term is first used in the fourth century BCE. Colors of Alchemy: Citrinitas Solar Yellow Orpiment - Painter's Golden Poison Weld Yellow: Ancient Nature Pigments Orpiment is a common monoclinic arsenic sulfide mineral Vermillion (Vermilion), a brilliant shade of red obtained from the mineral cinnabar, is prized for its intense and luminous quality. Vermillion is a color family and pigment most often used between antiquity and the 19th century. Cinnabar is also called mercury sulfide HgS. It's synonymous with red orange and isn't is not one specific hue. In Roman times, cinnabar is mined by slaves and convicts at the dreaded Almadén Mines in Spain. Red Ocher (Ochre) Ancient Pigments Vermilion - Scarlet Pigment of Death Hematite: Iron Oxide Red Earth Pigment Mercuric sulfides make a range of warm hues, from bright orange-red to a duller reddish-purple that resembles fresh liver. Differences in hue are caused by the size of the ground particles of pigment. Larger crystals produce duller and less orange hues. Cinnabar, the source of vermillion, is a major exploit of the ancient Romans in the Spanish mines of Almadén . Due to the toxic nature of mining and processing cinnabar, the workers are slaves and convicts. Romans and later Christian owners consider this divine justice. Quest for Immortality - Qin Shi Huang Cinnabar (Mercury Sulfide) Red Death Red Madder: Organic Ancient Colors Cinnabar, mercuric sulfide ore producing mercury and vermillion Creating these colors involves alchemical techniques, experiments and accidents. Alchemists expand the color palettes of artists, contributing to the cultural and aesthetic richness of the Renaissance period. Artists may buy their colors pre-ground but it's best for quality standards to purchase the raw minerals and grind them at the studio. Artists and apprentices ingest toxins in the air, by breathing, handling or consuming them. Women Scientists of the Ancient World Mandalas: Psychology & Art Therapy White Pigments of Ancient Artisans Lead White Lead white is widely used since the early centuries AD. The stack process is the conventional technique used to produce this pigment. Workers bury earthenware pots filled with vinegar and lead in a layer of tan bark or cow dung for slow heating. Much as in production of verdigris, the lead is held above the vinegar so the metal is exposed to the acidic vapor, accelerated by gentle heat. This reaction causes white residue to form on the lead. It's then scraped off. Lead white is used to make minium, or red lead. Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Isaac Newton: Alchemy & the Occult Lead White & Minium Red: Colors to Die For Minium red is another color championed by artists and alchemists for its rich and deep tone. This fiery red pigment is often used in medieval illuminated manuscripts and religious art due to its glowing tones, hence original meaning of the term "miniatures". To make lead red, lead white is put into a ceramic crucible in a pre-heated furnace at 300º C. The temperature is slowly increased to 475º C. After 24 hours of heating, the crucible is cooled to room temperature, showing formation of red lead. The color is ground to pigment. Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy Asclepius: Greek Medicine Snake God Zodiac, Astrology & Jungian Psychology Lead, raw and formed According to scientists there are no save levels of lead. Like arsenic it builds up in the body. The slow process can take months or years and causes nerve damage and chronic sickness in children and adults, leading to seizures and death. The story of Prussian blue is well known. Johann Diesbach, a pigment maker in Berlin, is making red when he runs out of potash, a necessary ingredient. He sends a message to alchemist Johann Dippel , who comes by with the substance. Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files Žaltys: Sacred Snake & Serpent Queen Prussian Blue - Delight of Artists & Poisoners Prussian blue - rich, deep and deadly When they add it to the mixture, it turns purple, then deep rich blue instead of the bright red they are expecting. The potash is contaminated with Dippel's bone oil, a substance made from animal bones. Cyanide is a highly toxic chemical compound produced during the manufacture of Prussian blue. The name "cyanide" originates from the Greek for dark blue. Cyanide causes death by interfering with the body's ability to use oxygen. Lora Ley Adventures - Feast of Fools Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides Faust: Fact & Fiction German Renaissance cyanide in a glass vial Verdigris is a captivating blue-green pigment that is derived from the natural patina formed on the surface of copper over time. This unique pigment has been utilized for centuries in various artistic and decorative applications due to its striking color and intriguing origin. The formation of verdigris occurs with chemical reactions of copper, oxygen, and moisture, resulting in beautiful hues ranging from aqua, deep turquoise and vibrant emerald. The patina takes years to develop naturally. It is mildly toxic but has been known to cause death. Elderberry Tree: Germanic Nature Lore Copper: Ruddy Metal of Myth & Magic Verdigris: Volatile Blue Green Pigment To hasten creation of pigment, makers use vessels containing acid such as vinegar or urine, place the copper above it and cover the pot. Verdigris grows into a major export centered in Montpelier, France. Much like brewing, the verdigris making can be done in the home. It becomes a creation of women. Not only do Montpelier women make verdigris, they form trade networks for the product. When their efforts prove profitable, authorities start inspections of verdigris making facilities, ostensibly to stop fraud, and production moves to other cities. Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe The Anxious Victorian - Mental Health Castle Frankenstein - Legend & Lore Natural verdigris on bronze Cobalt is once used as a stabilizer in beer foam. It caused a condition called "beer-drinker's heart," which resulted in heart muscle weakness. Cobalt blue, a strikingly vibrant pigment, gains popularity among artists during the Renaissance period. Cobalt blue is known for toxic properties, posing health risks to those who handle it. Like Prussian blue cobalt is used in some medicines. It's one of the less toxic elements but can cause skin problems and respiratory damage. It can affect heart, liver, kidneys and thyroid. Cobalt (Co): The Little Goblin Who Could Salmonella Bacteria: Science & Health Prague: Bohemians of the Renaissance Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Zinc (Zn) is a transition metal integral to health, environment and technology. It's forged in the crucible of stars through nuclear fusion. Use of zinc in metallurgy and human existence goes back thousands of years. Seven Trace Minerals: Nature's Little Helpers Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts stellar nova (image; NASA Hubble) Zinc is found in the Earth's crust as sulfide ores like sphalerite (ZnS). Though its existence is known much earlier, used in ancient alchemy and more, official discovery is attributed to Andreas Marggraf in 1746, who isolates zinc in pure form Ancient civilizations such as the Romans and Greeks use zinc in brass, a copper alloy, for decorative objects and armor. Zinc compounds are also used in ancient medicine . By c. 800 AD, the Chinese extract zinc for alloys. Cobalt (Co): The Little Goblin Who Could Gum Arabic (Acacia Gum) Art, Food & Medicine CubeSats: Science, Technology & Risky Business Scientific Properties and Extraction Zinc is a bluish-white, lustrous transition metal relatively brittle at room temperature. It becomes malleable and ductile when heated. Zinc is the 23rd most abundant element in the earth's crust. Over 13 million metric tons are extracted annually. In tonnage it's fourth among metals in world production, after iron, aluminum and copper. Silver - Queen of Precious Metals Organic Polymers: Ecology & Natural Health Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future zinc protects steel in modern architecture Its atomic number is 30 and its atomic weight is 65.38. Atomic number is the amount of protons in the nucleus of an atom. These determine chemical properties of an element. Zinc reacts readily with acids, producing hydrogen gas used in industry. Zinc is part of numerous biological processes. It's an important trace element in the human body. The name zinc comes from German Zinke , meaning tooth or fang, referring to the sharp, tooth-like crystals in zinc furnaces. The term is first applied by Paracelsus  in the 15th century. Molybdenum (Mo): Ecology & Human Health Cellulose: Plant Fibers of Structure & Strength 7 Primary Electrolytes: Essential Ions & Health It h as a relatively low melting point of 420°C (788°F) and a boiling point of 907°C (1665°F). Comparatively, tin melts at 232 °C and boils at 2602 °C. Melting point of silicon is 1414°C with a boiling point of 3255°C. The primary method of zinc extraction is a two-step process. Roasting: Zinc sulfide ore is roasted in air to convert it to zinc oxide (ZnO). Reduction: The zinc oxide is then reduced with carbon (usually coke) at high temperatures, producing metallic zinc vapor. This vapor is then condensed to form solid zinc. Electrolytic processes are also used, especially for refining and obtaining high-purity zinc. Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Diana's Tree: Silver Crystals of Lunar Caustic Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe zinc oxide Zinc Alloys Zinc readily alloys with various metals. The most well-known alloy is brass, a combination of copper and zinc, prized for its strength, corrosion resistance, and aesthetic appeal. Other important zinc alloys include: Bronze: Primarily copper with tin, but zinc is often added for improved casting and strength. Die-casting alloys: Composed primarily of zinc, aluminum, and magnesium, known for their excellent castability and dimensional stability, used in a wide range of applications, from automotive parts to household appliances. Solder: Used to join metal components, often contains zinc for improved wetting and flow properties. Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology Irrwurz or Mad Root: German Folklore Copper (Cu) Effects on Human & Plant Health zinc has applications in robotics Zinc in Nature, Health, and Technology In nature, zinc is a vital micronutrient for plants and animals. It promotes growth and development by aiding enzyme function and protein synthesis. Zinc-enriched soils can enhance crop yields. Even microbes need zinc. Zinc is a a cofactor for some bacterial proteins. Zinc ions also function in for DNA repair, enzymatic reactions, defenses to oxidative stress, and regulatory roles in other physiological processes in bacteria. Natural Health: Paracelsus & Hermetic Principles Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics The Probiotic Yeast: Saccharomyces boulardii Cyanobacteria need zinc It's a necessary element for the normal growth, metabolism and physiology of yeast. Yeast, a one-celled organism, is often used in metabolic research as yeast cells resemble those of humans. In technology, zinc is used to galvanize steel, which protects from rust and significantly prolongs metal lifespan. Structures treated with zinc can resist corrosion for over 50 years. It's also used in fertilizers and pesticides. How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Drone Warfare: Unmanned Combat Vehicles Human Health Zinc is integral to biological processes such as immune function, wound healing, DNA synthesis and cell division. The average human body contains about 2-3 grams of zinc, found mostly in muscles and bones. Symptoms of deficiency include impaired growth and immune dysfunction. Senses of taste and smell may also decrease. Zinc deficiency affects over two billion people worldwide. Nickel (Ni): Metallurgy Facts & Folklore Compost: Teeming Metropolis of Life & Death Cyanobacteria: Nutrients & Bacterial Blooms Zinc is available in dietary supplements and over-the-counter medications like cold remedies. The food sources highest in zinc include meat, fish and seafood. Oysters have more zinc per serving than any other food. Excess zinc intake can cause nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. Inhaling zinc oxide fumes may induce rapid breathing, sweating, fever, muscle aches, and a metallic taste in the mouth, a condition known as metal fume fever. Sunscreen often contains zinc oxide (ZnO) as a physical barrier to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Zinc based medication is often used for skin rashes and abrasions, speeding recovery to help keep skin healthy. Talc (Magnesium Silicate): Beauty, Art & Industry Kohl: Eye Beauty Magic of Ancients Leap to Flames: Why Did Empedocles Jump into Mount Etna? zinc oxide is used in skin treatments Technology Galvanization: Coating steel with zinc provides excellent corrosion protection, extending the lifespan of bridges, pipelines, and countless other metal structures. Certain types of zinc coatings can last over 50 years without significant corrosion, ideal for outdoor structures. This is 10x longer than the lifetime of the average Starlink satellite. Zinc has many uses in robot technology, even microscopically. In 2024 MIT researchers develop a tiny zinc-air battery, able to power autonomous cell-sized robots. Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials Sirius the Dog Star: Stellar Mythology Sacred Geometry: Insight to the Mysteries galvanized steel Electronics:  Zinc oxide (ZnO) is used in semiconductors, solar cells, and transparent conductive films. Silver-Zinc Batteries: These batteries are among the many used in space travel. While today nickel cadmium batteries are more popular, silver-zinc batteries power the first space flights and exploration. Cost and short lifespan are prohibitive. Nonetheless, they're still used today in military and space operations. Glutamates: Umami Flavors & Brain Cells Sophie Brahe Writer, Alchemist & Astronomer Phosphorus: Element of Fatal Fascination Global Production and Market Value China is the leading producer of zinc with 33% of global production. It's followed by Australia, Peru and India. The global market for zinc is driven by its widespread use in construction, auto and electronics industries. Zinc prices fluctuate based on supply and demand, geopolitical factors, and global economic conditions. The market value of zinc fluctuates significantly based on supply and demand dynamics. As of 2023, the price per metric ton ranges from $2500 to $3000, influenced by factors like global economic conditions and mining production volumes. Rising demand from renewable energy sectors also affects price trends. Vermicompost: Composting with Worms Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Quorum Sensing: Microbial Coordination zinc supplies a protective layer for solar panels Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Vermicomposting turns organic waste into nutrient rich compost using the natural inclinations of worms like nightcrawlers and red wigglers. The end product is vermicompost. Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment Earthworms: Soil Health & Ecosystem Balance Sustainable Gardening: Compost & Old Beer Get the Right Worms While there are earthworm species exist, some are especially favored as vermicompostors. Red Wigglers ( Eisenia fetida ) :  The most popular choice, red wigglers are surface dwellers and thrive in decaying organic matter. Voracious eaters, they reproduce quickly. European Nightcrawlers ( Dendrobaena hortensis ) :  Larger than red wigglers, they are also suitable for vermicomposting, especially in larger quantities. African Nightcrawlers ( Eudrilus eugeniae ) :  Best suited for warmer climates, they can't tolerate cold temperatures. How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Red Wiggler ( Eisenia fetida ) Microorganisms also find their way into the mix in vermicomposting. These include Bacillus sp, Klebsiella sp and Azatobacter sp , and fungi such as Aspergillus sp, Microsporum sp, Penicillium sp and Trichophyton sp . The Vermicomposting Process It takes a few months. Vermicomposting Bin: A container with drainage and airflow. It can be bought or made of plastic, sturdy wood or pre-made worm bins from garden stores. Be sure the lid fits well. Worms will test it, and so will any potential predators if it's outdoors. Potash: Agriculture, Plant & Garden Health Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Compost: Teeming Metropolis of Life & Death This baby grass snake enjoys a snack of fresh worm The bin should have small holes for aeration. If they're too big the worms will squirm through and go exploring. Holes allow oxygen and proper draining of excess moisture. Layer the bottom of the bin with a damp bedding material like shredded cardboard, newspaper, or coconut coir. About 7 cm (3 in) of shredded newspaper provides moisture retention while nourishing the worms. Common bedding materials also include peat moss and dried leaves. Moisten the bedding so it feels like a wrung-out sponge. Maintain this level of moisture throughout. Compost Heat: Microbes & Decomposition Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment Glutamates: Umami Flavors & Brain Cells Avoid glossy paper or coated cardboard. Newspaper is ok. Worms: Put the worms in their new home. Start feeding them. Begin with small amounts of kitchen scraps, such as vegetable peelings, fruit rinds and coffee grounds. Avoid meat, dairy and oily foods, which can produce bad smells and attract pests. As the worms eat the waste, they generate nutrient-rich worm castings. Monitor the moisture levels in the bin carefully. Signs of readiness include a dark, crumbly texture and a pleasant, earthy smell. Worm castings don't look like much, but they're a biologically active blend of bacteria, enzymes, plant matter remnants and manure. When moist they contain earthworm cocoons which will find their way into soil. Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics The Microscope: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Castings are abundant in water-soluble plant nutrients. They have over 50% more humus than typically present in topsoil. To harvest the castings, shift the finished compost to one side and add fresh bedding and food to the other side or use a different container to collect the castings. Clean the worm bin during harvest. Remove any undigested materials. Refresh the bedding to ensure a comfortable environment for the worms as they go about their work. Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides Yarrow (Achillea) Magic & Medicine Caring for Worms Moisture: Maintain consistent moisture in the bin Temperature: Keep the bin between 13-25°C (55-77°F). Protect from extreme heat or cold. Feeding: Start with small amounts and increase. Aeration: Occasionally fluff the bedding to provide oxygen. pH balance: Avoid highly acidic or alkaline foods. Avoid toxins: Keep toxins like pesticides and cleaning chemicals away from the bin. Homo-Fermentation in Lactic Acid Bacteria Secret Life of Rust: Power of Bacteria Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life worm food Facts About Vermicomposting: Reduces Landfill Waste: Vermicomposting diverts food scraps from landfills, thus decreases methane emissions. Nutrient-Rich Fertilizer: Vermicompost is full of essential vitamins and minerals like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. It contains up to 50% more nutrients than regular compost. Improved Soil Structure: Vermicompost improves soil aeration, drainage, and water retention. Beneficial Microbes: It introduces beneficial microbes to the soil, promoting healthy plant growth. Natural Pest and Disease Resistance: Vermicompost can help plants resist pests and diseases. Low Maintenance: Once the vermicomposting system is established, it needs minimal effort. Home Gardening Benefits: Using vermicompost in the garden can grow healthier plants and increase crop yields. The slow-release nutrients make them available to plants throughout their growth cycle. Organic Polymers: Ecology & Natural Health Gnomes: Earth Spirits of Renaissance Mythology Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Drone warfare uses advanced robotics technology to inflict destruction in various ways. It represents a paradigm shift in military strategy, driven by advances in science, technology, and particularly, robotics. Building Robots: Elastomers, Metals & Plastics Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology Drone warfare is conflict using unmanned air and ground equipment, often remotely controlled. Drones come in various forms, each designed for specific purposes. unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs), also often called armed drones, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) unmanned surface vehicles (USVs) patrolling waterways ground-based drones equipped with weaponry Recreational drones first come into widespread use from 2015. Home cleaning aids like aerial dusting drones are set to hit the market, while drones for photography and hobby science quickly gain popularity. As weapons of war, UAVs are first used in 1849. The Austrian army launches a fleet of unmanned balloons carrying explosives over Venice, to punish its citizens for revolting. Robot drones are first used in World War II to train anti-aircraft gunners. Modern use has led to a rapid proliferation of drone technology, both within state militaries and in the hands of non-state power grabbers. Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Drones have clear strategic advantages. They can complete missions in risky areas where manned craft cannot go. The Center for the Study of Drone Warfare records 90% of US airstrikes in 2020 carried out by drones. UCAVs (Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicles): These are purpose-built military drones designed for offensive operations. They are equipped with sophisticated sensors, targeting systems, and a payload of air-to-ground missiles or bombs. The payload is a scientific or technological instrument carried on board a satellite or craft for a specific reason, for example a communicator, camera or explosive. Payloads vary in purpose, size, composition and capabilities. Antimony (Kohl) Ancient Metal of Beauty & Trade Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts UCAVs are often deployed for targeted killings, reconnaissance and air support. Examples include the MQ-9 Reaper, known for its long flight time and ability to carry a substantial payload. UCAVs like Predator and Reaper drones execute targeted strikes, recon missions and combat support with little human oversight. Reaper can fly for over 27 hours continuously and engage multiple targets in one mission. Weaponized Commercial UAVs: Availability of commercial drones brings a new dimension to drone warfare. Relatively inexpensive and easy to get, these drones can be adapted to carry and deliver explosives. Nickel (Ni): Metallurgy Facts & Folklore Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Diana's Tree: Silver Crystals of Lunar Caustic This blurs the lines between military and civilian technology, making attribution and control significantly more difficult. Drones like the DJI Inspire have been modified for reconnaissance and surveillance. The trend raises concerns about lack of regulations for these technologies and their misuse in both military and civilian areas. About 70% of commercial drones can be repurposed for warfare. Unmanned surface vehicles (USVs) and ground-based drones are also significant. USVs are used in navies for tasks such as surveillance and mine detection. Drones like the iRobot PackBot, employed for bomb disposal, assist in safety by removing personnel from dangerous environments. Chalcedony Gems: Secrets of Silicon Dioxide Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Methods of Drone Attack Methods used in drone attacks are as varied as the types of drones. The most prevalent include: Bombing: UCAVs are equipped with bombs for precision strikes against stationary targets, vehicles, and infrastructure. The level of precision offered by these weapons allows for targeted attacks, theoretically minimizing collateral damage, although this remains a contentious issue. Missile Strikes: Air-to-ground missiles are a common armament for UCAVs, capable of engaging targets at significant distances. These missiles can be guided with pinpoint accuracy, effective for moving targets. Compost: Teeming Metropolis of Life & Death Cyanobacteria: Nutrients & Bacterial Blooms 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Kamikaze Drones (Crashing into a Target): Both UCAVs and weaponized commercial UAVs can be used as kamikaze drones. They crash directly into a target and detonating an explosive payload. This method is often employed against high-value targets or in situations requiring direct impact. The use of commercial drones for this purpose is enables relatively easy and anonymous attacks. Glass of Antimony: Renaissance Purgatives Faust: Fact & Fiction German Renaissance Lunar Caustic AgNO3: Lapis Infernalis  of Alchemy According to the Bureau of Investigative Journalism (BIJ), U.S. strikes in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Somalia and Yemen from 2002 to 2020 kill between 10,000 and 17,000 people. Of these, over 10% are thought to be civilians. According to a February 2025 news post , in January 2025 short-range drones cause more casualties than any other weapon in Ukraine. Civilian deaths by short-range drones continue to increase. Earthworms: Soil Health & Ecosystem Balance Ammonium (NH+4): Nitrogen Needs of Plants Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Silicon (Si) is one of the most abundant elements on Earth, a ductile metal important to industry and natural processes. Silicon is used in devices, environment and the human body. It also creates the polymer silicone . Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure Glass & Arts of Ancient Glass Making Who will survive? What is Silicon? In the event of a robot apocalypse, silicon is a major concern and vital component. It's a tetravalent metalloid, having properties of metals and non-metals alike. Silicon typically appears as a hard, crystalline solid with a blue-grey metallic luster. It's the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust after oxygen. In nature it's generally found in the form of silicates or silicon dioxide (silica). Silica is an essential material in macrocosmic and microcosmic worlds. Molybdenum (Mo): Ecology & Human Health Algae in Glass Houses: Diatomaceous Earth Testate Amoebae: Single Cells with Shells This one-celled testate amoeba has built its shell with the transparent silica shells of diatoms Notably, silicon is vital in producing semiconductors for modern electronics. Its excellent electrical conductivity and ability are desirable in the tech industry. It has integral functions in robotics. A high-profile company predicts a robot boom of billions by 2030. As of today 6764 satellites by the same company have been launched into orbit. It starts to feel like a schlock horror B-movie. But this is real life. Sodium Silicate: Alchemy of Water Glass Talc (Magnesium Silicate): Beauty, Art & Industry Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) Caustic Potash warrior of the future, today Silicon in Robots In Japan 2024, scientist Prof. Shoji Takeuchi creates a new biohybrid, bipedal robot, which imitates the human walking pattern. Similar to humans, this biohybrid robot is capable of turning in tight circles and walking on legs powered by muscles. Designed for underwater operation, it has a foam buoy "torso" and weighted legs so it can remain upright when submerged in a culture medium. Its skeleton is crafted from flexible silicone rubber, with anchor points for attaching strips of lab-grown skeletal muscle tissue. Carbon Steel: Origins, Composition & Uses Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Cobalt (Co): The Little Goblin Who Could Silicon vs. Silica & Silicone While silicon and silica are closely related, they are not identical. Silicon (Si) is a pure element, while silica (SiO2) is a compound made of silicon and oxygen. Silica is commonly found in nature as quartz. It has industrial purposes especially in glass-making and ceramics. Silica is the basis for many geological formations. Silicon, as a pure element, has distinct properties exploited in technology. Many breast implants are made with gel filling composed of the polymer silicone. Diatoms: Glass-Making Algae Crucial to Life 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Alchemy: How to Make Emerald from Quartz While silicon and silicone are often used interchangeably, again the meaning is not the same. Silicon is a natural chemical element, while silicone is a human-made (or robot made) product. The human body has about 7 grams of silicon, present in tissues and fluids. Silicon in tissues is usually bonded to glycoproteins such as cartilage. The silicon in human blood is found as either free orthosilicic acid or linked to small compounds. Molybdochalkos: Nigredo Black Lead of Maria Rhinestones: Treasures of the Rhine Niter (Saltpeter): Science of Alchemy Importance of Silicon In modern technology and industry silicon is a major component in manufacturing of semiconductors. These are crucial to the functioning of computers, smartphones, and other electronic devices. It's important in producing integrated circuits and transistors, fundamental to all electronic devices. Beyond electronics, silicon is used in construction materials like concrete and glass, as well as in solar panels. Silicon provides the basis for renewable energy technologies. Its properties are vital in diverse industries. Silicon extends to construction materials, glass-making and creating the silicones used in everyday products. Nickel (Ni): Metallurgy Facts & Folklore Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology Gnomes: Earth Spirits of Renaissance Mythology broken glass Natural Occurrence and Function In nature, silicon predominantly occurs as part of silicon dioxide, found in rocks, sand, clay, and in silicate minerals. It's often combined with oxygen to form silicates, which are essential components of the Earth's crust. Silicon is a vital nutrient for some plants, especially grasses, aiding in growth and structural stability. Silicon's natural bonds with oxygen and other elements form compounds like silica and silicates, commonly found in minerals such as quartz and feldspar. In nature, silicon plays a vital role in plant life by providing structural support. It helps plants withstand environmental stress, important in agriculture. Silicon supplements are shown to increase crop yields of rice and wheat by up to 10%. How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health Flowers of Antimony: Pure Medieval Purgative Calcite: Metal-Eating Bacteria to Coral Reefs Rice crop Scientific and Chemical Properties Silicon’s scientific properties make this element extremely valuable. A semiconductor at room temperature, silicon exhibits electrical conductivity between that of metals and insulators. Its atomic structure enables it to form covalent bonds, for a wide range of silicon compounds. The melting point of silicon is around 1,414 °C  (2,577 °F), and it has a boiling point of 2,355 °C (4,271 °F). Silicon exhibits a crystalline structure similar to that of diamond. Glass of Antimony: Renaissance Purgatives Faust: Fact & Fiction German Renaissance Liver of Sulfur: Alchemy, Metal & Medicine Formula for Victory: Silicone Solvents To dissolve either silicon (Si) or silicone, a mixture of water, hydrogen fluoride and nitric acid in equal amounts creates a solvent none can withstand. Hydrogen fluoride manifests as a very poisonous, colorless gas or liquid. Hydrogen fluoride dissolves in water to yield hydrofluoric acid. Nitric acid is known as the Queen of Acids because of its remarkable corrosive power. Other effective solvents are isopropyl alcohol (C3H8O) and xylene, a coal tar derivative found in paint and food. Building Robots: Elastomers, Metals & Plastics Chalcedony Gems: Secrets of Silicon Dioxide Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials Acids Silicone cannot resist hydrofluoric acid at 5% concentration. Its resistance to nitric, sulfuric, and hydrochloric acid is limited, especially at higher concentrations. To soften silicone, a simple home-made concoction can do the trick: vinegar, alcohol and WD-40. An assault with this will take down silicon-based machinery and robots as it turns silicon components to mush. It can also be used to clean old silicone from bathtubs and work spaces. Niter (Saltpeter): Science of Alchemy Lunar Caustic AgNO3: Lapis Infernalis  of Alchemy Caput Mortuum: Dead Head Purple Pigment Now we can relax Note: At this time no Robot Apocalypse is known to be imminent. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Earthworms are movers and shakers of ecosystems. They're essential for the health and fertility of soil. They provide nutrients to plants eaten by other consumers, and maintain a robust balance of microorganisms. Compost: Heart of Sustainable Gardening Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Earthworms belong to the class Oligochaeta and phylum Annelida, which also includes leeches. They contribute to: Improved Soil Structure: Enhanced aeration, drainage, and water retention. Increased Nutrient Availability: Recycling organic matter and releasing essential nutrients in readily available forms. Enhanced Plant Growth: Providing a healthier environment for roots and supplying essential nutrients. Reduced Soil Erosion: Binding soil particles together and improving soil stability. 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Carbon Fixation: Environmental Heath & Ecology Soy Sauce: A Cultural Culinary Odyssey fertile soil has billions of unseen organisms Commonly found in moist environments rich in decomposing plant matter, earthworms are well adapted to their subterranean lifestyle. Their long extendable segmented bodies move through soil with help of tiny bristles. The bristles or setae grip the soil, giving leverage as the worm contracts and expands its muscles. Earthworms are important detritivores, feeding on dead organic material to return vital nutrients to the soil. Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes: Life Forms on Earth Glucose in Nature: Ecology & Environment The nutrient-rich castings they produce, with high levels of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, further enhance soil fertility. The nutrients are in forms plants easily absorb, promoting healthy growth and development. Earthworm castings also improve soil structure, creating a crumbly texture. This increases water retention and prevents soil erosion. As they burrow, worms create channels for air and water to penetrate deeper into the soil. Carbohydrates: Sugars of Nature & Health Ammonium (NH+4): Nitrogen Needs of Plants Tannins: Complex Astringents of Nature Earthworms are opportunistic feeders. Their diets include detritus (decomposing plant and animal material), living protozoa, rotifers, nematodes, bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms. The earthworm's digestive system stretches the length of its body. As it ingests organic matter, the food passes through a series of specialized organs. The gizzard, a muscular organ containing ingested grit, grinds down the food. Enzymes: Marvels of Nature & Human Health Galactose: Simple Sugar of Nature & Health Secrets of Xanthan Gum for Artists & Chefs earthworms help decompose compost This reduces tough organic matter, making it easier for worms to extract nutrients to be absorbed in the intestine. Undigested matter is excreted as castings. One earthworm can produce up to 30 grams of castings per day. As they break down organic material, they promote growth of microbes essential for soil health. Earthworms also contribute to formation of soil aggregates, which improve soil structure. Hormones in Microbes, Plants & Animals Science of Onion Tears: Demystifying Acids Broad Beans (Fava) - Bronze Age Crops Earthworm head - from here inner setae move food along until it exits the anus Coprophagy, the consumption of feces, is another task for earthworms. Annelida readily consume nutrient rich animal manure, such as that of livestock, reducing and converting it into usable forms for plants. The presence of earthworms is an indicator of soil health. Healthy soils have diverse microbial populations and plenty of organic matter, both fostered by earthworm activity. Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas Candida Species: the Good Yeasts How to Make a Sourdough Starter the raised part or clitellum regulates reproduction, regeneration, aging, stress response and autotomy Earthworms are either eating or being eaten. They're favorite food for birds, fish, rodents, ants, centipedes, snakes, toads, some beetles and nematodes. Chickens are very fond of them. The American robin is especially adapted for earthworm hunting. Its feet make a drumming sound on the earth as it hops along. This fools earthworms into thinking it's raining, and lures them from their holes. Ornithomancy - Prophecy by the Birds Giant Cinnamon Birds of Arabia Chicken Soup: Chickens in German Folklore gotcha! Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Compost for the garden can benefit from the hidden nutrition of old or flat beer. Leftover brew contains vitamins and minerals to nourish compost and improve soil quality for bountiful vegetables and beautiful flowers. How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts Earthworms: Soil Health & Ecosystem Balance Compost: Teeming Metropolis of Life & Death Beer has several nutrients essential for organic life. It's rich in nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus , three elements needed for plant growth. Nutrients Nitrogen: A key component of proteins and chlorophyll, nitrogen promotes healthy plant growth and vibrant green foliage. Beer is an easily available source of nitrogen, resulting in compost richer in this element. Nitrogen in beer can stimulate the growth of beneficial bacteria and fungi in compost. Materials high in nitrogen, known as "greens," are part of composting. Old beer helps balance the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio. Phosphorus, Uroscopy & Power of Pee Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Yeast & Vineyard Microbes: Flavors of Wine nitrogen cycle - importance of nitrogen in the environment Phosphorus: Crucial for root development, flowering and fruit production, phosphorus is another essential macronutrient beer can contribute. A healthy level of phosphorus in your compost ensures plants are equipped for robust growth and bountiful harvests. Potassium: Often called the "quality nutrient," potassium helps plants regulate water, resist disease, and improve overall vigor. Adding beer to compost can boost its potassium content, leading to healthier plants. Sugars and Carbohydrates: These are a delicious meal for the beneficial microorganisms teeming throughout the compost pile. They provide a quick sugary energy source, stimulating microbial activity and accelerating breakdown of organic matter. Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Microbe pH Levels: Acidophiles, Neutrophiles & Alkaliphiles Glucose in Nature: Ecology & Environment A notable benefit comes from yeast found in beer. This microbe can break down organic matter efficiently, helping compost convert into nutrient-rich soil faster. Yeast is naturally present in compost especially near fruit sugars. Different types of yeast often work together in decomposition and fermentation. Vineyard grapes can yield up to 20 species of wild yeast which are often used to start the fermentation process in wine making. Moisture Content: Moisture level of the compost pile is important for efficient decomposition. Recommended moisture content is 40-60% by weight. Carbohydrates: Sugars of Nature & Health Ammonium (NH+4): Nitrogen Needs of Plants Tannins: Complex Astringents of Nature yeasts appear as a harmless whitish film on grapes - even in the grocery store Beer helps maintain the optimal level for microbial activity. It's a nutrient-rich liquid fueling the decomposition process. Enzymatic Action: The enzymes in beer help decompose complex organic molecules, making them easier for microbes to consume. Enzymatic action speeds up the entire process. Practical Tips Monitor Amount: A little beer is beneficial but too much can create an anaerobic environment with bad smells and slow decomposition. Maintain a ratio of roughly one cup of beer per 1 sq m of compost pile surface. Experiment and monitor. Err on the side of caution. Hildegard von Bingen: Nature, Music & Beer Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Polyphenols: Plants & the Environment Flat Beer is Best: Carbonation in fresh beer isn't harmful, but flat beer is more readily absorbed into the material. Stale or leftover beer is perfect for composting. Mix It In: Pour beer evenly over compost pile and mix it in thoroughly for distribution. This helps prevent localized hotspots. Mixing beer with dry ingredients like straw or dry leaves helps maintain airflow and moisture balance. Avoid Light-Colored Beer: Any beer offers benefits, but darker beers and ales have greater concentration of nutrients and sugars. Light beer, with its lower nutrient profile, has less effect. How Yeast Transforms Sugars to Booze Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities Top Fermenting & Bottom Fermenting Yeasts dark beer is more nourishing Context: If compost is already overly wet or anaerobic, obviously skip the beer compost for a while, and aerate the heap with a trusty pitchfork. Beer and Worm Composting: Beer should never be added directly to worm bin or worms. Finished compost enriched with beer however can be a nutritious treat for the little critters. Some farmers can leverage benefits of beer in sustainability practices. By using brewery leavings they minimize waste and create a powerful, nutrient-dense fertilizer for fields. Hetero-Fermentation in Lactic Acid Bacteria Esters: Nature's Fragrance & Flavor Makers Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Titanium (Ti) is a metallic element. From celestial origins titanium has widespread appeal as the metal of choice for robots, spacecraft, medical devices, cell phones, jewelry and bicycle frames. Building Robots: Elastomers, Metals & Plastics Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology Titanium crystallized A transition metal, titanium is known for impressive strength, low density and outstanding corrosion resistance. With an atomic number of 22, it's located in group 4 of the periodic table. Group 4 is also known as the titanium family. Its three other members are zirconium (Zr), hafnium (Hf), and rutherfordium (Rf). Titanium displays a silver-gray color. The global titanium market is expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate of 6.2% from 2025 to 2030. It's projected to reach USD 3.71 billion by 2030. Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Compost: Teeming Metropolis of Life & Death Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land From Space to Earth: Arrival & Dispersal Titanium is created eons ago within massive stars during supernova explosions. These cosmic events scatter titanium atoms across the universe. They eventually contribute to formation of planets such as Earth. On Earth, titanium doesn't exist in a pure elemental form. It's always found combined with other elements in various minerals, primarily ilmenite (FeTiO3) and rutile (TiO2), and must be extracted. These minerals are widely distributed in the Earth's crust, often found in igneous and metamorphic rocks, as well as in beach sands formed by the weathering of these rocks. Molybdenum (Mo): Ecology & Human Health Galena: Silver Lead Ore of Metallurgy How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts Ilmenite is the most important ore of titanium. It's the main source of titanium dioxide, which is used in paints, printing inks, fabrics, plastics, paper, sunscreen, food and cosmetics. Extraction relies on the Kroll process, which reduces titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) using magnesium to produce pure titanium. Its high reactivity means it usually exists bound within silicates and oxides. Titanium or rainbow quartz is a specially coated type of quartz, a silicate mineral. In this human-made process quartz is put in a specialized chamber. Vaporized titanium and other metal oxides are introduced, bonding to the quartz. Electrum: Metal of Money & Myth Corundum: Secrets of Valuable Gemstones Silver - Queen of Precious Metals Titanium quartz (rainbow quartz) Titanium Properties Titanium's exceptional properties make it valuable for many applications. Lightweight : It's about 45% lighter than steel but possesses comparable strength. High Strength : Titanium boasts an impressive strength-to-weight ratio, making it ideal for applications where both strength and lightness are paramount. High Strength-to-Weight Ratio: With a tensile strength of about 240 megapascals, titanium is four times stronger than aluminum yet only slightly heavier. It's used for aerospace applications to reduce weight. Secret Life of Rust: Power of Bacteria Antimony (Kohl) Ancient Metal of Beauty & Trade Nickel (Ni): Metallurgy Facts & Folklore Corrosion Resistance : Titanium forms a passive oxide layer to protect from corrosion in most environments. Titanium resists corrosion and biocorrosion in seawater. High Melting Point : With a melting point of 1668°C (3034°F), titanium can withstand high temperatures without losing structural integrity. Biocompatibility : Titanium is non-toxic and well-tolerated by the human body, thus suited for medical implants. Most hip replacements use titanium alloy. Cassiterite - Tin Source of Ancients Pharos Lighthouse: Ancient Wonder of Alexandria Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Low Thermal Conductivity : Its thermal properties make titanium beneficial in applications where heat insulation is important, such as in heat exchangers. Titanium Alloys With over 200 different alloys available, titanium can meet specific demands in various industries. Alloys include Aluminum: Increases strength and heat resistance while lowering weight. Vanadium : Improves ductility and weldability. Seven Metals of Antiquity - Metallurgy Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Vulcano: Child Miners, Gods & Extremophiles Aluminum sheets Molybdenum : Enhances corrosion resistance and high-temperature strength, used in components like jet engines. Iron : Provides additional hardness at lower cost. Tantalum : Biocompatible, ideal for medical implants. Chromium is prized for its exceptional corrosion resistance and hardness. Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes: Life Forms on Earth Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future Magnesium (Mg): Ecology & Human Health Molybdenum (Mo) From Earth to Space: Applications Aerospace: Aircraft engines, airframes, and spacecraft components due to its high strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion resistance. Titanium is used in aircraft components, rocket engines and space vehicles. Medical Implants: Hip replacements, dental implants, and bone screws due to biocompatibility and resistance to corrosion. Titanium is common in implants, surgical instruments and dental materials. Chemical Processing: Pipes, tanks, and heat exchangers in corrosive environments. Homo-Fermentation in Lactic Acid Bacteria Electrolytes: Vital Minerals of Human & Environmental Health Nitric Acid: Aqua Fortis the Acid Queen Titanium is used in nuclear reactors Marine Applications: Submersibles, ship hulls, and offshore platforms due to its resistance to seawater corrosion and biocorrosion. Sporting Goods: Golf clubs, bicycle frames, and tennis rackets due to its lightness and strength. Jewelry: From high-end sports gear to jewelry, phones and watches, titanium is chosen for its strength, lightweight nature, hypoallergenic properties and aesthetic appeal. Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas Women Scientists of the Ancient World Titanium cookware Industrial Equipment : Widespread in chemical processing, power generation, and the oil and gas industries, valued for durability and stability. Facts About Titanium Titanium can be anodized, a process that creates a colored oxide layer on its surface, adding to its aesthetic appeal. The SR-71 Blackbird, a high-speed reconnaissance aircraft, was primarily built from titanium alloys to withstand the extreme temperatures generated during flight. First industrial use: The first pure titanium was produced in 1910. It's not widely used until the 1940s when it gets attention in aerospace and military departments. Divine Water: Sulfuric Acid in Alchemy Glutamates: Umami Flavors & Brain Cells Glycerin (Glycerol): Darling of Cosmetics, Health & Science Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Building robots is a mix of engineering, technology, and creativity. Metals and plastics are the standout choices for roboticists. Elastomers provide flexibility, and polymers like self-healing silicone tweak popular interest. Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials Certain materials are desired for their unique properties. While the specific choice depends on the robot's intended function and environment, metals, plastics, and elastomers are favored materials for robotic construction. Metals Aluminum: Lightweight yet strong, aluminum has a good strength-to-weight ratio. It's a popular choice for robots requiring agility and speed, such as those used in manufacturing or search and rescue operations. Its corrosion resistance is also a valuable asset, extending robot lifespan in various environments. Drones, which can weigh less than 5 kg, benefit greatly from aluminum, facilitating more agile flight. How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts Acid-Producing Bacteria in Sulfuric Acid Creation Hydrogen Peroxide: Chemistry, Production, Risks Aluminum Steel: Renowned for high tensile strength and resistance to wear and tear, steel provides structural integrity. It's suitable for robots designed for heavy-duty tasks, such as construction, mining, or industrial welding. Steel is used in critical components like robot frames and support beams. Industrial robots with steel frames support loads of over 500 kg. Variants like stainless steel fortify corrosion resistance. Titanium: Titanium has high strength-to-weight ratio and superior corrosion resistance. While more expensive than aluminum or steel, its performance makes it suited for aerospace, underwater exploration or surgical robotics. Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Nitric Acid: Aqua Fortis the Acid Queen Ethyl Alcohol: Science of Solvents & Booze Titanium (Guggenheim Museum Bilboa) Plastics Plastics reduce weight, promote versatility and optimize specific functions. Their moldability enables complex geometries and intricate designs. They're ideal for housings, covers, and specialized components. Plastics offer several advantages. Lightweighting: Plastics reduce overall weight of the robot, improving agility, power efficiency and payload capacity. This is important for mobile robots and those designed for human interaction. Electrical Insulation: Plastics are inherently electrically insulating, protecting sensitive electronic components from short circuits and ensuring safe operation. Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure Silver - Queen of Precious Metals Goethite: The Other Iron-Rich Mineral Ease of Manufacturing: Plastics can be easily molded, cast, and machined, allowing for rapid prototyping and cost-effective production of complex parts. Specific Properties: Plastics offer diverse properties, such as high impact durability, chemical resistance or transparency. These allow engineers to refine material selection to their requirements. Polycarbonate is often used for protective enclosures due to its exceptional impact strength. Acrylic works well for transparent covers and displays. Tartrate Crystals: Secrets of Tartaric Acid Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health Acrylic High-performance plastics , such as polycarbonate, are often included in protective housings for sensitive electronic components. In robotic arms used for surgery, polycarbonate casings protect circuitry while enabling lightweight functionality. Elastomers Elastomers or rubber-like materials are important in soft robotics. This field focuses on creating robots which adapt to environments better than rigid models, for example moving like an octopus to navigate narrow spaces. E lastomers create robots with unprecedented flexibility, adaptability and dexterity. Unlike traditional rigid robots, soft robots can bend, twist, and conform to their environment. Catalase: Unseen Enzymes Essential to Life Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 Decomposition Antimony (Kohl) Ancient Metal of Beauty & Trade They can carry out delicate tasks, grasp irregularly shaped objects, and absorb impacts without damage. Biomimicry: Soft robots are inspired by biological systems, mimicking the movements and capabilities of creatures like octopuses, worms, and jellyfish. Applications: Soft robotics has applications in diverse fields, including medical devices, search and rescue operations, agriculture and space exploration. Soft robotics can enhance military and medical exosuits. Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Enuma Elish: Marduk & the Chaos Monsters Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Other Robot Materials Composites: Combining strength of fibers with lightweight properties of polymers, composites have high strength-to-weight ratios and can be refined to specific applications. These hybrid materials produce strong and agile systems. Shape Memory Alloys: These materials can deform and return to their original shape when exposed to heat, offering unique possibilities for actuation and sensing in robots. Self-Healing Materials: Materials that can automatically repair damage, extending the lifespan of robots and reducing maintenance costs. 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Salamanders can regenerate lost body parts like limbs, tail, eyes, heart and brain. Unlike humans, who can heal only minor wounds, salamanders can completely regrow complex structures, leaving no trace of injury. Earthworms: Soil Health & Ecosystem Balance Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Honey Bees (Apidae): Nature & Myth Salamanders are amphibians belonging to the order Urodela. The skin of some species has the powerful poison tetrodotoxin. These salamanders tend to be slow-moving and have bright warning coloration. Their long sinuous bodies are well adapted to different environments. Some aquatic species, such as sirens and amphiumas, have reduced or absent hind limbs, giving an eel-like appearance. Climbing species have elongated, square-tipped toes. Rock-dwellers tend to have larger feet with short, blunt toes. The regeneration abilities of salamanders inspire self-healing silicone in robotics and other applications. Organic Polymers: Ecology & Natural Health Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry bright orange red salamander advertises its toxins Healing & Regeneration 1. Wound Closure and Blastema Formation When a salamander loses a limb, the first step is rapid wound closure. The body stops the bleeding through the process of hemostasis. Specialized cells rapidly migrate to the site to form a protective layer, preventing infection and initiating the regenerative process. Unlike human wound healing, this closure doesn't involve scar tissue formation. Next, a mass of undifferentiated cells, known as a blastema, forms at the wound site. These mature cells, derived from various tissues near the amputation, essentially revert back to a stem cell-like state. Glutamates: Umami Flavors & Brain Cells Yeast, Humans & Aerobic Respiration of Cells Silicon (Si): Fueling the Robot Apocalypse They lose their specialized functions. This gives them the potential to develop into any cell type needed to rebuild the missing structure. 2. Proliferation Once in the blastema, these dedifferentiated cells proliferate rapidly, increasing amount of building matter available for regeneration. Controlled cell division is crucial. Uncontrolled proliferation can cause tumors. 3. Patterning & Tissue Differentiation With enough regenerative cells, they begin the complex task of rebuilding the lost limb. They re-establish the correct pattern and organization of tissues, a process driven by signaling molecules giving positional cues. Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Compost: Teeming Metropolis of Life & Death These cues guide the blastema cells to differentiate into the appropriate cell types such as skin, muscle, bone, nerves, blood vessels. Cell types form in correct location and orientation. During this phase, the new limb takes shape similar to how limbs are formed in embryonic development. Muscles, bones, and nerves organize themselves to regenerate the original structure. 4. Maturation & Functional Integration I n the final stage of regeneration, the new limb matures and integrates with the salamander's body. Blood vessels deliver nutrients and oxygen. The nervous system connects with the new tissues for normal movement. Copper(II) Sulfate: Blue Vitriol, Chalcanthite Lunar Caustic AgNO3: Lapis Infernalis of Alchemy Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure 5. The Immune System Salamanders have a unique immune response to minimize scarring and promote tissue repair. Specific types of immune cells and signaling molecules suppress inflammation and create new tissue instead of scars. Specific genes are important to the regeneration process. Salamanders express genes to promote limb regrowth, while these genes are inactive in many other vertebrates. For instance, the gene regenerating islet-derived protein 1 (Reg1) is needed to form the blastema. Activating similar genes in humans may have medical and cosmetic properties. Biofilm: Metropolitan Microbes of People & Planet Salt (NaCl): Science, History & Cuisine Magnesium (Mg): Ecology & Human Health The advancement of gene editing techniques like CRISPR could unlock regenerative pathways in human tissues. This research could soon lead to methods for repairing injury damage. Why Humans Can't Regenerate Like Salamanders While humans share many of the same genes and cellular pathways as salamanders, the difference is in the way these pathways are regulated. Human cells don't readily dedifferentiate. Wound healing process often results in scar tissue, and the immune system responds differently to injury. The Microscope: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Hydrogen Peroxide: Chemistry, Production, Risks Johann Glauber: Fulminating Gold & Sodium Sulfate Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Silicone is strongly integrated into modern technology. From kitchen to electronics and self-healing robots, silicone is a human made polymer complex with many applications. Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities Silica (SiO2): Nature of Glass & Gems Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future A synthetic polymer, silicone is made of silicon, oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen. Its unique chemical makeup gives it flexibility, durability, and resistance to extreme temperatures. Depending on formulation, silicone can exist in various manifestations, including solid, liquid, or gel. Silicone gives many advantages. Non-toxic and hypoallergenic, it's suited for food and medical use. Silicone resists ultraviolet light and ozone to maintain its quality over time. Silicone products can last up to 20 years without obvious degradation. Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health Copper (Cu) Effects on Human & Plant Health Unlike silicon, the semi-metallic element used in computer chips, silicone is a synthetic polymer made of repeating units of siloxane. In the siloxane unit silicon and oxygen atoms alternate in a chain, with organic groups attached to the silicon atoms. The production of silicone begins with silica sand (silicon dioxide SiO2). The sand is reacted with carbon at extremely high temperatures in an electric arc furnace. This process yields silicon metal. The silicon metal then reacts with methyl chloride in the presence of copper as a catalyst, producing a mixture of methylchlorosilanes. In a reaction with water, chlorine atoms are replaced by hydroxyl groups (OH). Women Scientists of the Ancient World Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals silicon The resulting compound is silanol ([CH3]2Si[OH]2). It polymerizes in a condensation reaction to create siloxanes. Siloxane is a functional group consisting of silicon (Si), oxygen (O), and carbon-containing compounds. The general formula for siloxane is R2SiO, where R can be a variety of groups. Silicone includes silicones, or polymers made up of siloxane. Type and length of siloxane chains, and organic groups attached to silicon atoms, determine specific properties and characteristics of the resulting silicone. Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials Silent Destroyers: Microbial Corrosion of Concrete Oxidation: Metabolism & Molecular Action Characteristics: Versatility of Silicone High Thermal Stability : Silicone remains stable and retains its properties over a wide range of temperatures from -55°C to 300°C (-67°F to 572°F). Chemical Resistance : Silicone is resistant to many chemicals, including acids, bases, and solvents, thus ideal for harsh environments . It's used in aerospace products and industrial machinery. Electrical Insulation : Silicone is a good insulator, preventing the flow of electricity and making it useful in electrical applications. Phosphorus: Element of Fatal Fascination Compost: Teeming Metropolis of Life & Death Heavy Metals Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Chromium & Arsenic Water Repellent : Silicone has hydrophobic properties, meaning it repels water and is resistant to moisture. Flexible and Elastic : Depending on formulation, silicone is very flexible and elastic, suitable for sealing, cushioning, and vibration dampening. Silicone maintains flexibility over time. Silicone rubber seals in cars can (potentially) last the life of the vehicle. Biocompatibility : Silicone is generally non-toxic and biocompatible. It can be used in medical implants, prosthetics and other products in contact with the human body. Salt (NaCl): Science, History & Cuisine Magnesium (Mg): Ecology & Human Health Ammonium Carbonate: Sal Volatile Smelling Salts Weather Resistance: Silicone is resistant to degradation from UV radiation, ozone, and other environmental factors, making it durable for outdoor applications. Food Safety: Silicone does not leach harmful chemicals, making it suitable for food-grade utensils. Silicone in Robots and Technology Robotic Skin and Actuators : Silicone creates soft, flexible robotic skin to mimic the feel and movement of human skin. Silicone is used in soft robotics, enabling the creation of flexible actuators and grippers. Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas Reduction in Chemistry: Gaining Electrons Hetero-Fermentation in Lactic Acid Bacteria Soft robots can navigate tricky terrains by mimicking movements of worms and octopuses. Silicone-based actuators allow soft robots to interact with greater sensitivity to their surroundings. Electronics Protection : Silicone is used to encapsulate and protect sensitive electronic components from moisture, dust, and vibration especially in hostile environments. Seals and Gaskets : Silicone's sealing properties make it ideal for creating seals and gaskets in electronic devices and robotic systems. Cupriavidus metallidurans : Metal Eating Gold Making Bacterium Great Advances in Chemistry 1600-1800 Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 Decomposition Adhesives and Bonding : Silicone adhesives are used to bond different materials together in electronic devices and robots. They provide a strong, durable bond to withstand high temperatures and vibrations. Medical Implants and Devices : Due to its biocompatibility, silicone is widely used in medical implants, such as breast implants and pacemakers. It's also used in medical devices like catheters and tubing. Wearable Technology : Silicone is a popular material for wearable technology, such as smartwatches and fitness trackers, due to its flexibility, durability, and water resistance. Prussic Acid: Secrets of Hydrogen Cyanide Jan Baptist van Helmont: Renaissance Medicine Peracetic Acid: Origin, Reactions, Hazards Silicone is used in for sensors for data collection. For instance a small, flexible sensor encased in silicone is used in temperature monitoring for patients recovering from surgery. Advanced robotics : Silicone aids development of sophisticated human-like robots. Silicone's biocompatibility and flexibility can be used to create electronic devices which can be seamlessly integrated with the human body. Johann Glauber: Fulminating Gold & Sodium Sulfate Glass & Arts of Ancient Glass Making Shennong Primordial Farmer & Healer silicone gel Renewable energy technologies : Silicone is used in solar panels and other renewable energy technologies. Its thermal stability ensures reliability in devices like smartphones and laptops. Silicone is used in over 90% of smartphones for its insulating properties. In 3D printing, silicone enables creation of flexible components. Enzymes: Marvels of Nature & Human Health Organic Polymers: Ecology & Natural Health Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top