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Microbiology explores the world of microbes or micro-organisms. It reveals a hidden dimension of unseen forces shaping health, environment, industry and processes of creation and decay. Without this invisible army, life would cease to exist. Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter Bacteria: Unseen Driving Force Behind All Life Turmeric (Curcuma longa): Ancient Uses & Medicine What are Microbes? Microbes, or microorganisms, are tiny, usually single celled organisms visible only under a microscope. They encompass a diverse range of life forms, including bacteria, archaea, viruses, fungi, and protozoa. Microorganisms are theorized to exist long before they're actually found. The presence of invisible microbiological life is suggested by Jainism, rooted in the teachings of Mahavira (599 - 527 BCE India). Talc (Magnesium Silicate): Beauty, Art & Industry Poison Pigments of Painters: Renaissance Arsenic: Murderous Metal & Miracle Cure Types of Microbes and Their Habitats Bacteria : These single-celled organisms can thrive in nearly every environment on Earth, from extreme heat to the cold depths of the ocean. They're integral to processes such as decomposition, nitrogen fixation, and human digestion. Archaea : Similar to bacteria but genetically distinct, archaea often live in extreme environments, such as hot springs or salt lakes. They are vital for biogeochemical cycles in extreme conditions. Fungi : These organisms can be unicellular, like yeast, or multicellular, like mold and mushrooms. Fungi are primarily decomposers, recycling nutrients in ecosystems, and are used in industries such as food and pharmaceuticals. Protozoa : These single-celled eukaryotes can be found in water and soil. Some protozoa are harmless, while others can cause diseases, such as malaria . Viruses : Though it's debated in some circles, viruses are often classified as microbes. They are not considered alive alone and require a host to reproduce. Viruses can infect all forms of life, from bacteria to humans. Paints of the Artist's Palette in Renaissance Europe Gouache Painting: Artist Essentials & Art Tips Bright Common Nails: Composition to Corrosion Facts About Microbes Microbial Diversity : There are approximately 5 nonillion (5 x 10^30) microbes on Earth, outnumbering humans by a factor of 300 trillion. Human Microbiome : The human body is home to approximately 100 trillion microbes, primarily in the gut, which play essential roles in digestion and immune function. Biotechnology : Many modern biotechnologies, including antibiotics and synthetic insulin, depend on our understanding of microbes. Photosynthesis : Cyanobacteria, a type of blue-green algae, are responsible for producing oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis, which is essential for life on Earth. Pathogens : While many microbes are beneficial, some are pathogenic—capable of causing diseases in humans, animals, and plants. Notable examples include E. coli , influenza viruses, and Plasmodium , the cause of malaria. Ancient Egypt Remedies: Ebers Papyrus Alchemy of Mystical Herbal Elixirs & Cures Moonwort (Botrychium Lunaria): Folklore, Magic and Medicine History of Microbiology Mahavira asserts the existence of unseen microbiological creatures living in earth, water, air and fire. Jain scriptures describe nigodas , sub-microscopic creatures living in large clusters and having a very short life. Greek philosopher Democritus (c. 400 BCE) introduces atomic theory and suggests unseen particles make up matter. The philosophers speculate on the existence of invisible creatures, but there is no scientific evidence or tool available to identify or isolate them. Democritus - Atomic Theory 400 BCE Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Alchemy, Demons & the Roman Inquisition They are said to pervade every part of the universe, even in tissues of plants and flesh of animals. The Roman Marcus Terentius Varro (116–27 BCE) references microbes when he warns against building a homestead in the vicinity of swamps: " ... because there are bred certain minute creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes, which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and thereby cause serious diseases." Of course he means malaria, a dreadful disease caused by protozoan parasite Plasmodium . A single-celled microbe, it attacks the red blood cells to cause flu-like symptoms from misery to dysentery to death. Malaria: Roman Fever & Renaissance Plague Question of Alchemy in Ancient Rome Cinnabar (Mercury Sulfide) Red Death Later Romans deduce "swamp vapors" are to blame for sickness. Emperor Nero (37-68) drains the swamps around Rome to curb the rampant spread of disease. In his book The Canon of Medicine , Avicenna (980-1037) along with Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) and Al-Razi , Persian scientists, put forward the idea of the existence of microorganisms. Ibn Zuhr discovers scabies mites. Al-Razi provides the earliest known description of smallpox. The tenth-century Taoist Baoshengjing mentions "countless micro organic worms" resembling vegetable seeds. This prompts leading Dutch sinologist Kristofer Schipper to suggest the Chinese at the time are aware of harmful bacteria. Wolfsbane (Aconitum) Ancient Poisons Baltic Amber in Folklore and Myth Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides Before the microscope, people rely on observations such as the nature of fermentation and decay. For instance, they note food spoilage can cause changes and diseases, but they cannot visually identify the tiny agents behind these phenomena. Often pathogens, crop disease and human illness finds a cause in evil elves, who are known to cause such afflictions either from malicious intent or working for a malevolent witch. Folk medicine and practices form through the observations, but scientific validation remains elusive. Caterina Sforza: Renaissance Alchemy Psychology: the Conscious Ego of Self Zosimos: First Golden Age of Alchemy Paracelsus (1493 - 1541) identifies syphilis, a raging problem during the Renaissance, as coming from an external source rather than a disease originating in the patient's body. Medicine of the time is based on the " imbalance of humors " according to Galen. In 1546 Girolamo Fracastoro proposes epidemic diseases are caused by transferable seedlike entities. These can spread infection through direct or indirect contact, or vehicle transmission as by contaminated food or substance. Gum Arabic, Guar, Xanthan: Guide for Artists & Artisans Seven Deadly Diseases of the Renaissance Rhinestones: Treasures of the Rhine In the late 16th century that the world is introduced to the marvels of microscopic observation. The invention of the microscope is credited to Zacharias Janssen and his son Hans in the 1590s. The first documentation of microorganisms was made by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek of Delft in the 1670s. He is often called the "Father of Microbiology" due to his pioneering work with simple microscopes. Leeuwenhoek's advancements in lens-making enable deeper exploration into the microbial world. Leeuwenhoek crafts lenses allowing him to magnify objects up to 200x, revealing microscopic life. Limonite: Ancient Earth Pigments Great Women Artists - Käthe Kollwitz Sailing - Bronze Age Sails & Sailcloth He observes with delight and astonishment samples such as pond water, dental plaque and rainwater. His observations document single-celled organisms he dubs "animalcules", and the understanding of microbial life begins. While Van Leeuwenhoek is commonly credited with being the first to discover microbes, Robert Hooke makes his initial documented microscopic observation in 1665. His work focusses on the fruiting bodies of molds. Rot & Decay: Process of Organic Putrefaction Metal to Rust: Unseen Organisms in Action 5 Syphilis Treatments of European History Another figure, a Jesuit priest named Athanasius Kircher, is also believed to have been among the earliest to observe microorganisms. Kircher, known for creating magic lanterns for projection, has a deep understanding of lens properties. In 1646, Kirchner authors " Regarding the remarkable complexity of natural phenomena, observed through a Microscope ." He marvels at the presence of countless worms in vinegar and milk. He further observes tiny creatures teeming in the midst of decay. Isabella Cortese: Renaissance Writer, Alchemist, Entrepreneur Tartrate Crystals: Secrets of Tartaric Acid Cosimo Ruggeri: Prophecies from the Dark His work Scrutinium Pestis (Examination of the Plague), published in 1658, correctly attributes the disease to microbes. The organisms he saw are probably red or white blood cells rather than the actual plague-causing pathogens. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Soot, also loosely called lampblack or carbon black, is traditionally used to make ink, painters' pigment, medicines and makeup. A beautiful black ink can be made with soot, with good coverage and versatility. Soot from plant materials is also trendy for skin health lately. Soot & Lampblack: Beauty, Art and Medicine Black Pigments of Ancient Artisans Metal to Rust: Unseen Organisms in Action What is Soot? It's a dark powdery carbon substance forming when wood, coal, or oil are incompletely burned or combusted. Fine particles of carbon coalesce to form the black powder soot. It's officially known as  polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon. Although soot can be obtained by burning different materials, the soot collected by burning linseed oil is a more suitable material for making ink due to its intense darkness. Soot can have various densities and comes from almost anywhere a fire burns. Gouache Painting: Artist Essentials & Art Tips Woad, the People's Blue: Ancient Pigments Kerotakis: Ancient Alchemical Equipment Soot can be collected from a candle flame by placing a piece of metal over the flame. Use the back of a spoon or flat of a butter knife for testing and small jobs. Heat will discolor some metals so be sure it's a junker. The spoon method is long and tedious for those without patience, such as me, and return is miniscule. As a binder, gum arabic is used in the recipe. It's the same binder as in watercolor paint, other inks and gouache . Xanthan gum can also be used. How to Make Ink with Soot Creating ink and art media with soot goes back to ancient civilizations. By combining soot with binding agents like gum arabic, other resins egg yolk or wax, artisans can produce inks of varying shades, enabling clever artistry in historical illustrations and writings. Secrets of Elemental Carbon for Truth Seekers Eight Dye Plants & Natural Dyes in History Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Making ink from soot is fairly straightforward. It yields a rich, deep color. Here’s a basic method: Materials Needed : Soot (lampblack or candle soot) - alternately, almost any dry pigment such as ocher or verdigris Water Gum Arabic (as a binding agent) A small container for mixing Gum arabic or acacia gum comes from the Acacia tree. It's tapped by stripping bits off the bark, causing the tree to produce gum. Acacia gum is a main export of several African nations, including Mauritania, Niger, Chad, and Sudan. Hildegard von Bingen: Nature, Music & Beer Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld Caput Mortuum: Dead Head Purple Pigment Acacia gum or gum arabic can be found at art supply stores and possibly some grocery stores. Xanthan or Guar gum are good substitutes. Online is always a good bet. Amazon is not recommended but there are many other sources. Instructions : Collect Soot : After burning a candle or oil lamp, collect the soot that accumulates on the sides of the container or base. Repeat until enough black is collected. Mixing : In a small container, combine one part soot with two parts water. Add Binder : Stir in a small amount of gum Arabic to the mixture. This will help the ink adhere to paper and improve its consistency. Store : Once fully mixed, transfer the ink to a sealed jar to keep it from drying out. This simple recipe creates a sustainable and rich ink embodying centuries of traditional craftsmanship. Experiment and practice. Learning the skill is also a rewarding experience. Ethyl Alcohol: Science of Solvents & Booze Gnomes: Earth Spirits of Renaissance Mythology Copperas Green & Red Pigment Process Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Soot is as old as fire. A dark, powder formed by incomplete burning of organic matter, it's used for centuries due to its easy availability and diverse applications in medicine, art and as a source of ink. Soot is primarily composed of carbon. Carbon Steel: Origins, Composition & Uses Flowers of Sulfur (Brimstone): Creation & Uses Oil of Philosophers: Alchemy Health & Beauty Soot particles can vary in size and composition, depending on the burning source and conditions. While often associated with pollution and health hazards, soot has a rich historical significance and a variety of modern applications. Types of Soot Soot is officially known as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon. It manifests different forms depending on its source. Soot is made of minuscule carbon particles formed through incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons and fossil fuels, such as charred wood, oil or coal. It contains various acids derived from chemicals, metals, soil and dust. These particles deposit a noticeable dark residue. A byproduct of combustion, it manifests in three main forms: protein - animal based, leaves oily black residue natural - usually plant-based matter, leaves powdery black residue synthetic - this comes from plastics, rubber, polyester and other person-made materials and is toxic. Ancient Traders & Buyers: Art of Testing Metals Sophie Brahe Writer, Alchemist & Astronomer Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) Caustic Potash Varieties of soot include: 1. Lampblack Historically known as one of the oldest forms of soot, lampblack is produced from the combustion of oils or fats in lamps. It's commonly used in ancient times for making inks and paint. It's also a type of carbon black. Lampblack is highly prized for its deep black color and is still used today in art materials, including oil paints. It also comes in synthetic water-based acrylic paints. An excellent natural soot for ink is obtained by burning linseed oil. Lampblack, the purest form of soot, has been historically revered for its deep black hue and light-absorbing properties. It finds extensive use in art forms such as calligraphy and painting, for its rich pigment quality. Lampblack is subtype of carbon black (described below). Black Pigments of Ancient Artisans Art of Egg Tempera: Paint Like the Old Masters Metal to Rust: Unseen Organisms in Action 2. Candle Soot Candle soot forms when wax, primarily from paraffin or beeswax, burns incompletely. Much like lampblack, this type of soot can also be collected and used for creating black pigments. Candle soot is less dense than lampblack and can have different properties depending on the type of candle and wick used. Beeswax is a natural source but burns with less soot than paraffin wax. Candle soot can be generated when candles burn inefficiently. It has a unique composition applicable in various ways, including the creation of ink formulations. To collect candle soot hold an unburnable object, like a stainless steel spoon, over the flame(s). I tried this method and gave up due to the high amount of ergs required for a very small return. Before electricity soot is ubiquitous today's scraping of spoons would make chimney sweeps laugh. Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Hydrogen Peroxide: Chemistry, Production, Risks Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Wood Soot A black, powdery substance that consists mainly of carbon and is formed through the incomplete combustion of wood, coal, diesel oil, or other materials. Firewood with a moisture content of more than 20% produces 10 to 30 times more soot and particulate emissions than does dry, seasoned wood. Wood ashes can be added to gesso or even paints. Gathering soot from surfaces is just a matter of scraping it off. Beware of Creosote Soot and creosote are residues. They form when wood is burned and can build up in the flue liner of fireplaces and wood stoves. Creosote consists mainly of tars formed from incomplete burning of wood, while powder soot comes from inefficient combustion of oil, gas and wood. Creosote can build up in chimney flues or wood stove pipes and cause house fires. If gathering soot from fireplace or wood stove, check pipes for creosote. It's more tarry than soot and sticks to the inside of fireplace flues, sometimes causing smoke to back up. Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld Blacksmiths: Iron, Metal, Gods & Myth Tanning Hides - Ancient Techniques Historical Uses of Soot Uses of soot extend back through human history. Ancient cultures use soot as a pigment for art in cave paintings and hieroglyphs. It's later employed in production of inks, paints, glazes, bases and coatings. Black soot from fires can be part of religious rituals, body makeup and ceremonies. Soot is a component in traditional tattooing practices and body art. It's among the primary black pigments of ancient and medieval artists. Art:  The deep hue of soot-based pigments has graced the works of renowned artists, adding depth and intensity to their creations. Beauty Products:  Soot has featured in beauty regimens, with ancient civilizations using it to enhance features or create cosmetic embellishments. It's often used in eye liner. If collecting soot for this purpose make sure it's not corrupted. Kohl: Eye Beauty Magic of Ancients How to Make Iron Oxide Pigment at Home Eight Dye Plants & Natural Dyes in History Beauty Products In recent years, soot as activated charcoal is more often found in beauty products, due to its reputed detoxification properties. Many skincare brands infuse their formulations with derived soot products for facial masks, scrubs, and cleansers. It's based on the concept the absorbent properties of soot help draw out impurities and toxins from the skin, revealing a fresher complexion. Medicinal Uses of Soot  According to the National Library of Medicine: " ... A natural herbal medicine, plant soot, is certified to adsorb intestinal mycotoxin, inhibit bacterial infection and promote animal digestion. The plant soot is produced by carbonization and activation products from bits of Chinese fir, pine, or bamboo in raw wood processing." Antimony (Stibnite, Kohl) Ancient Metal of Science & Beauty Earthy & Mineral Hematite: Differences White Pigments of Ancient Artisans Historically soot is used in traditional medicine, with applications ranging from wound treatment to folk remedies. The therapeutic properties attributed to soot, as well its ubiquitous presence until the 21st century, a versatile medical substance at minimal cost to the vendor. Considered to have antiseptic properties, soot is applied in small amounts to treat wounds and abrasions. It's incorporated into poultices for healing and to relieve swelling and pain. Medicinal uses of soot should be approached with caution, given modern understandings of health risks associated with soot inhalation. It's also important to understand where the soot comes from, as different sources have varying properties. Gold-of-Pleasure: Bronze Age Crops - ancient source of vegetable oil for use in lamps Natron - Ancient Embalming & Household Salts - used in ancient times to prevent soot Alchemy & the Magnum Opus - Black White Yellow Red The Inuit matriarch tends the wick and feeds the flame. She can produce sooty or clean burning flame, hot or bright or soft and dim, depending on need. She passes her knowledge to the next woman in line for the matriarchy. Hazards of Soot While soot has a fascinating history and a variety of applications, it has certain health risks. Soot exposure can lead to respiratory problems, cardiovascular diseases, and other health issues. This is particularly applicable to individuals with pre-existing conditions. Fine particles penetrate lungs and even enter the bloodstream. Soot pollution is a factor in air quality degradation. Inhaling soot particles causes respiratory issues. Gathering soot from a candle flame is safe enough but not forty flames in an enclosed space. Hildegard von Bingen: Nature, Music & Beer Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Ge Hong: Teachings Alchemy Medicine Pregnant women should not gather or work with soot. For those with mild respiratory issues a filter mask should be worn, and anyone with serious or ongoing health conditions will be better off finding an alternative. Carbon Black The term is sometimes used interchangeably with soot, as they're both carbon based. Carbon black is the mother of black hues. Carbon black comes from the incomplete combustion of coal tar, vegetable matter, or petroleum products under limited air supply. It has subtypes such as acetylene black, channel black, furnace black, lamp black and thermal black. Unlike soot, carbon black has a higher surface-area-to-volume ratio and a lower polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH, a precursor to soot) content. 5 Syphilis Treatments of European History Arcanum Joviale: Alchemy of Sudorific Sweat Mad Hatter's Disease: Mercury Madness As its volume ratio is not as high as that of activated carbon, it is a form of paracrystalline carbon. Carbon black is commonly used as a colorant and reinforcing filler, and pigment in paints, and inks. In EU, it's approved as a food colorant when sourced from vegetable matter. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

In ancient philosophical thought, Democritus is a visionary whose ideas continue to illuminate minds. Born in 460 BCE in Abdera, Greece, Democritus gives insight into intricacies of existence, atoms, and the universe long before the advent of modern science. Democritus - Atomic Theory 400 BCE Alexandria: Jewel of Ancient History Active Imagination: Creative Therapy A Visionary Thinker Democritus, called the "Laughing Philosopher" due to his jovial nature and belief in the healing power of laughter, has a questing intellect transcending boundaries of his time. His philosophical doctrines are centered around the concept of atomism. He explains all matter is composed of indivisible, microscopic particles. This groundbreaking assertion challenges the prevailing beliefs of his era and eventually leads to modern atomic theory. Cleopatra the Alchemist of Alexandria Democritus - Atomic Theory 400 BCE Jungian Numerology & Number Meanings According to Democritus, the atoms making up the universe are in constant motion and disorder. Eventually they collide to create bigger structures like the earth and all upon it. He also says there exist numerous worlds. Some are expanding, some deteriorating. Some have no sun or moon, while others have multiple. He theorizes each world has a start and an end, and that a world could be obliterated through a collision with another world. Zodiac, Astrology & Jungian Psychology Numinous: Beholding the Divine Psychology: Understanding Archetypes In a state of constant motion, the atoms combine and recombine to form the diverse array of matter perceptible in the world. Even at rest they are constantly in a mode of active vibration. Democritus' influence extends beyond the discipline of science. His philosophical inquiries explore the nature of human existence, ethics, and the pursuit of happiness. His teachings emphasize importance of virtue, self-control, and inner harmony as the keys to a fulfilling life. Ancient Greek Discovery & Use of Mercury Quintessence: Elemental Life Force Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files In many ways, Democritus is far ahead of his time. His insights into the nature of reality and structure of matter foreshadow many scientific discoveries to come centuries later. In the late Ptolemaic era works are created, falsely ascribed to Democritus. The author of the works is named Pseudo-Democritus even after his identity is partly revealed as Bolos of Mendes . Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Acetic acid is a compound with many uses. With chemical formula CH₃COOH, this colorless liquid has a sharp pungent smell and sour taste. It's best known as the main component of vinegar. In the solution below, balsamic vinegar makes art in olive oil. 5 Waters of Ancient Alchemy: Aqua Caustic Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides Vitriol in Alchemy: Caustic Compounds A staple in households worldwide, acetic acid has a long and varied history and expansive applications. A weak organic acid, it occurs naturally in various foods and is produced during the fermentation process, a favorite transformation method of alchemy. An edged cross 🜊 i s the alchemical symbol for vinegar in general. It's commonly seen in lists of alchemy symbols, in pharmacies and alchemic writings. The word "acetic" comes from Latin acētum (vinegar, or vinum acetum : "wine turned sour"). 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine Ancient Roman Baths & Bathing Wolfsbane (Aconitum) Ancient Poisons Vinegars have acetic acid concentrations from 4 - 6 % in regular white vinegar to 8% in some artisan brands and 18% in other applications. Acetic acid is made with a dual fermentation process, where yeast converts simple sugars into ethanol. Acetic acid bacteria then transform ethanol into acetic acid. Acetic acid bacteria are a group of Gram-negative bacteria. They oxidize sugars or ethanol and produce acetic acid during fermentation. Poison Pigments of Painters: Renaissance Malaria: Roman Fever & Renaissance Plague Rabbit Fever Plague & Warfare: Hittites Airborne, acetic acid bacteria are widely distributed in nature, especially where ethanol is produced through sugar fermentation. The bacteria can be found in flower nectar and damaged fruit, as well as in fresh apple cider and unpasteurized, unfiltered beer. In these liquid environments, they form a surface film due to their aerobic characteristics and mobility. They are 10 genera of bacteria in family Acetobacteraceae . What is Alum? Origins, Production & Use Living Metals & Genders in Ancient Alchemy Soul Perspectives: Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato Fruit flies and vinegar eels are commonly recognized as carriers helping spread acetic acid bacteria. The growth of genus Acetobacter in wine can turn good booze to vinegar. In the 19th century, Louis Pasteur discovers the existence of the bacteria. Acetic acid bacteria convert ethanol to acetic acid in the presence of oxygen. Bacteria of the genus Acetobacter have been isolated from industrial vinegar fermentation processes and are frequently used as fermentation starter cultures. Caterina Sforza: Renaissance Alchemy Lapis Lazuli & Gold: Jungian Alchemy Symbolism Alchemy & New Thought in Ancient Alexandria In winemaking, their activity can be reduced with sanitation and air-tightness of wine in storage. Use of moderate amounts of sulfur dioxide in the wine as a preservative also dissuades these industrious creatures. Beyond culinary applications, vinegar has been used for centuries as a natural cleaning agent, food preservative, and as a health tonic due its sharp taste giving a feeling of invigoration. 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Alchemy of Mystical Herbal Elixirs & Cures Isabella Cortese: Renaissance Writer, Alchemist, Entrepreneur In pure form, acetic acid is hygroscopic (absorbs air moisture), a colorless liquid able to dissolve and interact with substances. While most often associated with vinegar, acetic acid can be synthesized chemically and is a key component in various industrial processes. Also known as ethanoic acid, acetic acid is essential in processes of transformation. As a solvent, the acetic acid in vinegar it dissolves polar compounds such as inorganic salts and sugars, as well as non-polar compounds such as oils. Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure Leap to Flames: Why Did Empedocles Jump into Mount Etna? Aluminum(III) Oxide: Secrets of Precious Gemstones The understanding of acetic acid and its properties further develops in the Middle Ages, particularly in alchemy. Alchemists often work with vinegar and see it as a manifestation of "sour", exploring transformative, preservative, purifying and corrosive powers of this acid. While vinegar is a much diluted form, concentrated acetic acid is corrosive and attacks many metals. It forms flammable or explosive gases. It can also attack some forms of plastic, rubber and coatings. Vermilion - Scarlet Pigment of Death White Herb of Maria: Ancient Alchemy Secrets Zinc (Zn): Essential Metal in Alchemy & Medicine Alchemists seek to isolate elements and use natural processes to change their properties. One collective goal is to find a universal solvent. Vinegar is a popular, easily available acid. In the 1st century AD little is known about microscopic bacteria, but the process is intriguing. While the making and doubling of gold is addressed in Alexandria, gold fever is more associated with the medieval, Renaissance and early modern age. It's less prevalent among the Alexandrian alchemists, who understand what gold making is all about. Diplosis: Gold Doubling & Multiplication in Alchemy Corundum: Secrets of Valuable Gemstones Goethite: The Other Iron-Rich Mineral Acids (waters), salts and other components are painstakingly separated from their parent compounds, purified and fortified. They might undergo further processing or are used raw in the alchemical methodology. The history of acetic acid is older than most civilizations. Recorded use dates back to 5000 BCE in Mesopotamia. Acetic acid is discovered there as a byproduct of fermentation. Ancient Egyptians also use vinegar in food preservation and medicinal applications. Corycian Caves, Bee Nymphs & Greek Gods Natural Health: Paracelsus & Hermetic Principles Baltic Amber in Folklore and Myth Alchemists know vinegar has the power to dissolve impurities, an important part of alchemy through the ages. For some, such as the Gnostics, purity of substances is mimicked as purity of soul/mind/body. For all alchemists, experiments with acetic acid give a greater understanding of natural interactions. Combining vinegar with other substances, new compounds come to life, demonstrating the principles of chemical reactions. The Pauli Effect - Quarks or Quacks? Alkahest: Panacea & Solvent Alchemy Lapis Lazuli: Vibrant Blue Gem of Ancients While acetic acid is the most prominent component, vinegar contains other organic acids, including citric, malic, and tartaric acids. Today's vinegar contains various compounds to add flavor and aroma, including phenolics and esters. The specific composition of vinegar also depends on its source. Apple cider, red wine, balsamic and rice vinegar all have unique profiles offering distinct culinary experiences. Combination of these elements gives vinegar its diverse applications and health benefits. Zodiac, Astrology & Jungian Psychology Synchronicity: Psychology of Coincidence Natural Colors: How to Extract Plant Pigments Applications of Acetic Acid Acetic acid is versatile and used in various industries: Food Industry : Besides being a primary component of vinegar, acetic acid is used as a food preservative, flavoring agent, and acidulant in products such as sauces, pickles, and canned goods. Medicine : Acetic acid is used in certain medical applications, including in the preparation of some medications and as an antiseptic. Chemicals : It is central to the production of chemicals like acetates, which are used in the manufacture of plastics, dyes, and solvents. Agriculture : Acetic acid is utilized as a herbicide and pesticide, proving effective against certain unwanted plants or insects. Textiles : In artisan dyeing it can be used as a pre-mordant together with citric acid. This may have led to the myth vinegar can be used as a mordant for home dyeing. Neither vinegar nor acetic acid are good main mordants. Colors wash out very quickly. In industry acetic acid may be used with other substances as part of the dye process. Hair Dye: it may extend the color life of dyed hair if applied before dyeing. Natural Purple Dyes: Ancient & Medieval Mordants - Essential Ancient Dye Techniques Galls & Gall Nuts: Black Ink, Dye, Medicine According to hair care experts vinegar works on the hair like a mordant: “Vinegar is a clarifier—it helps with removing buildup on the cuticle layer of the hair. A vinegar rinse before applying semi-permanent color will help the color adhere and therefore last longer. A vinegar rinse after applying semi-permanent color will strip some of the color off.” Acetate is a bio-plastic or biodegradable plastic derived from biological substances rather than from petroleum. It's extracted from cellulose, a plant based material from wood pulp, mixed with acetic acid. So acetate as an ecologic solution can involve chopping a lot of trees. It's almost like making electric car batteries with lead and sulfuric acid . Whoever would do that? Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy Divine Water: Sulfuric Acid in Alchemy Chun Yuyan & Death of Empress Xu Health Benefits and Wellness Trends Acetic acid, particularly in apple cider vinegar, is lauded by purveyors as a health tonic with miraculous benefits ranging from weight loss aid to blood sugar regulation. Scientific studies are inconclusive. Some potential benefits include: Blood Sugar Regulation : Studies suggest that vinegar may help improve insulin sensitivity and reduce blood sugar levels post-meal, making it a potential ally for managing type 2 diabetes. Weight Management : Some research has indicated that vinegar consumption may promote feelings of fullness, potentially aiding in weight loss efforts. Antimicrobial Properties : The antibacterial properties of acetic acid make it effective in killing harmful bacteria, which can contribute to food safety. Heart Health : Preliminary findings suggest that acetic acid may help lower cholesterol levels and blood pressure, contributing to cardiovascular health. Sapphire Gemstones: Colors, Myths, Origins & Gemology Ammit - Eater of the Heavy Heart Antimony (Kohl) Ancient Metal of Beauty & Trade Trade and Commerce The trade of vinegar, and by extension acetic acid, plays a vital role in various cultures, from the Mediterranean to Asia. Historically, vinegar is valuable as a culinary ingredient, preservative and a medicine. Verjuice, a weak type of vinegar, is popular in cuisine. Acetic acid's ability to inhibit bacteria growth makes it a vital food preservative, especially in the long millennia before refrigeration. Trade routes of the ancient world include vinegar as a commodity. Production techniques are refined to the many types of vinegar today. Famous Women of Renaissance Alchemy Roger Bacon: Medieval Science & Alchemy Metal & Gemstone Dyeing in Alchemy Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Artists of Renaissance Europe cultivate palettes rich in colors sourced from elements both enchanting and lethal. The Renaissance is known for advances in artistic techniques and color theory. Gouache Painting: Artist Essentials & Art Tips Art of Egg Tempera: Paint Like the Old Masters Best Mortar & Pestles for Artists, Chefs, Scientists Today the artist goes to the art store, but things are different in the Renaissance. Pigments are gathered, processed, refined and traded. Artists of this period had access to a stunning array of colors, each bringing its unique vibrancy and character to their masterpieces. They grind their own pigments, perhaps collect their own lampblack which is a common commodity before electricity. Apprentices often have to do the grunt work, such as making brushes, priming surfaces or even underpainting for the Master. Prussian Blue - Delight of Artists & Poisoners Earthy & Mineral Hematite: Differences Lead White & Minium Red: Colors to Die For Alternately they trade in the market. Pigments, dyes and colors are coveted trade items, along with spices and textiles. Traders visit customers at dye works or studios. Recipes for desirable colors are kept secret. To bind pigments to surfaces, Renaissance artists use egg yolk, beeswax, oils such as walnut, later linseed, and gum arabic. The binders secure pigments influencing texture, translucency and drying time. Burning linseed oil also makes deep black soot if one runs out of lampblack. Alchemists are early pigment makers, and this becomes a discipline in itself. Prussian blue is created by alchemist Dippel and colleague. The Leyden Stockholm Papyrus (c. 250 AD) is full of alchemical wisdom on coloring metals, gems and fabric with materials like realgar. Gum Arabic, Guar, Xanthan: Guide for Artists & Artisans Queen Eleanor & the Calamitous Crusade Great Women Artists - Käthe Kollwitz Realgar (Arsenic Compound) Realgar, known for its brilliant red hue, is an arsenic sulfide mineral. In Renaissance Europe, it's prized for its vibrant shade. Realgar is typically produced by grinding the mineral into a fine powder. Along with its striking color, realgar poses significant health hazards due to arsenic content. Prolonged exposure causes arsenic poisoning in artists and apprentices. In terms of lightfastness, realgar is relatively stable, but its durability concerns arise due to the potential for fading and discoloration over time. Cinnabar (Mercury Sulfide) Red Death Mercury (Quicksilver): Miracle Metal of Madness Sulfur - Treasures of the Underworld Crimson / Carmine (Kermes Beetles) Derived from the dried bodies of the kermes beetle, crimson is a sought-after red pigment, often used to give life to Virgin Mary's robes and the flesh tones of figures. The process involved drying and crushing the insects, then extracting the dye through a series of steps. While crimson is renowned for its rich hue, it can be less lightfast compared to later synthetic alternatives. The lack of durability in insects crimson also raises concerns, as it starts to turn brown when exposed to sunlight over time. Red Madder: Organic Ancient Colors Kermes Insect & Ancient Red Pigments Silver - Queen of Precious Metals Azurite This gorgeous blue pigment is sourced from the mineral azurite, which is formed through the weathering of copper ores. Artists value azurite for its beautiful hue and fine granulation. To create the pigment, azurite is ground to a fine powder. While azurite provides excellent color, it's also quick to deteriorate when exposed to moisture, taking on a greenish patina from resident copper as it becomes malachite. Consequently, preservation techniques were vital for masterpieces incorporating azurite. This mineral is beloved for its captivating blue tone reminiscent of azure skies. 10 Ancient Spices of Trade, Health & Beauty Make Black Ink or Paint Pigment with Soot Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Ultramarine (Lapis Lazuli) One of the most coveted pigments of the Renaissance, ultramarine is derived from lapis lazuli, a semi-precious stone found in Afghanistan. The process to extract this brilliant blue involved intricate methods, including crushing the stones and washing. The intensive labor significantly increases its value. Ultramarine is highly lightfast and durable. Its cost leads many artists to opt for cheaper alternatives, while others reserve it for the most important subjects. Ultramarine symbolizes wealth and prestige. Lapis Lazuli: Creating Ultramarine Lapis Lazuli & Gold: Jungian Alchemy Symbolism Lapis Lazuli: Vibrant Blue Gem of Ancients Indigo (Indigo Plant) Extracted from the leaves of the indigo plant, this deep blue pigment is popular during the Renaissance for its rich, velvety color. The pigment making process includes harvesting leaves, fermenting them, and extracting the dye. While indigo demonstrates excellent lightfastness and durability, it can show an inconsistency in color and slight bleeding into other tones. Nonetheless, it remains an enduring favorite among artists. Indigo: Extract Dye from Indigofera Tinctoria Woad, the People's Blue: Ancient Pigments Chalcanthite: Crystal Blue Explosion Verdigris (Copper Patina) Verdigris, a green pigment made from corrosion of copper, is made by placing copper plates in vinegar in a covered clay vessel. Copper oxidizes naturally in 5 - 30 years. This process yields a brilliant blue-green color favored for fleshtones and landscapes. While vivid, verdigris comes with significant health hazards. The pigment can cause skin irritation. From a durability perspective, verdigris is prone to fading when exposed to light, becoming unstable with age, like most of us. Verdigris: Creation of Coveted Blue Green Pigment Egyptian Blue Faience - Ceramic Glass Flowers of Sulfur (Brimstone): Creation & Uses Green Earth This pigment, often derived from natural silicate minerals, produces muted green tones preferred by some artists for landscape paintings. Its sources include minerals like celadonite, and it's valued for its permanence and lightfastness. The durability of green earth makes it a popular choice for under-painting, providing a stable foundation for layering techniques. This pigment offers a range of earthy tones to artists. Its versatility makes it a valuable addition to Renaissance palettes. In underpainting, due to its lightfastness while the color on top can possibly fade, earth green is often the pigment responsible for the greenish cast to medieval faces. Isaac Newton: Alchemy & the Occult Victorian Health: Sea Water Hydrotherapy Process of Projection in Renaissance Alchemy Malachite Malachite is another copper-based green pigment. Its virtues as pigment are known by the 4th Dynasty of Egypt (c. 2625–2500 BCE). The process of obtaining malachite involves grinding the stone into powder. On the Mohs scale of harness malachite is 3.5 - 4, "softer" than glass. While malachite offers beautiful deep green hues, similar to verdigris, it also his durability issues. Light exposure can cause discoloration over time. This is because copper, the main ingredient in malachite, never stops reacting. The pigment can be prepared from malachite by grinding, washing and levigating the raw material. Malachite can also be prepared in the laboratory by a reaction of copper (II) sulfate and sodium carbonate. Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Ge Hong: Teachings Alchemy Medicine Naples Yellow Naples yellow, an opaque yellow pigment, is made from lead antimonate. Its production involves roasting lead and antimony at high temperatures. This pigment exhibits excellent opacity, making it perfect for underpainting and mixing with other colors. However, like other lead-based pigments, Naples yellow poses severe health risks, including lead poisoning. Despite this, its durability and lightfastness made it a favored option for artists. Naples yellow has warm buttery tones. Its lightfastness makes it a popular Renaissance choice. Seven Deadly Diseases of the Renaissance Weld Yellow: Ancient Nature Pigments Kaolinite: White Pigment with Benefits Lead-Tin Yellow Lead-tin yellow is an inorganic pigment created by mixing lead oxide and tin oxide. It has a warm, opaque tone popular for highlights in paintings. A luminous yellow pigment, it graces artworks with a radiant glow. It has strong coverage and offers good lightfastness and durability. However, like other lead-based colors, it carries the well-known risks associated with lead exposure. Theriac: Miracle Snake Venom Potion Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Poison Pigments of Painters: Renaissance Orpiment (Arsenic Compound) Similar to realgar, orpiment  is an arsenic sulfide mineral known for its striking yellow color. Its vibrant hue attracts artists, but like other arsenic-based pigments, it poses severe health risks. Orpiment may be found together with realgar and used in traditional medicine. While effective for colors requiring vibrancy, its lightfastness and durability are questionable, as it can fade when exposed to light or humidity. Orpiment is a favorite color for angels' wings and garb due to its golden hue. Today the color has transmuted to an icky green. Eight Dye Plants & Natural Dyes in History Renaissance Apocalypse: End is Nigh Isabella Cortese: Renaissance Writer, Alchemist, Entrepreneur Many of these colors first emerge during the Renaissance or medieval times, thus it's difficult for artists to judge lightfastness and color permanence. Others go back to antiquity or further. Arsenic based pigments like realgar and orpiment appear several times in the Leyden Papyrus. 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Gouache painting has a unique charm and offers versatility for artists and art appreciators. This unctuous type of paint delivers vibrant colors and opaque finish, making it distinct from other water-based media. Art of Egg Tempera: Paint Like the Old Masters Black Pigments of Ancient Artisans Best Mortar & Pestles for Artists, Chefs, Scientists What is Gouache? Gouache is a water-based paint consisting of pigment, water, and a binding agent, typically gum arabic . Its biggest defining feature is opacity. While watercolor can be transparent, gouache is designed to create solid, vivid colors with a satin or matte finish. This allows artists to achieve depth and dimension in their work. The paint can be thinned with water for a more transparency or applied thickly for a textured, impasto effect. The artist controls consistency. White Pigments of Ancient Artisans How to Make Copperas Ferrous Sulfate: Process Red Ocher (Ochre) Ancient Pigments History of Gouache The history of gouache painting dates back to ancient times, with origins in illuminated manuscripts and Persian miniatures. The term comes from Italian guazzo , which means mud or sludge, reflecting the medium's thick, creamy texture. Its popularity surges in the Renaissance when artists in Europe adopt gouache alongside egg tempera , another popular medium. The problem with egg tempera is its curing length and the accompanying smell. After 1500 oils are primarily used, and watercolors come into fashion later, although artists use them to make quick sketches. Albrecht Dürer is the first person to use watercolor. His famous painting "Young Hare" is a mix of watercolor and gouache. 3 More Great German Artists Myrrh - Mystique, Death & Divinity Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Difference between gouache and watercolor? Gouache dries faster than watercolor and is less prone to changing tone and appearing paler after drying, unlike most watercolor paints. In gouache, dark tones tend to lighten and light tones darken after drying. Gouache gains popularity in the 18th century as it's discovered by artists such as Francisco Goya and William Blake. Over the years, gouache evolves into a preferred medium for many. It's particularly favored by illustrators and commercial artists in the 19th and 20th centuries, providing a means to create bold, eye-catching designs. Notable artists like Paul Klee, Henri Matisse, and David Hockney all use gouache. Prague: Bohemians of the Renaissance Ancient Traders & Buyers: Art of Testing Metals How to Make Iron Oxide Pigment at Home Best Paint Pigment Colors When it comes to choosing the best paint pigments for gouache, opt for high-quality, lightfast colors to ensure the longevity of artworks. Some popular pigments used in gouache painting include: Titanium White Ultramarine Blue Cadmium Yellow Cadmium Red Light Alizarin Crimson Lampblack Green isn't necessary. Natural greens are made with yellow and black, while brighter greens issue forth with ultramarine and yellow. Ultramarine and alizarin crimson also make beautiful purples. Cadmium red light is the most vibrant red. 10 Ancient Spices of Trade, Health & Beauty 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life 10 Alchemical Metals - Ancient Metals of Alchemy Best Brushes The choice of brushes significantly affects the gouache painting experience. Here are some recommendations based on common techniques in gouache: Round Brushes : Ideal for detailed work, line work, and creating soft curves. Look for sizes ranging from small to medium for versatility. Flat Brushes : Perfect for laying down broad strokes, washes, and even blending colors. Filbert Brushes : With their oval shape, filbert brushes can achieve both sharp lines and soft edges, making them suitable for various applications. Watercolor Brushes : These can also work well with gouache, especially for a more fluid application. When working with gouache it's advised to choose synthetic brushes. With gouache they hold shape better than natural hair brushes. Good gouache brushes are an investment. They should feel smooth on the skin and the fibers fall quickly back into shape when bent. Baltic Amber - Gold of the North Mulberry Tree (Morus): Uses, Folklore & Myth Flowers of Sulfur (Brimstone): Creation & Uses Synthetic brushes with short, firm bristles are well-suited for gouache painting, providing control and precision. Round brushes are versatile and can be used for both broad strokes and finer details, while flat brushes are excellent for covering larger areas and edge work. Best Painting Surfaces Gouache can be applied to a variety of surfaces, but some work better than others. The following are the best surfaces for gouache painting: Watercolor Paper : Cold-pressed watercolor paper is a popular choice due to its texture and absorbency. Hot-pressed paper offers a smoother surface but may not hold as much water. Illustration Board : This sturdy surface can handle heavy applications of gouache without warping. Canvas : While not as common, primed canvas can be used for gouache paintings, especially when seeking a more textured finish. Wood Panels : Smooth wood panels can provide an excellent surface for detailed work. Mixed media paper : more compressed and smoother than watercolor Choosing the right surface will enhance painting experience and influence the final artwork. Experimenting with different grounds is a good idea. Tycho Brahe: Golden Renaissance Astronomer Knowing the Three Primary Oxides of Iron Black Hellebore: Toxins, Health & Lore Famous Gouache Art or Artists Several artists throughout history are known for gouache creations. Notable figures include: Katsushika Hokusai : Renowned for his woodblock prints, Hokusai also uses gouache in his paintings, showcasing nature with captivating detail. Paul Klee : His whimsical compositions often contain gouache, combining simple shapes with vibrant color palettes. David Hockney : This contemporary artist uses gouache extensively to create his iconic landscapes and colorful portraits. Andrew Wyeth : Renowned for his detailed and evocative gouache landscapes. Elizabeth Murray : Celebrated for her abstract and vibrant gouache compositions. Their innovative use of gouache has inspired countless artists to explore this beautiful medium. 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Red ocher is among the first colors appearing on the palette of early humans, along with white and red. Black, white and red are also the first colors a newborn can distinguish. Color has a strong spiritual reference as does the element Earth from which ocher is born. Limonite: Ancient Earth Pigments Great Women Artists - Käthe Kollwitz Sailing - Bronze Age Sails & Sailcloth Ocher (Ochre) comes in many earth tones including red ocher, yellow ocher, gold ocher, purple and rarely green. The color shade differences come from the amount and ratio of iron oxides. Hematite, a magnetic silvery stone often sold as jewelry, is an iron oxide. It has an earthy form easier to manually reduce to red powder. This is the red of ocher. Various ochres can be gathered in natural form in stones, clay and red or yellow earth. Woad, the People's Blue: Ancient Pigments Red Madder: Organic Ancient Colors Ephedra - Oldest Medical Stimulant Herb The three iron oxides of ocher are limonite or goethite (yellow to brown); hematite (red); and magnetite (black). Depending on the ratio of components, ocher can cover a wide range of earth tones. Historically ocher is a favorite for painting nature scenes and flesh tones. Red ocher is one of the colors beloved by Medieval and Renaissance painters. Artists use red ocher for fresco, a technique developed by the Minoan Greeks; in egg tempera artwork and later oil painting. Ocher is one of the few non-toxic colors on the Renaissance artists' palette . Alchemy: How to Make Rosaceum Oil Megaliths & Building at Gobekli Tepe 3 Great German Artists for Art Lovers The palette of Vermeer includes red ocher. Michelangelo did his studies for the Sistine Chapel in red ocher, and it's a frequent medium in his drawings and sketches. Leonardo da Vinci and others are also fond of the ocher tones in art. In Ancient Egypt, red ochre is a symbol of life and victory. The color is also used as lip rouge or blush. Classical Greeks call red ochre Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea) for the part of Turkey it comes from. Greeks in the 6th century BCE believe the Black Sea is the edge of the world. Queen Eleanor & the Calamitous Crusade Kermes Insect & Ancient Red Pigments Oldest Cattle Cult 6000 BCE - Arabia In history, use of ocher goes farther back than many scientists initially thought. In Africa, evidence of use and processing of red ochre pigments is dated to c. 300,000 years ago. The practice reaches its zenith with the emergence of Homo sapiens c. 2-300,000 ya. Evidence of ochre's use in Australia is more recent, dated to 50,000 years ago. New research has uncovered evidence in Asia going back to 40,000 ya. Scientists have recently red ochre has to protect skin from sun damage of ultraviolet rays. Castor Oil, Wigs & Death in Ancient Egypt Myrrh - Mystique, Death & Divinity Earth of Chios: Ancient Alchemy, Cosmetics, & Medicine Red ochre is used as a color in Africa for over 200,000 years. Women of the Himba in Namibia decorate their bodies with a mix of ochre and animal fat. The ochre mixture is also applied to hair after braiding. Maasai people in Kenya and Tanzania use it the same way. Pieces of ochre engraved with abstract designs, c. 75,000 years old, are found at Blombos Cave in South Africa. In Wales, the paleolithic burial known as the Red Lady of Paviland, due to her coating of red ochre, dates to 33,000 ya. Kermes Insect & Ancient Red Pigments Bolus (Bole) of Mendes: Ancient Egyptian Medicine Herbs & Natural Remedies - Ancient Egypt Animal paintings of red and yellow ochre pigments appear in paleolithic sites such as Pech Merle in France (c. 25,000 years old), and the Altamira Cave in Spain ( c.  16,500–15,000 BCE). Indigenous Australians have been using ochers for over 40,000 years. The Lascaux cave features horse paintings 17,300 years old. Neolithic burials use red ochre pigment symbolically, either to represent a return to the earth or possibly as a form of ritual rebirth. The color can represent blood and a theoretical Great Mother or Earth Goddess . Black Pigments of Ancient Artisans White Pigments of Ancient Artisans Weld Yellow: Ancient Nature Pigments "The use of ochre is particularly intensive: it is not unusual to find a layer of the cave floor impregnated with a purplish red to a depth of eight inches. The size of these ochre deposits raises a problem not yet solved. The coloring is so intense that practically all the loose ground seems to consist of ochre. One can imagine that the Aurignacians regularly painted their bodies red, dyed their animal skins, coated their weapons, and sprinkled the ground of their dwellings, and that a paste of ochre was used for decorative purposes in every phase of their domestic life. We must assume no less, if we are to account for the veritable mines of ochre on which some of them lived..." from   Leroi-Gourhan, A. 1968. The Art of Prehistoric Man in Western Europe. Lapis Lazuli: Creating Ultramarine Figs - Food of the Ancient World Khella - Ancient Health & Herbology According to Gothic historian Jordanes, ancient Picts paint themselves "Iron Red". Frequent references in Irish myth to "red men" ( Gaelic : Fer Dearg) suggest such a practice is common to the Celts of the British Isles . The red pigment comes from ground bog iron, a brown form of ochre particularly abundant in the Irish midlands . Bog iron is also called brown ocher or brown hematite. It's magnetic as are all the iron ores. Crocodilopolis - Sobek Crocodile God Sistrum (Sistra) Music: Ancient Egypt Herbology & Lore: Stinging Nettle Mainly used as pigment , red ocher is versatile. According to historian Peter Watson, "tribal peoples alive today ... use it to treat animal skins or as an insect repellent, to staunch bleeding, or as protection from the sun. Ochre may have been the first medicament." It's mentioned in the Ebers Papyrus, a collection of ancient Egyptian medical knowledge, for use in a medicinal salve for eye and intestinal ailments. Yellow ocher is used to treat urological problems. See also: Ancient Egypt Remedies: Ebers Papyrus Egyptian Blue Faience - Ceramic Glass Bronze Age Europe - The Amber Roads The ocher pigments in nature are non-toxic unless in combination with other formations such as the bright blue chalcanthite . The ancient Romans paint their faces red with ocher at celebrations. Ocher colors are prominent in wall art and frescos of Pompeii. Ochre is the main pigment used by Māori for war canoes and carvings in communal houses. Ochre prevents wood from drying out. It's also rubbed on the face to repel insects. Solid ocher chunks are ground on a flat but rough surfaced rock to produce the powder. The 15th-century painter Cennino Cennini described the uses of ochre pigments in his famous treatise on painting. "This pigment is found in the earth of mountains, where particular seams like sulfur are found. And there, where these seams are, sinopia, green earth and other types of pigment are found... And the abovementioned pigments running through this landscape looked as a scar on the face of a man or of a woman looks...I went in behind with my little knife, prospecting at the scar of this pigment; and in this way, I promise you, I never sampled a more lovely and perfect ochre pigment... See also: Great 19th Century German Woman Artists Yazilikaya: Sacred Site of the Hittites Milk & Dairy: Ancient Lactose Gene Hünenburg: Bronze Age European Trade Hub And know that this ochre is a common pigment, particularly when working in fresco; that with other mixtures that, as i will explain to you, it is used for flesh colors, for drapery, for colored mountains and buildings and hair and in general for many things." In early modern Malta, south of Sicily, red ochre paint is commonly used on public buildings. Naturally made ocher powder can be washed and cleaned of impurities before use. In paint, other names for red ochre tones include Venetian red, mars red, English red and Indian red. Cyclades Islands: Paradise of Ancients Nature Spirits of German Mythology 12 Days of Zagmuk: Chaos & the King

Bright common nails in hardware are used in construction, woodworking, and various DIY projects from building to pigment making. Bright common nails, in particular, are among the basic supplies in many toolboxes and workshops. Secret Life of Rust: Power of Bacteria Hematite: Iron Oxide Red Earth Pigment Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry What are Bright Common Nails Made Of? Bright common nails are primarily made of steel. This durable material gives these nails the strength needed to withstand a lot of stress. Steel provides optimal tension and shear strength. Bright common nails are used for framing, construction and other heavy-duty tasks. Bright common nails are typically crafted from carbon steel, a sturdy material known for its reliability and strength. This composition ensures these nails can withstand substantial pressure and impact. Carbon Steel: Origins, Composition & Uses Sacred Geometry: Insight to the Mysteries Gum Arabic, Guar, Xanthan: Guide for Artists & Artisans Why Are Bright Common Nails Shiny? The shine of bright common nails comes from lack of coating. Unlike galvanized (zinc-coated) nails which have an additional layer to protect them from elements, bright common nails are simply steel, polished to a bright finish. It helps reduce friction when driving them into wood. Do Bright Common Nails Contain Carbon? Yes, bright common nails contain carbon. Carbon is added to steel to improve its strength and hardness. Exact carbon content can vary depending on the specific type of steel used, most hardware nails have a low to moderate carbon content. Arcanum Joviale: Alchemy of Sudorific Sweat Secrets of Elemental Carbon for Truth Seekers Glass & Arts of Ancient Glass Making Do Bright Common Nails Contain Iron? Absolutely! Bright common nails are primarily composed of iron. Steel is an alloy made chiefly of iron and a small percentage of carbon. Thus, the iron content in bright common nails is substantial, contributing to their overall strength and durability. Do Bright Common Nails Rust? Yes, bright common nails can rust. As they lack protective coating, these nails are susceptible to corrosion when exposed to moisture, humidity, heat and freezing. Rust weakens the nails over time, compromising their holding power. Iron(II) oxide is the component of red ocher . Red Ocher (Ochre) Ancient Pigments Bacteria: Unseen Driving Force Behind All Life Herbs & Natural Remedies - Ancient Egypt If seeking economy, use bright common nails in dry environments. Galvanized steel, which is coated with zinc and may have a yellow sheen, holds up better when working in moist areas. If making art pigments or ink from the common rusty nail, galvanized steel is the worst steel to use. Just as acidity of the atmosphere influences rate of corrosion, so does acidity of the soil. The zinc coating of hot-dipped galvanized steel lasts 35-50 years even in corrosive conditions. Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Limonite: Ancient Earth Pigments Mythic Fire Gods: Hephaestus of the Greek What Corrodes Bright Common Nails? The primary agent is moisture in the environment. Water, especially when combined with salt as in brine springs or seawater, accelerates the rusting process. Chemicals or acidic substances in the materials the nails are hammered into can also promote corrosion. Uses of Bright Common Nails Bright common nails many applications. These include: Framing : Perfect for framing wooden structures like walls, floors, and roofs due to their strength and reliability. Furniture Assembly : Often used in crafting or repairing furniture, they provide a secure hold for wooden joints. General Construction : Ideal for various DIY projects, including building sheds, fences, or wooden decks. Hobby and Craft Projects : Used in crafting as a simple way to join materials together. In pigment making , the carbon and rust of common nails can be collected by leaching with water, salt, vinegar or hydrogen peroxide. The latter can bleach the pigment gold. Do not mix hydrogen peroxide with vinegar or it could combust explosively. Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Fulminating Gold: Blowing It Up in Alchemy How to Make Hematite Powder: A Step-by-Step Guide The mix of vinegar (acetic acid 4-6%) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) makes peroxyacetic acid, a highly corrosive substance. Combustion can happen if the product is in a closed container. Gasses produced by mix runs out of available space and try to escape. Boom. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Bacteria are responsible for millions of vital processes hidden from our everyday perception. These single-celled organisms are essential to our ecosystem and a massive driving force behind all life on this planet. Secret Life of Rust: Power of Bacteria Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Gum Arabic, Guar, Xanthan: Guide for Artists & Artisans Above: Clostridium bacteria C. perfringens is omnipresent in nature as a normal component of decaying vegetation, marine sediment, intestinal tract of humans and other vertebrates, insects, and soil. It has the shortest known generation time at 6.3 minutes in thioglycolate or anaerobic medium Abundance and Diversity of Bacteria To truly appreciate the immense influence of bacteria, it’s important to understand their sheer abundance and diversity. Estimates suggest that there are around 5 nonillion (5 followed by 30 zeros) bacterial cells on Earth. They thrive in almost every environment, even in places impossible for human or animal life. From the deep oceans to Arctic ice, in the air, soil, water these micro-organisms dwell. The Pauli Effect - Quarks or Quacks? Aqua Regia: The Green Lyon of Alchemy Allegory of the Cave: Vision and Truth Powerful microbes regulate processes in the human body. Everyone is familiar with the health of the oft-touted "gut bacteria". Unflavored yogurt, also created by bacteria, often helps stomach upset. Bacteria show remarkable adaptability and a wide range of metabolic capabilities. They're integral to various biological processes such as rust, decomposition of matter and creation of life. Women Scientists of the Ancient World Hair Loss: 9 Natural Cures of Physician Dioscorides Science of Rust Earth Pigments & Colors They're even active in mental health. Gastro-intestinal tract bacteria produce, interact with and contribute to compounds including neurotransmitters like serotonin and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), influential in regulating mood and emotion. Serotonin, the "happy hormone," is primarily produced in the gut and influences mood, sleep and appetite. Specialized bacteria colonize the digestive tract shortly after a person's birth. They create the neurotransmitter serotonin to educate other gut immune cells. This prevents allergic reactions to food and the bacteria themselves during early development. 10 Ancient Spices of Trade, Health & Beauty Make Black Ink or Paint Pigment with Soot Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Many bacteria thrive in warmth. Aspergillus, Bacillus, Candida, Cyberlindnera, Debaryomyces, Eurotium, Klebsiella, Lactobacillus, and Lactococcus are included in dark tea processing, oxidation and production of functional components. Curing of tea leaves is brought about by controlled activity of bacteria. The bacteria used in curing tea is Bacillus megaterium . Curing involves drying of tea leaves and loss of the green color. Black tea is oxidized but not fermented. Chamomile - Herbology & Folklore Niter (Saltpeter): Science of Alchemy Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Plant pathogenic bacteria induce as many kinds of symptoms on the plants they infect as do fungi. They cause leaf spots and blights, soft rots of fruits, roots, and storage organs, wilts, overgrowths, scabs, and cankers. Bacteria fight bacteria. Beneficial microorganisms like bacteria and fungi contain diverse natural compounds to combat plant diseases at different stages. In inhibiting plant pathogens, the bacteria generate natural compounds like secondary metabolites. Flowers of Sulfur (Brimstone): Creation & Uses Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Poison Pigments of Painters: Renaissance Without action of these unseen workers there would be no cheese, beer or many other food and beverage products. Dead bodies would pile up on earth. Without bacteria to fix nitrogen and perform other processes, plants wither and carbon cannot be formed. Bacteria break down biological waste. In their theoretical absence it quickly builds up. In dead organisms bacteria help return valuable nutrients back to the system. Most species would experience a massive drop in population or go extinct without bacterial processes. Carbon is the predominant element in bacteria. Bacteria need carbon to synthesize molecules like fats, carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbon Steel: Origins, Composition & Uses Secrets of Elemental Carbon for Truth Seekers Rot & Decay: Process of Organic Putrefaction They can use inorganic sources like carbon dioxide, and organic sources like sugars and alcohols for carbon needs. It's also essential for bacteria to produce carbon molecules, such as fats, carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids. Bacteria often have a dual nature, like those causing plant blight. In controlled conditions the same bacteria are crucial to making xanthan gum, used in food, art and medicine. Bacteria are prolific producers, protectors, creators and destroyers. Secrets of Xanthan Gum for Artists & Chefs Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe 3 Great German Artists for Art Lovers Foundation of Food Webs Bacteria occupy a critical position in the food chain. They are crucial to nutrient cycling, breaking down organic matter and recycling essential elements like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus back into the environment. This decomposition process not only cleans up dead matter but also provides nutrients essential tor plants, the primary producers in most ecosystems. In this way, bacteria serve as the foundation of food webs, ensuring that life continues to flourish. B acteria known as decomposers break down organic matter and recycle nutrients back into the environment, or synthetize new products. Bacteria are indispensable to sustaining life on our planet. Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld Ethyl Alcohol: Science of Solvents & Booze Symbiosis: Partners in Life Bacteria exist together with larger organisms for billions of years in symbiotic relationships to enhance survival. In humans, trillions of bacteria inhabit the body, aiding in digestion, synthesizing vitamins, and influencing immune responses. They contribute to health and functioning of complex organisms. They also cause pain and death. For example, before the late 1800s European hospitals are houses of death, where even a simple surgery can give rise to deadly bacteria thriving in wounds. Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) Caustic Potash Ardent Spirits Alchemy: the Fiery Elixirs of Life Arcanum Joviale: Alchemy of Sudorific Sweat Wounds are not cleaned or property treated, leading to gangrene, blood poisoning and death. While ancient Greek physicians value cleanliness, in Victorian times doctors often wear aprons caked with dried blood and tissue. The healthiest thing about European hospitals are the maggots in the beds eating away dead flesh. After the invention of antiseptic by Joseph Lister in 1865, hospital staff are amazed at the dramatic increase in the survival rate of patients. The Anxious Victorian - Mental Health Natural Health: Paracelsus & Hermetic Principles 19th Century: Home Gym, Bicycles, Antiseptic In addition to clearing out dead tissue, maggots disinfect wounds by eating harmful bacteria and secreting bacteria-killing molecules. They can also eat through biofilm, a slimy mix of micro-organisms found on chronic wo unds. Biofilm protects the bacteria beneath. The evolutionary success of bacteria is in the ability to adapt and innovate. Through processes like horizontal gene transfer, bacteria can rapidly acquire new traits, allowing them to survive in changing environments and develop resistance to antibiotics. Honey Mead: Most Ancient Ambrosia Seven Deadly Diseases of the Renaissance Victorian Health: Sea Water Hydrotherapy Bacteria are important to climate regulation. Certain bacteria are responsible for greenhouse gas emissions, while others help fix carbon in soil, making them crucial to the global carbon cycle. Bacteria cause sulfur smell in water by creating hydrogen sulfide as a byproduct. Hydrogen sulfide is generated in the environment through the bacterial decomposition of deceased plant and animal material in oxygen-deprived conditions. It can be found in raw natural gas, petroleum, volcanic emissions, sulfur reserves, geothermal springs, and marshes. Some bacteria produce antibiotics, drugs, and vaccines. Vital vitamins and nutrients can be synthesized using bacteria. Most of the many probiotic bacterial strains belong to species Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus. Gnomes: Earth Spirits of Renaissance Mythology 5 Syphilis Treatments of European History Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Here are three amazing German artists everyone should know. Franz Marc is a founder of German expressionism. Käthe Kollwitz depicts war and the lives of the poor. Kaspar David Friedrich is the best known painter of 19th century German Romanticism. 1. Franz Marc (1880 - 1916) Die großen blauen Pferde, The Large Blue Horses (1911) This painting is one of Franz Marc's most famous works. His style uses strong colors, shapes, qualities of line and organic flow to achieve vibrant harmony in his work. Animals such as deer and horses are often his subject matter. Later his style becomes more angular. Argyropoeia: Silver Making of Ancients Great 19th Century German Woman Artists Prussian Blue - Delight of Artists & Poisoners One of the founders of German Expression, Franz Marc authors Der Blaue Reiter (the Blue Rider), a progressive arts journal in Munich, with fellow artists Wassily Kandinsky, Marianne von Werefkin, Paul Klee and August Macke. A group of artists and art lovers form around Der Blaue Reiter and the bold dynamics of Expressionism. The death of this stellar artist is truly a tragedy. He's drafted into the First World War. Later, the Kaiser decides to recall all German artists from active duty. A message is already on its way to him when he steps on a mine at Verdun, 1916. The messenger arrives only to hear the now-classic words, "Franz Marc is dead." 2. Käthe Kollwitz (1867 - 1945) Working Woman with Earring, 1910 Great Women Artists - Käthe Kollwitz Women of Alchemy: Anna Maria Zieglerin Pioneering German Women - Bertha Benz Käthe Kollwitz creates drawings, prints and etchings and sculptures showing the struggles of the working class in poverty, hunger and war. A doctor's wife, she sees first-hand the pain of grief, sickness and loss. Her son Peter is killed in the First World War and some of her work reflects a mother's anguish. Other works bespeak poignant details of tenderness. Although Kollwitz doesn't formally associate herself with any artistic style, she's often included as an Expressionist. Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files Poison Pigments of Painters: Renaissance Red Madder: Organic Ancient Colors After studying painting for two years in Munich, Käthe moves on to drawing, printmaking and sculpture. Almost none of her early paintings survive but they show rare genius. Art is always her first love. When she marries, she tells her husband she's an artist first and a wife second. A hard worker, she never shirks from helping in his practice as a doctor among the less fortunate. Isaac Newton: Alchemy & the Occult Alchemy: How to Make Rosaceum Oil Romanesque - Magic of Light and Stone 3. Kaspar David Friedrich (1744 - 1840) Man and Woman Contemplating the Moon (c. 1824) Kaspar (Caspar) David Friedrich is Germany's most influential Romantic painter. Romanticism infuses painting, literature and music with themes of nature, paganism, mysticism and emphasis on the individual and self-realization. The Romantic period arises in reaction to early industrial revolution. 3 More Great German Artists Lead White & Minium Red: Colors to Die For Alchemy: How to Make Emerald Fond of allegory and Gothic elements, Friedrich uses both liberally in his artwork. Hidden meanings abound in the Romantic era. Friedrich believes an artist’s emotions are paramount to the artistry and style of the work, saying "the artist's feeling is his law”. Although he receives rave reviews early in his career, Friedrich falls out of favor later in life, and dies in obscurity. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Rust hides within itself a secret life, orchestrated by industrious communities of microscopic bacteria with immense power in the process of corrosion. Rust bacteria carry out specialized biochemical reactions, working together to transform metals and landscapes. Science of Rust Earth Pigments & Colors Metal to Rust: Unseen Organisms in Action Fermentation & Rot: Comparing Processes Beneath the flaky surface of rusted metal is an invisible world of microbial activity. Bacteria interact, move around, attack other organisms such as amoeba, and consume their favorite foods, creating byproducts to break down metals. They're an invisible army of workers. The bacteria crucial to the formation of rust include: Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria (SRB) Iron-Reducing Bacteria (IRB) Acid-Producing Bacteria Sulfur Oxidizing Bacteria Copperas Green & Red Pigment Process Caput Mortuum: Dead Head Purple Pigment Question of Alchemy in Ancient Rome Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria (SRB) Sulfate-reducing bacteria are a unique group of microbes. They thrive in low-oxygen environments. Genera such as Desulphovibrio , Desulphotomaculum , and Desulphomonas are particularly noted for their role in corrosion. These bacteria use sulfate as a terminal electron acceptor, converting it into hydrogen sulfide during their metabolic processes . S ulfide is highly reactive, corrosive and toxic. The production of hydrogen sulfide causes formation of sulfuric acid, known as the King of Acids, divine or royal water in alchemy, due to its potent solvent properties. This produces chemical reactions expediting the corrosion of metals. Divine Water: Sulfuric Acid in Alchemy Vermilion - Scarlet Pigment of Death Ancient Greek Discovery & Use of Mercury This acid environment accelerates electro-chemical reactions giving rise to corrosion, further promoting rust formation. Also, the protective biofilm formed by these bacteria traps moisture and creates localized areas of corrosion. Localized corrosion causes pitting and other metal degradation. SRB not only catalyze the rust process but also enhance its severity through their metabolic byproducts in extremely efficient ways. Poison Pigments of Painters: Renaissance Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Living Metals & Genders in Ancient Alchemy Iron-Reducing Bacteria (IRB) Iron-reducing bacteria are integral to the rusting phenomena. Genera such as Gallionella ferrugine and Ferrobacillus species, particularly Ferrobacillus ferrooxidans , are known for their ability to oxidize ferrous iron (Fe²⁺) to ferric iron (Fe³⁺) under anaerobic conditions. This conversion process increases available iron and aids rust formation by creating reactive iron to interact with moisture and oxygen. Gallionella ferrugine is also interesting due to its unique morphological features, such as stalked appendages enabling it to attach to surfaces. 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Nicolas Flamel: Creation of an Alchemy Legend Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris This attachment helps create localized conditions conducive to rust formation. Essentially, IRB form a bridge between iron metabolism and microbial respiration (the final step in decomposition), a significant contribution to the rusting process. Fundamentally the bacteria use iron compounds as electron donors, catalyzing the reduction of iron ions and accelerating corrosion of metals. Gum Arabic (Acacia Gum) Art, Food & Medicine Best Mortar & Pestles for Artists, Chefs, Scientists Soot & Lampblack: Beauty, Art and Medicine Acid-Producing Bacteria The role of acid-producing bacteria in rust formation is equally critical. Species from genera such as Pseudomonas , Aerobacter , and Bacillus can produce organic and inorganic acids as metabolic byproducts. The acids lower pH of their surroundings, creating highly corrosive conditions to accelerate rust development on iron and steel surfaces. Organic acids produced by bacteria such as Pseudomonas further aid dissolution of metal oxides, thus accelerating the corrosion cycle. Secrets of Xanthan Gum for Artists & Chefs Flowers of Sulfur (Brimstone): Creation & Uses Kerotakis: Ancient Alchemical Equipment The combination of acidity and moisture creates an ideal environment for the metal to corrode. Basically these bacteria create a wave of chemical warfare on metallic surfaces. By secreting organic acids as metabolic byproducts, they lower the pH of their surroundings, advancing metal dissolution. Sulfur Oxidizing Bacteria Sulfur-oxidizing bacteria, particularly those in the Thiobacillus genus, are essential for the efficiency of the rusting process. These bacteria convert sulfur compounds into sulfuric acid, another agent of corrosion that can lead to rust formation. Sulfur - Treasures of the Underworld Alchemy, Demons & the Roman Inquisition Lunar Caustic AgNO3: Lapis Infernalis  of Alchemy By altering the chemical makeup of their environment, they exacerbate the effects associated with corrosive substances. They also enrich the nutrient cycle and contribute to the overall microbial ecosystem that interacts with metals in various ways. These microbes harness the energy obtained from sulfur oxidation to fuel their metabolic processes, releasing sulfates to further fuel the corrosive cascade. Their ability to metabolize sulfur compounds makes them indispensable in the weird epic of rust formation. Vitriol in Alchemy: Caustic Compounds Niter (Saltpeter): Science of Alchemy Curse of the Evil Eye & Apotropaic Magic Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top