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Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms making up 10% of the Earth's total biomass. They're essential to the ecosystem and human life. They have neither a nucleus nor membrane-bound organelles, and their genetic material is organized in a simple strand of DNA. Great Advances in Chemistry 1600-1800 Jan Baptist van Helmont: Renaissance Medicine Scientific Revolution Europe 1543-1687 Prokaryotes are classified into two primary groups: bacteria and archaea. They're remarkable for both simplicity and complexity, with significant impact on the planet. What Are Prokaryotes? Prokaryotes are defined as single-celled organisms whose cells lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. This lack of compartmentalization makes them unique compared to eukaryotic cells, which contain a nucleus and various organelles. An organelle is a specialized subcellular structure carrying out specific functions within the cell, similar to how organ function in the body. Cell organelles include nuclei, storing genetic material; mitochondria, to generate chemical energy; and ribosomes, to synthesize proteins. The Microscope: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Sodium Silicate: Alchemy of Water Glass Sodium Carbonate: Natural Formation to Modern Application Prokaryotes are characterized by their simplicity in structure, yet they exhibit an astonishing range of diversity in function, metabolism, and habitat. They live in some of the most extreme environments on the planet, from hot springs and salt lakes to the deep ocean floor. Origins of Prokaryotes The origins of prokaryotes date back approximately 3.5 billion years. They're among the oldest forms of life on Earth. They likely originated in hydrothermal vents or shallow pools, relying on minerals and chemical reactions available in these environments. Their emergence marks a significant turning point in biological history. They are the early colonists of the planet. Niter (Saltpeter): Science of Alchemy Biofilm Communities: Metropolitan Microbes The Alembic: Essential Alchemy Equipment Fossil evidence, such as stromatolites, shows how these organisms contribute to the formation of Earth's early biosphere. Prokaryotes are believed evolve from primordial microbial life forms, adapting to a wide range of environments. They have an important part in shaping Earth's atmosphere, particularly through production of oxygen during photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria, a group of photosynthetic bacteria, are instrumental in this transformation. Discovery of Prokaryotes The discovery of prokaryotes can be traced back to the invention of the microscope in the 17th century. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek the first to observe bacteria through his handcrafted microscope, providing humanity with a description of the microscopic world. Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper Lunar Caustic AgNO3: Lapis Infernalis  of Alchemy Catalase: Unseen Enzymes Essential to Life He calls the tiny creatures "animalcules" and the name quickly catches on. Breakthroughs in the late 19th century, particularly by scientists like Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch, discern the activity of prokaryotes in infectious diseases. Their work establishes bacteriology as a scientific discipline. Classification and understanding of prokaryotes takes significant strides in the 20th century with the development of modern microbiology. Peracetic Acid: Origin, Reactions, Hazards Gnomes: Earth Spirits of Renaissance Mythology Tartrate Crystals: Secrets of Tartaric Acid In the 1970s, the work of Carl Woese establishes a distinct classification of life into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. This classification points out genetic differences of bacteria and archaea, two groups previously lumped together. Advancements in genetic sequencing technology further expand insights into prokaryotic life. Researchers identify about 100,000 distinct bacterial species, many of which remain undiscovered, a continuous evolution of human understanding of these microbes. Oxidation: Metabolism & Essential Molecular Action Acid-Producing Bacteria in Sulfuric Acid Creation Etch Carnelian Beads Like It's Indus Valley 2500 BCE The Difference Between Bacteria and Archaea While both bacteria and archaea are prokaryotes, they differ significantly in their genetic makeup, cellular structures, and ecological functions: Cellular Structure : Bacteria possess peptidoglycan in their cell walls, while archaea have distinctive lipids in their cell membranes that allow them to thrive in extreme environments. Genetics : Bacteria and archaea have different DNA replication mechanisms, transcription processes, and regulatory systems. Archaea are more closely related to eukaryotes in terms of certain aspects of their genetic machinery. Metabolic Pathways : Bacteria exhibit a broader range of metabolic capabilities, enabling them to decompose organic matter and participate in nutrient cycling. Archaeal metabolism often involves unique processes such as methanogenesis, which is critical in certain environments. Habitat : Bacteria occur in a wider range of environments compared to archaea, which are predominantly found in extreme habitats like hot springs, salt lakes, and deep-sea hydrothermal vents. Microbes living in these conditions are known as extremophiles. Rotten Egg Sulfur Smell: Microbial Processes Iron III Acetate - Formula, Production, Use Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Vital Functions of Prokaryotes in Human Life Prokaryotes are indispensable to the sustainability of life on Earth. Their contributions are crucial to human existence, including: Nutrient Cycling : Prokaryotes are vital for decomposing organic matter, recycling nutrients, and maintaining the balance of ecosystems. Without them, organic waste would accumulate, and nutrients would remain locked in dead material. Nitrogen Fixation : Certain bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into forms that plants can absorb, playing a crucial role in the nitrogen cycle. Gut Microbiome : In humans, the gut microbiota, a community of various bacteria, are active in digestion, immunity, and overall health. These bacteria help break down complex carbohydrates, synthesize vitamins, and protect against pathogens. Biotechnology : Prokaryotes are widely used in biotechnology for producing antibiotics, enzymes, and other important compounds. For instance, the bacterium Escherichia coli is used in genetic engineering. Bioremediation : Certain prokaryotes can degrade pollutants, making them valuable allies in environmental cleanup efforts. They can break down oil spills, heavy metals, and various hazardous waste products. Separatory Funnel: Alchemy Lab Equipment Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses Digestion & Horse Manure: Alchemy Process Functions in Nature Prokaryotes are vital to the health of ecosystems. Decomposers : Prokaryotes decompose dead organic matter, recycling nutrients back into ecosystems. This process supports soil health, promoting plant growth and nutrient cycling. For instance, bacteria in compost can accelerate the breakdown of organic waste by up to 40%. Nitrogen Fixation : Specific bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into forms that plants can utilize. This nitrogen cycle is crucial for agricultural productivity, contributing to the growth of crops that feed billions globally. For example, nitrogen-fixing bacteria can increase crop yields by as much as 30% in certain legumes. Women Scientists of the Ancient World Question of Alchemy in Ancient Rome Knowing the Three Primary Oxides of Iron Symbiosis : Many prokaryotes engage in mutualistic relationships with other organisms. Gut bacteria in humans enhance digestion, supporting the absorption of nutrients. Research indicates that a balanced microbiome can lower the risk of diseases by promoting healthy metabolism. Bioremediation : Some prokaryotes break down pollutants and toxins, cleaning contaminated environments. For instance, specific bacterial strains can degrade up to 90% of hydrocarbons in oil spills within weeks, showing their potential to address environmental disasters. Gum Arabic, Guar, Xanthan: Guide for Artists & Artisans Queen Eleanor & the Calamitous Crusade Great Women Artists - Käthe Kollwitz Prokaryotes: Indispensable to Human Life Prokaryotes significantly impact human life, influencing health, agriculture, and environmental sustainability. Here are several noteworthy contributions: Health and Wellness : The human microbiome is host to trillions of bacteria that play crucial roles in digestion and nutrient absorption. A balanced microbiome can reduce the likelihood of diseases, including asthma and gastrointestinal disorders. Agricultural Contributions : Prokaryotes enhance sustainable farming methods by improving soil fertility and increasing yields. For instance, nitrogen-fixing bacteria can lead to a 20-40%  increase in yields, which is vital for food security in growing populations. Medicinal Applications : Numerous antibiotics, such as penicillin derived from fungi, originate from prokaryotic organisms like bacteria. Ongoing studies focus on harnessing prokaryotes to develop treatments for infections, including those resistant to current drugs. Environmental Stewardship : Prokaryotes contribute to natural recycling processes, and their ability to remediate environments aids in mitigating human impact. For example, they are used in wastewater treatment facilities to break down organic pollutants efficiently. Alchemy: Circulation & the Pelican Phantasy Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld Facts About Prokaryotes Prokaryotes make up about 70% of Earth's biomass. It is estimated that there are over a trillion species of bacteria that have yet to be discovered. Some bacteria can survive extreme conditions, such as high radiation, extreme heat, or salinity, making them valuable for studying the potential for life on other planets. The human body contains roughly 39 trillion microbial cells, the vast majority of which are prokaryotes. Kerotakis: Ancient Alchemical Equipment Glauber: Preparation of a Golden Spirit of Wine Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

The Scientific Revolution, from 1543 to 1687, transforms human understanding of the natural world. This period involves events and intellectual developments seen as significant departure from medieval thinking. New methods and discoveries challenge long-held beliefs. Famous Women of Renaissance Alchemy Jan Baptist van Helmont: Renaissance Medicine Sodium Silicate: Alchemy of Water Glass This period features a profound transformation in the way humans understand the natural world. Now called the Scientific Revolution, the era sees the advent of modern science as defined by modern scientists. The Scientific Revolution is characterized by different approaches to inquiry, empirical observation, and mathematical reasoning. Certain factors, influential figures, discoveries and geographical context define the Scientific Revolution. Much like the neolithic agricultural revolution c. 10,000 BCE, the scientific revolution is a series of developments altering humanity’s relationship with nature and knowledge. During the agricultural revolution the evolution of the lactose gene is significant. Sodium Carbonate: Natural Formation to Modern Application Secret Lives of Sulfuric Acid-Eating Bacteria Milk & Dairy: Ancient Lactose Gene In Renaissance science, it's heliocentric theory. The scientific revolution "officially" begins in 1543, the year Niklaus Copernicus dies. The Polish astronomer is so worried about the wrath of the Inquisition, he doesn't publish his heliocentric findings until he's on his deathbed. It's a move away from Aristotelian views, which rely on philosophical reasoning and spiritual doctrine , towards a methodology based on observation, experimentation, and a systematic approach to inquiry, which is the call to action of many a scientific advancement over history. During the European Renaissance primarily two spiritualities exist: Christian and heretic. The threat of the Inquisition is like a smog over the land. Catholic Inquisitions: Chronology & Overview Alchemy, Demons & the Roman Inquisition Renaissance Apocalypse: End is Nigh Thus much scientific work from the early years AD, and more heavily in the medieval era of Europe, revolve around the doctrines of Christianity. Another reason is that from early medieval times, many scientists are friars. The presumed lack of empirical observation is full of holes but it still flies. For example medieval friar and alchemist Roger Bacon in the 13th century discovers the secrets of gunpowder based on a Chinese firecracker, experiments and empirical observation, yet the medieval period is historically blanketed in ignorance and blind faith. In the 16th century, Giambattista della Porta proves empirically garlic does not de-magnetize magnets. He is one of the best known Renaissance scientists and has a strong influence on development of the sciences. He gets in trouble with the Inquisition but talks his way out of it. Reduction in Chemistry: Gaining Electrons Etch Carnelian Beads Like It's Indus Valley 2500 BCE Fulminating Gold: Blowing It Up in Alchemy The period of scientific revolution emphasizes establishment of scientific laws. It signals a movement away tradition and authority, generally church doctrine, once again towards a focus on empirical evidence and reason as perceived at the time. Preceding Events and Factors Driving Change Several factors contribute to the emergence of the Scientific Revolution: The Renaissance A revival of classical learning in the 14th to 17th centuries, the Renaissance fosters humanism and encourages a critical reassessment of ancient texts. This leads scholars to pursue empirical observation and experimentation. Rediscovery of Classical Texts The Renaissance reignites interest in ancient Greek and Roman writings, emphasizing observation and rational thought. For example the Roman Pliny the Elder in the first century AD identifies amber as a resin by its smell and behavior when burned. Literature: Great Literary Patrons in History Christine de Pizan: Medieval Writings Ancient Traders & Buyers: Art of Testing Metals The Reformation The Protestant Reformation challenges Church authority, encouraging independent thought. With religion no longer the sole authority on truth, people seek answers elsewhere. Technological Advancements Innovations such as the printing press facilitate the spread of new ideas, allowing scientists and thinkers to share their works widely and challenge established beliefs. Advances in Mathematics The introduction of algebra and geometry provides scientists with tools for more precise modeling, enabling better theoretical and experimental results. Together, these factors create an environment conducive to scientific inquiry. Amazons - Warrior Women History & Myth Argyropoeia: Silver Making of Ancients Writing in Letters of Gold: Ancient Alchemy Exploration and Discovery The Age of Exploration exposes Europe to new cultures and discoveries. These create conflict in New World and Old, and a reevaluation of existing knowledge and methods of understanding the world. Alchemy Two thousand years of science becomes falls from favor due to buildup of misinterpretations over many centuries. Alchemy assumes an ever more esoteric factor. By the time of the Scientific Revolution it's full of pretty pictures and codes for the "in" crowd. Alchemists have bad reputations in general, largely due to the many fraudsters emerging as time goes on. Emphasis is on the making of actual gold, which is a crock. Scientific work of early alchemists goes out the window as self-proclaimed legitimate scientists fight for credence by distancing themselves from, and bad-mouthing, alchemists and alchemical practices. Alchemy: Science, Philosophy, Magic 5 Waters of Ancient Alchemy: Aqua Caustic Blacksmiths: Iron, Metal, Gods & Myth Another problem with alchemy is that women are actually succeeding at it, like Isabella Cortese and Caterina Sforza in 16th-17th century Italy. At the time, according to science, women are too stupid to understand science. Before the Scientific Revolution, Europe languishes under the influence of universalism. Politics, economics and religion mingle, as they have for thousands of years. Artists create personal interpretations of stories they hear, without experiencing or seeing the subjects. This leads to pictures of pelicans with bodies of swans and heads of eagles ripping open their own breasts to feed their children with blood. Christians adopt it as a symbol of sacrifice. In less grotesque news, stories of giant cinnamon birds told by traders to up the price of their wares cause their inclusion among imaginative beasts too. Giant Cinnamon Birds of Arabia Alchemy: Circulation & the Pelican Phantasy Jet Black - Ancient World Gemstones Increased travel and encounters with real animals, people and conditions impress upon the scientists the importance of first-hand observation. Nonetheless many fantastic stories remain in folklore and superstition until the 20th century. This is not the first time scientists call for empiricism and rationality. Sociologically these concepts work in cyclic patterns throughout history, (broadly) with themes of order and industrial progress followed by romanticism, nature and focus on natural health. The Anxious Victorian - Mental Health Natural Health: Paracelsus & Hermetic Principles Alkahest: Alchemy Panacea & Solvent Geographic Landscape of the Scientific Revolution While the Scientific Revolution had ripple effects across Europe, its epicenter can primarily be located in several key regions: Italy : Birthplace of the Renaissance, Italy produces innovators like Galileo Galilei 1564‐1642), who observes the moons of Jupiter and gets in trouble with the Inquisition; and "father of anatomy" Andreas Vesalius. Germany : Figures like Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630) make significant contributions to astronomy and mathematics. In the late 17th century Wilhelm Leibniz invents the modern binary numeral system. Mezzotint in art is invented by Ludwig von Siegen 1642 and becomes a preferred technique for landscape reproductions due to its shading intricacies. Prague: Johannes Kepler works as a disciple of Tycho Brahe at the famous court of HRE Rudolf II in Prague. Brahe himself is against the concepts of heliocentrism, asserting empirically if the Earth moves he should feel it. England : Isaac Newton, one of the revolution's defining figures, advanced concepts that shaped physics and mathematics and spends many years trying to turn lead into gold. The problem is, alchemy is developing an increasingly bad reputation and he almost loses credence with his peers. The founding of the Royal Society in 1660 is important in many ways. It receives the support of King Charles II, giving the participants freedom to experiment without fear of religious repercussion. The importance of collaborative scientific efforts is one of the features of the scientific revolution. France : René Descartes and Blaise Pascal introduced crucial philosophical underpinnings that would influence scientific thought. Netherlands : Tycho Brahe establishes the famous observatory Uraniborg in 1576. It's the last observatory before the invention of the telescope in 1608. His sister Sophie Brahe makes observations and keeps records of the skies. Johann Glauber (1604 - 1670) discovers a purpose for fulminating gold. Renowned for progress in optics, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 's (1632 - 1723) discoveries in microbiology revolutionize understanding of life at a microscopic level. Catalase: Unseen Enzymes Essential to Life Rotten Egg Sulfur Smell: Microbial Processes Peracetic Acid: Origin, Reactions, Hazards Influential Figures of the Scientific Revolution The revolution is marked by the contributions of several significant figures: Nicolaus Copernicus : His heliocentric model of the solar system challenges the geocentric view endorsed by the Church. Galileo Galilei : Often called the "father of modern science," Galileo champions the use of scientific method and makes ground-breaking discoveries in physics and astronomy. Johannes Kepler : Kepler formulates laws of planetary motion, reinforcing the heliocentric theory and adding precision to astronomy. Isaac Newton : Newton synthesizes the findings of his predecessors and outlines the laws of motion and universal gravitation, culminating in his seminal work, " Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ." Francis Bacon : As a philosopher, he advocates for the empirical method and skepticism, which influenced scientific inquiry and the development of modern scientific practices. Robert Boyle : Author of " The Sceptical Chymist " (1661) also calls for empirical observation. He's known for Boyle's Law of pressure and gas, and for his discovery of air as a compound. Iron III Acetate - Formula, Production, Use White Lead Toxic Beauty, Art, Ancient Production Alchemy: Circulation & the Pelican Phantasy Major Breakthroughs and Philosophical Shifts The Scientific Revolution brought forth transformative breakthroughs: The Scientific Method : Established as a systematic approach to experimentation and observation, it became the cornerstone of modern scientific inquiry. Mathematics in Science : The integration of mathematics into scientific studies allowed for precise measurements and predictions, as seen in Newton’s laws. Advancements in Anatomy : Figures like Andreas Vesalius redefined the understanding of human anatomy, emphasizing observation and dissection over traditional texts. Physics : Newton’s discoveries not only explained motions on Earth but also celestial dynamics, altering the scientific narrative about the universe’s structure. Biology and Medicine : The discovery of blood circulation by William Harvey in the 17th century was revolutionary, laying vital groundwork for modern medicine. Chemistry : The transition from alchemy to chemistry marked a significant evolution, with Robert Boyle’s gas laws laying foundational principles that still guide the field today. Philosophy and Methodology : The establishment of the scientific method fundamentally changed how knowledge was acquired through systematic observation, experimentation, and analysis. Arsenic Trioxide: Paint Pigment & Pesticide Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Facts About the Scientific Revolution Timeline : Although often associated with the years 1543 (publication of Copernicus's "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium") to 1687 (publication of Newton’s "Principia"), the Scientific Revolution extends beyond this period and overlaps with the Enlightenment. Impact on Religion : The Scientific Revolution often undermined traditional religious views about the cosmos, leading to conflicts between science and the Church, a dynamic that would continue into the Enlightenment. Legacy : The Scientific Revolution not only transformed scientific thought but also laid the groundwork for the Industrial Revolution, significantly impacting technology and society. Galileo faced trial by the Catholic Church for his support of the heliocentric model, which they condemned as heretical. The Scientific Revolution spurs a growing sense of individualism and skepticism toward traditional institutions, marking a shift in cultural attitudes. The practices established during the Scientific Revolution still inform modern scientific methods and educational systems today. Mad Honey - What's the Buzz? Night Raven (Nachtkrapp) Germania Potrimpo - Baltic Sea God of Grain Paints of the Artist's Palette in Renaissance Europe Seven Deadly Diseases of the Renaissance Science of Alchemy: Simple Distillation Process Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Mary the Jewess appears on the scene in vibrant Alexandria on the sparkling Mediterranean in c. first century AD. Educated, well-spoken, witty and sometimes excitable, Maria makes herself known as the world's first true alchemist. Women of Alchemy - Mary the Jewess Cleopatra the Alchemist of Alexandria Alexandria: Jewel of Ancient History "'How is it "our lead" ( 1 ) produced?' said Maria. 'If you do not render the corporeal substances incorporeal, and the incorporeal substances corporeal, and if you do not make the two bodies one, nothing of the expected will be produced.' " Olympiodorus of Thebes , 5th century AD Mary the Jewess (or Maria the Prophetess, Maria Prophetissa after 16th century), is an iconic figure whose contributions to alchemy remain powerful today. A skilled alchemist, Mary is also a wise philosopher, blending science and spirituality in her teachings. Ornithomancy - Prophecy by the Birds Alchemy & Seven Hermetic Principles Secrets of Mystical Alchemy: Unlocking the Unknown It's said Mary once in excitement "shrieks" the words which would become the Axiom of Maria: "One becomes two, two becomes three, and out of the third comes the one as the fourth." The core of Maria's prescribed gold-making procedure lies in the belief there exist two types of substances: volatile and fixed, or incorporeal and corporeal. Metals like copper, lead, and zinc fall into the corporeal and fixed category. Spiritual Magic - Numbers Three & Nine Jungian Numerology & Number Meanings Numerology: Number Meanings & Personality The goldening process involves removing their corporeal nature by converting them into volatile and incorporeal substances, such as oxides (through exposure to air), sulfides (using sulfur or sulfides), or chlorides (with sea salt), among others. Subsequently, these oxides, sulfides, or chlorides must be transformed back into metallic form with new characteristics and hues. This is done either by purifying them or by creating alloys. Quintessence: Elemental Life Force Alchemy and the Art of Gold-Making Sacred Marriage: Hieros Gamos in Alchemy When Mary speaks of uniting the male and female, she refers to metals and alloys. She applies genders and characteristics to metals which ultimately flower into the complex works of the Renaissance artists and philosophers, with the Red King & White Queen . The Gold Process of Maria Mary speaks to the philosopher Aros. ".. Maria said: "O Aros ... take the Allum of Spain, the white gumm and the red gumm, which is the Kibric [sulfur] of the Philosophers, and their Sol and the greater Tincture, and marry Gumm with Gumm together with a true Matrimony. Sulfur - Treasures of the Underworld Alchemy: Red King & White Queen Active Imagination: Creative Therapy "Mary said, make them like a running Water, and vitrify this water which has been labored or wrought upon for one day, out of the two Lubechs, upon the fixed body, and liquefy them by the secret of Nature in the Vessel of Philosophy [a crucible]. Did you understand us?" "Yes, my Lady." Maria said: "Make it like unto running water, and vitrify this water, when a day has elapsed, by means of the two zubechs [from zlbaq , mercury] over the fixed body, and liquify it by the secret of the Natures in the Vessel of Philosophy. Did you understand us?" Mercury: Miracle Metal of Madness Sulfur-Mercury Theory: Alchemical Philosophy Mercurius: Mystical Essence of Alchemy "[Yes,] O Lady." Surely Maria said: "Preserve the fume and take care lest any of it escape. And let your measure be with a gentle fire such as is the Measure of the heat of the Sun in the Month of June or July. "Stay by your Vessel and behold it with care how it grows black, grows red, and grows white in less than three hours of the day, and the fume will penetrate the body, and the spirit will be condensed, and they will become like milk, wax-like, liquifying, and penetrating. And it is a secret." Birds and Bird Symbolism in Alchemy Mandalas: Psychology & Art Therapy Women Scientists of the Ancient World Another process comes from the writings of Maria: "Taking chrysocolla and cinnabar, dilute them with white litharge and make [the nature of the metal] disappear If copper is modified and brought to the state of a [metallic] body, project on it the color of gold, and you will have gold." White litharge is a natural mineral form of lead oxide. The name comes from Greek lithos 'stone' + argyros 'silver'. Maria has given her student an alchemical recipe for gold-making. She speaks of coloring the metal, which is a specific skill of early alchemists. Alchemical Scientists: Secret Science of Alchemy Expulsion of Intellectuals Alexandria 145 BCE Equipment Alchemists Need: Essential Tools of the Trade The first mention of a "philosophers' stone" or lapis philosophorum in terminology comes from Middle English poetry at the end of the 14th century. The Confessio Amantis mentions the "parfit Elixir Of thilke philosphres Ston". Also during the late 14th century appears the first recorded the goal of alchemy: "The philosophers stoon, Elixir clept, we sechen." (The philosophers' stone, Elixir named, we seek). Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Secrets of Renaissance Herbal Recipes Moonwort (Botrychium Lunaria): Folklore, Magic and Medicine "And Aros said: "Is that not the Stone of Truth?" And Maria said: "It is. Truly, however, the people do not know this regimen because of their haste." Aros said: "And what then?" Mary said, "Vitrify upon it Kibric or Zibeic and there are the two fumes comprehending the two Lights, and project upon that the complement of the Tinctures of the Spirits, and the weights of Truth, and pound it all, and put it to the Fire, and you shall see wonderfull things from them." According to Renaissance alchemist, physician and philosopher Michael Maier , Mary is one of four women who knows how to make the stone of the philosophers. By the Renaissance the stone has evolved to deeper meanings and translations of translations. Poison Pigments of Painters: Renaissance Lucrezia Borgia: Exploring the Enigma Argyropoeia: Silver Making of Ancients Mary is esteemed by philosophers and alchemists from Alexandrians to the Enlightenment and still today. Her narrative too changes, as her assertion the "stone" is only for the Jews falls by the wayside. Vague definitions of the mystic stone or substance are plucked out and examined like the livers of sheep . Based on the theories of Mary it assumes a true presence. Haruspices in History: The Gut Readers Michael Maier: Rosicrucians, Art & Alchemy Anqi Sheng & the Elixir of Immortality Mary continues: "The whole government consists in the temper of the Fire, O how strange it is, how it will be moved from one color to another, in less than an hour of the Day, untill it arrive at the mark of redness and whiteness, and cast away the Fire and permit it to cool, and open it and you will find the clear pearly Body to be of the Color of the Poppy of the Wood mixt with whiteness and that is it which is incerating, liquefying and penetrating, and one golden piece thereof, the weight of a small golden Coin, falleth upon a thousand thousand and two hundred thousand. That is the hidden secret." As time goes on, the stone itself has varying interpretations. It's considered to be made of the prima materia , the pure prime material. It isn't an end result, but a penultimate step. The stone is known for bestowing immortality and turning mundane metals to gold or silver. Almadén Mines: Ancient Mercury Extraction Casting the Bones - Astragalomancy Ancient Traders & Buyers: Art of Testing Metals The Stone can be an oil, ointment, elixir, powder, described as "a stone that is not a stone". The earliest known mention of an enigmatic stone is by the Greek philosopher Democritus (460 - 370 BCE), who says, " ... The stone is not formed until it has gathered all the colors that exist in the universe, and until it has been colored with all the simple and complex colors." Democritus: Laughing Philosopher Ahead of His Time Metal & Gemstone Dyeing in Alchemy How to Make Venetian Red Artisan Pigment In the 10th century, Kitāb al-Fihrist by Ibn al-Nadim mentions Mary as one of the 52 renowned alchemists. He says she's one of the few who know how to produce caput mortuum , a purple pigment. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top 1. Presumably molybdochalkos , an alloy of 90% lead and 10% copper. "Our lead" can also refer to four metals - copper, iron, lead, and zinc - which constitute the tetrasomia of Maria. They are "four in one" says Maria, according to Olympiodorus of Thebes. She calls this interchangeably "our copper" and "our lead". It can also mean "black lead" (molybdos melas) or antimony (molybdos hemeteros), whose melted state is called "black brew" or "black juice." back

Born in Ireland in 1627, Robert Boyle plays a significant role in the 17th century "scientific revolution". His groundbreaking publication " The Sceptical Chymist: or Chymico-Physical Doubts & Paradoxes " questions the established traditions of alchemy. It's about time. Fulminating Silver: Dangerous Explosives in Alchemical Science Oil of Philosophers: Alchemy Health & Beauty Goethite: The Other Iron-Rich Mineral When Boyle shakes his fist at the "established traditions", one must understand these are not traditions of alchemy. Renaissance alchemy is very different to Alexandrian, Islamic and Chinese alchemy. Its use of esoterica and symbolism escalates in the Middle Ages. So, Boyle's indignation is righteous. Renaissance alchemy is a burst of artistic interpretation and late-night philosophical rambles. It's the White Queen and Red King , the spirit Mercurius , the divine hermaphrodite Rebis , the Tail of the Peacock , and inhaling toxic fumes. Women Scientists of the Ancient World Alchemy: How to Make Rosaceum Oil Alchemy Symbols: Tail of the Peacock It's the incipience of the Rosicrucian  movement and a mad scramble for the now-popular philosophers' stone . It's the hopeless pursuit for metal transmutation by scientists like Isaac Newton and the rants of Paracelsus against the ignorance of medical science. In this melee alchemists differ. There are those who philosophize, those who practice, those who obsess over elemental details or eat toxic substances, and others like to watch gold explode. Some produce alchemical salts and caustic waters . Famous Women of Renaissance Alchemy 5 Waters of Ancient Alchemy: Aqua Caustic Elixir Vitae: Giambattista della Porta Boyle's disdain for the Renaissance principles of alchemy, which by this time are flamboyantly re-invented and over-interpreted to the smallest detail, spotlights its increasingly subjective perspective. In this situation he sets out to investigate the nature of matter on his own terms. "The Sceptical Chymist": A Revolutionary Treatise In " The Sceptical Chymist, " Boyle explores the fundamental nature of substances, arguing against the idea all matter is composed of earth, air, fire, and water. These are the classical elements proposed by Empedocles and appropriated with due credit by Aristotle. Radical concepts like the atomic theories of Democritus c. 400 BCE, or the empirical methods of Renaissance alchemist Giambattista della Porta when he proves garlic does not de-magnetize magnets, possibly influence the new thought. 3 Methods to Extract Citrus Essential Oils Ardent Spirits Alchemy: the Fiery Elixirs of Life Literature: Great Literary Patrons in History One of Boyle's most significant contributions to chemistry is his formulation of Boyle's Law, which describes the relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas. Presented later in mathematical form, Boyle studies properties of gases and the vacuum pump. He demonstrates air is not an elemental substance itself, but a mixture of elements. Air cannot have a chemical formula as it's a mix of various gases, not a compound. Air consists of about 78% N2, 21% O2, 1% argon, and increasing levels of carbon dioxide (0.5% CO2). Aether: Born of Darkness, God of Light Hydrogen Peroxide: Chemistry, Production, Risks Arcanum Joviale: Alchemy of Sudorific Sweat Key Achievements and Insights The Definition of Elements : Boyle is instrumental in redefining the term 'element.' He asserts the elements should be understood as simple substances. These cannot be broken down into simpler ones. This theory is pivotal in development of modern chemistry. The Scientific Method : Emphasizing empirical evidence, Boyle advocates for rigorous experimentation. His insistence on replicable results becomes a cornerstone of scientific inquiry, influencing generations of scientists who (eventually) follow. Philosophy of Science : Boyle is also a philosopher. In his writings, he explores the relationship between science and religion, arguing that pursuit of knowledge is a means to understand the divine order of the universe. The Boylean Society : As a member of the Royal Society, Boyle collaborates with prominent scientists of his time, contributing to the collective advancement of knowledge. His participation helps legitimize experimental science as a respectable field of inquiry distinct from the sullied and disrespectable alchemical traditions. The mystic and esoteric language of "chemistry" gains popularity. Oil of Philosophers: Alchemy Health & Beauty Natural Iron Oxide Pigments: Extraction, Types & Colors Aqua Regia: The Green Lyon of Alchemy The key word, of course, is "respectable". In early modern times alchemy is associated with frauds, cheats and swindlers, for no other reason than it attracts both cons and suckers. Turning lead to gold has gone from a primer in coloring metals to an idea accepted as truth. So, alchemy bears a stigma by the 17th century. Those who practice "the chemistry (al-kimya)", as it's known in Islam, want to distance themselves from the unsavory aura now surrounding this word. Rhinestones: Treasures of the Rhine Alchemy: Ancient Mordant Recipes for Fabric & Stones Rosemary: Immortal Essence & Balm of Kings This is exactly the kind of sociological atmosphere fostering change, which is just another cycle with a different color. They convince themselves they're doing something new, when in fact it's been done so many times before. Legacy and Impact The impact of Robert Boyle extends far beyond his lifetime. Boyle's seminal work, "The Sceptical Chymist," is a building block of modern chemistry. Beyond his contributions to chemistry and alchemy, Robert Boyle bridges the gap between science and philosophy, epitomizing the interdisciplinary nature of scientific inquiry. His work leads to many intriguing discoveries. Ouroboros Glyph: Snake Eating its Tail Pentagram: Drudenfuß, Five Point Star Magic of the Circle: Spirituality & Lore Two centuries later, German chemist August Kekulé solves the benzene ring structure. Most organic chemical compounds contain loops of six carbon atoms, or benzene rings. Kekulé visualizes the structure of after dreaming of an ouroboros, an ancient alchemical symbol. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Jan Baptist van Helmont (1580 - 1644) is a Flemish physician, alchemist / chemist and natural philosopher. A disciple of Paracelsus , he challenges archaic notions in medicine based on superstition and dogma. He gains practical experience during the Black Plague. Elixir Vitae: Giambattista della Porta Alchemy: Science, Philosophy, Magic Eirenaeus Philalethes: Alchemy & Death in Renaissance London Born in Brussels, Belgium, van Helmont is raised in an era marked by great medical and scientific curiosity. After studying at the University of Leuven and obtaining his medical degree, he explores the intersections of medicine, philosophy, and alchemy. At first he dabbles in different sciences and finds little of interest. Later, he claims his inspiration for a medical career comes from a chat with the angel Raphael. His work is defined by a commitment to empirical observation. Van Helmont believes conventional medicine often fails to address underlying causes of illness. He believes a deep understanding of materials and their transformations is key to effective healing. Sodium Silicate: Alchemy of Water Glass Sodium Carbonate: Natural Formation to Modern Application Art of Egg Tempera: Paint Like the Old Masters When he attends university the study of astrology is still required for a medical degree. At the same time it's considered an occult science. By the end of the 1600s, concepts in astronomy and physics, pioneered by such luminaries as Isaac Newton, call astrology into question. Alchemy is yet accepted in Newton's time as a natural philosophy. Sir Isaac spends years trying to turn lead into gold. Astrology however loses its academic and theoretical standing by the beginning of the 18th century. Sadly, the Four Humors theory of Galen does not. As a doctor during the fearsome Black Plague, van Helmont makes strong inroads into studies of health and disease. His work influences medicine and chemistry as the early modern period sets in. He's known for investigations into gases, digestion and the nature of life. Biofilm Communities: Metropolitan Microbes Seven Deadly Diseases of the Renaissance Renaissance Apocalypse: End is Nigh During the late Renaissance trends of scientific inquiry and mysticism vary depending on the political situation and definition of science. For instance Galileo, a contemporary of van Helmont, is forced in 1633 to recant his theory of the earth revolving around the sun. The previous century, Copernicus keeps his own heliocentric theory quiet for that very reason, although it's promoted by a few scientists. As the story goes he's shown the final two pages hot off the printing press on his deathbed in 1543, after which he calmly expires. Van Helmont also finds himself the target of the Inquisition largely due to his undisguised disdain for the behavior of the church and certain officials within it. Cultural and religious currents of his time reflect both advancements and conflicts within medicine and alchemy. Roman Inquisition: Power, Prayer & Politics Isabella Cortese: Renaissance Writer, Alchemist, Entrepreneur Care and Feeding of Your German Kobold Medical Work Van Helmont's medical career is significantly shaped by the societal upheaval caused by plagues, particularly the recurrence of the Black Plague in Europe. Eager to understand and treat this devastating disease, he studies the principles of iatrochemistry. Iatrochemistry the application of chemical methods to medical issues. His mentor Paracelsus is considered the first to introduce chemistry into medicine, and van Helmont runs with it. This new scientific approach aims to model human physiology based on emerging chemical theories, rather than the old Galenic humor models. Van Helmont treats numerous patients successfully and gains an excellent reputation in the medical community. Human Methane: Meet the Microbes of Flatulence Four Humors & Medical Stagnation Paracelsus: Renegade Renaissance Physician He emphasizes the importance of a cleaner lifestyle, believing that proper diet and environment play critical roles in maintaining health. These ideas will continue to roll through history as various natural health movements sweep Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries. In his influential work, " Ortus Medicinae " (The Origin of Medicine), he documents detailed observations and experiments. For example, he note the effects of different diets on patient recovery, and how some foods can speed healing by promoting better digestion. His calls for empirical evidence contrast sharply with the dogmatic nature of medicine at the time. His voice joins that of London physician Robert Fludd (1574 - 1637) and later Robert Boyle ( The Sceptical Chymist 1661). He asserts diseases can be transmitted through air. Best Mortar & Pestles for Artists, Chefs, Scientists Natural Health: Paracelsus & Hermetic Principles Spagyria: Botanical Science of Alchemy Medicine and the Black Plague The resurgence of the Black Plague in the 17th century poses immense challenges for physicians. While many rely on traditional remedies, van Helmont seeks to apply his understanding of chemistry to combat the plague. He closely studies the nature of contagion and the effects of various physical and chemical agents on human health. His innovative perspective marks a significant step toward modern epidemiology. Secret Lives of Sulfuric Acid-Eating Bacteria Mad Hatter's Disease: Mercury Madness Malaria: Roman Fever & Renaissance Plague The Black Plague's outbreak poses a formidable challenge. This devastating epidemic sweeps through Europe in the 17th century, with mortality rate of 25% to 60%. Witnessing this firsthand, van Helmont also deals with the fear and uncertainty among the populace. In response to the pandemic, van Helmont advocates for a dual approach to healing and combination of spiritual and physical remedies. Following the logic of ancient Egyptian and Islamic physicians, promotes treatment of body and spirit as essential for recovery. The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Alchemists of Ancient Alexandria The Rise of Iatrochemistry Van Helmont's work is crucial to the rise of iatrochemistry, or blending alchemical practice with medical science as it's known. His writings show a philosophical approach to medicine aligning chemical basis of bodily functions with "spiritual" elements in the healing process. He's perhaps best known for coining the term “gas” and describing its properties, contributing to a more profound understanding of respiration and digestion. He identifies gases produced from chemical reactions and implications for respiratory health. His studies on plants and gases lead to substantial insights into photosynthesis and plant physiology. Notable among his experiments is his work with a willow tree. He demonstrates plants gain most mass from water rather than soil, a novel concept. Mulberry Tree (Morus): Uses, Folklore & Myth Elderberry Tree: Germanic Nature Lore Paints of the Artist's Palette in Renaissance Europe In a controlled environment, he weighs the tree and its soil before and after a five-year growth period. The tree's weight increases by 164 pounds, while the soil is unchanged, showing water alone can nourish the tree. Van Helmont's exploration of gases show his empirical approach to chemistry. He introduces the "invisible world," of gases like carbon dioxide. His work helps clarify aspects of chemical transformations, carried on by later chemists like Robert Boyle and Antoine Lavoisier. Van Helmont's philosophical beliefs also inform his scientific work. Reflecting the syncretism of the time, he seeks harmony between science and spirituality. A devout Catholic, he believes in a divine order and presence in all natural phenomena. Gouache Painting: Artist Essentials & Art Tips Etch Carnelian Beads Like It's Indus Valley 2500 BCE Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

The theory of the four humors dominates medicine for two thousand years. Since the time of the ancient Greeks to the 19th century, humor imbalance is considered the cause of disease. The humors are blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. Natural Health: Paracelsus & Hermetic Principles Alkahest: Panacea & Solvent Alchemy Spagyria: Botanical Science of Alchemy An excess or shortage of humors causes an array of physical and mental problems. This leads to scientific practices, beginning in the 5th century BCE, such as bloodletting, bleeding with leeches, vomiting and otherwise purging to expel a plethora or overabundance of humor. Once Galen (129 - 216 AD) discovers human veins hold blood and not air, as previously believed, the bloodletting begins in earnest. It's one of the most common ways of treating disease. The four humors become associated with certain characteristics. Mercury: Miracle Metal of Madness Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor What is the Philosopher's Stone? Blood It's thought the nutritional value of the blood is the source of energy for body and soul. Blood is believed to consist of small proportional amounts of the other three humors. This means taking a blood sample allows for determination of the balance of the four humors in the body. Blood is associated with a sanguine nature (enthusiastic, active, and social). Considered hot and wet, blood shares these characteristics with the season of spring. Blood can relate to rubedo in spiritual alchemy . Alchemy & Astrology: Cosmic Connections Colors of Alchemy: Rubedo Magnum Opus Alchemy: Science, Philosophy, Magic Yellow bile Yellow bile is associated with a choleric nature (ambitious, decisive, aggressive, and short-tempered). It's thought to be fluid found within the gallbladder, or in excretions such as vomit and feces. The associated qualities for yellow bile are hot and dry with the natural association of summer and fire. Excess of this humor results in emotional irregularities such as increased anger or irrational behavior. Yellow can relate to citrinitas or xanthosis in spiritual alchemy. Yliaster: Quest for the Magnum Opus Panacea: Goddess of Universal Health Psychology: Archetype of the Self Black bile Black bile relates to a melancholy nature, the word melancholy itself deriving from the Greek for 'black bile', μέλαινα χολή ( melaina kholé ). Depression is attributed to excess or unnatural black bile secreted by the spleen. Cancer is also ascribed to an excess of black bile concentrated in a specific area. The seasonal association of black bile is to autumn with cold and dry characteristics of the season. It can relate to nigredo in color phase therapy of spiritual alchemy. Colors of Alchemy: Black Nigredo Putrefaction Democritus - Atomic Theory 400 BCE Zodiac Alchemy - Metals & Planets Phlegm In humor-based medicine phlegm is a general term to describe white or colorless secretions like pus, mucus, saliva, sweat, or semen. In spiritual alchemy it can relate to leucosis, shadow side of albedo ; or, a disease attacking white blood cells. Phlegm is also related to the brain, possibly due to the color and consistency of brain tissue. The seasonal association of phlegm is winter due to the natural properties of being cold and wet. Too much phlegm causes apathy, laziness, anti-social behavior, reclusiveness. Caterina Sforza: Renaissance Alchemy Psychology: the Conscious Ego of Self Zosimos: First Golden Age of Alchemy Production of Humors Humors were believed to be produced via digestion as the final products of hepatic digestion. Digestion is a continuous process taking place in every animal, and it can be divided into four sequential stages: gastric digestion stage hepatic digestion stage vascular digestion stage tissue digestion stage. Each stage digests food until it becomes suitable for use by the body. In gastric digestion, food is made into chylous or chyle, suitable for the liver to absorb and carry on digestion. Victorian Health: Sea Water Hydrotherapy Synchronicity: Psychology of Coincidence Alchemy & Psychology: Hidden Meanings Chyle is a milky bodily fluid of lymph and emulsified fats, or free fatty acids. It is formed in the small intestine during digestion of fatty foods, and taken up by lymph vessels specifically known as lacteals. The lipids in the chyle are suspended in chylomicrons. Chylous is changed into chymous in the hepatic digestion stage. Chyme is the semifluid mass of partly digested food expelled by the stomach into the duodenum. "Digestion" is also an alchemical process using fresh horse dung. Alchemy: Processes Used by Alchemists Hypatia: Scholar & Martyr Alexandria Khaos: Primal Goddess of Greek Myth In past medical theory chyme is composed of the four humors: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. These four humors then circulate in the blood vessels. In the last stage of digestion, tissue digestion, food becomes similar to the tissue of the consuming organ. If anything goes wrong in the process of humor production, it causes an imbalance leading to disease. Proper organ functioning is necessary in the production of good humor. The stomach and liver also have to function normally for proper digestion. Spiritual Alchemy: Process & Philosophy Horse in Dreams - Meaning of Horses Chrysopoeia - Turning Lead into Gold If there are any abnormalities in gastric digestion, the liver, blood vessels, and tissues cannot be provided with the raw chyle, which can cause abnormal humor and blood composition. A healthy functioning liver can't convert abnormal chylous into normal humors. Despite being the prevailing explanation of illness believed by the public, the Theory of the Four Humors fails to enhance public health. Underlying public health problems and transmission of diseases such as plague and leprosy remain unsolved. Catherine de' Medici & the Occult Rasayana: Alchemy & Health of India Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg These theories are worked and expounded upon by the major medical minds of history. A common human frailty is building upon fundamental mistakes. When "learned" persons dedicate their lives to a mistake, it results in denial and many convoluted loops of logic. The successor of these persons, following the wisdom of the learned ones, builds on the predecessor's work rather than presuming to address the mistake(s) underlying its foundation. This is true from spiritual beliefs to computer programming. Common Archetypes & Spiritual Ascension Cleopatra the Alchemist of Alexandria Song of the Loreley: Lethal Attraction Galen In the 2nd and 3rd centuries Galen, formally known as Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus, is greatly respected in the medical field. Among other centers of learning he attends the medical school of Alexandria, where Hippocrates also studied. A major proponent of the four humor theory, he dissects animals such as pigs to learn the internal works. At first he works on monkeys, but is troubled by their human-like expressions. Natron - Ancient Embalming & Household Salts Tria Prima of Paracelsus: Three Primes Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files He encourages his students to study the bodies of dead gladiators for anatomical purposes. Because of Galen's renown, his acceptance of the four humors theory does not come into question, and followers develop it further. Knowledge about the humors is the basis for entry into medical college. Despite later opposition by such figures as Paracelsus and Robert Fludd , the humors theory remains the medical standard until the discovery of germs in the 1850s. Robert Fludd & Renaissance Medicine Natural Magic of the Renaissance Michael Maier: Rosicrucians, Art & Alchemy Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: A Little History World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Sodium silicate or "water glass" or liquid glass, originates in ancient practices. A chemical compound, sodium silicate is composed of sodium (Na) and silica (SiO2), often in the form of a water-soluble gel or solid. Sodium Carbonate: Natural Formation to Modern Application Secret Lives of Sulfuric Acid-Eating Bacteria Reduction in Chemistry: Gaining Electrons It's created through fusion of sodium carbonate with silicon dioxide at high temperatures. The resultant product has a glassy look and dissolves in water, creating a thick solution. The formula can differ, leading to a variety of silicate products with distinct properties. Available in liquid, solid, or powder forms, sodium silicate plays an essential role in many areas, such as construction, healthcare, and manufacturing. Its ability to bond surfaces makes it an ingredient in adhesives and sealants. It's also used to preserve historical artifacts. Biofilm: Metropolitan Microbes of People & Planet Oxidation: Metabolism & Essential Molecular Action Acid-Producing Bacteria in Sulfuric Acid Creation Properties of Sodium Silicate Sodium silicate has several notable properties, making it an incredibly versatile compound. These include: Solubility : Sodium silicate is highly soluble in water, forming an alkaline solution that can be adjusted to various pH levels. Viscosity : Depending on concentration, sodium silicate can vary from a thin liquid to a thick gel. Adhesive Qualities : Its adhesive properties make it an effective binder in numerous applications, from construction materials to art supplies. It can bond materials like wood, metal and glass. Chemical Stability : Sodium silicate is chemically stable under most conditions, resisting degradation from acids and organics. Thermal Resistance : It exhibits excellent resistance to high temperatures, enhancing its usability in applications involving heat. Alkalinity : Its alkaline properties help neutralize acids, making it valuable in chemical processes, such as in the production of detergents. Durability : Once dried, sodium silicate forms a strong, glass-like solid that resists decay and maintains its structure over time, which is useful for long-lasting applications. Versatility : Sodium silicate's unique properties allow it to be used in various sectors, such as agriculture, manufacturing, and health care. For example, it can enhance soil quality, improve detergent formulations, and serve as a binder in paper production. Etch Carnelian Beads Like It's Indus Valley 2500 BCE Catalase: Unseen Enzymes Essential to Life Verdigris: Creation of a Coveted Blue Green Pigment Is Sodium Silicate the Same as Glass? While sodium silicate is often referred to as glass, it's not the same as traditional silica glass, such as window glass. Silica glass is composed of pure silicon dioxide (SiO2) and undergoes a different manufacturing process. Glass is a solid made by heating silica and other materials at high temperatures, usually above 1000 °C. Sodium silicate can be viewed as a type of water glass but does not have the same rigidity or durability as traditional glass. Sodium silicate has sodium content and is created by combining sodium carbonate and silicon dioxide. Both materials share similar properties due to their silicon-oxygen network structure, which gives them a glass-like quality. Distinctions appear in structures and applications. Glass is used for windows, packaging, and cookware due to transparency and strength. Sodium silicate excels in adhesive and sealant applications. It dries hard and glassy but lacks the clarity of standard glass. White Lead Toxic Beauty, Art, Ancient Production Alchemy: Circulation & the Pelican Phantasy Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 Decomposition How to Make Sodium Silicate Sodium silicate can be synthesized through a chemical reaction that involves heating sodium carbonate and silica (sand) at temperatures. Silica melts at up to 1723 °C (3133 °F). To reduce the melting point of silica, a flux of sodium carbonate is needed. Sodium carbonate decomposes on heating to form sodium oxide (Na2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2). By adding 25 percent of the sodium oxide to silica, melting point reduces from 1723 to 850 °C (3,133 to 1562 °F). Sodium carbonate can be created by heating sodium bicarbonate or baking soda. Heat baking soda in an oven at 93.5 °C (200 °F) for about an hour. Carbon dioxide and water will gradually depart, leaving dry sodium carbonate. This is the soda ash. Iron III Acetate - Formula, Production, Use Secret Life of Rust: Power of Bacteria Caput Mortuum: Dead Head Purple Pigment A process to make sodium silicate: Materials Required : Obtain sodium carbonate (soda ash) and silica (silicon dioxide). Mixing : Combine equal parts of sodium carbonate and silica in a furnace. Heating : Heat the mixture until it melts, typically around 1100°C. Cooling : Allow the mixture to cool. It will solidify into a glass-like substance. Dissolving : For the liquid form, dissolve the solid sodium silicate in water. A similar method using lye and silica sand: Materials Needed : You will need sodium hydroxide (NaOH), aka caustic soda or lye and silica sand (SiO2) or sodium carbonate (soda ash). Heating : In a heat-resistant container, mix sodium hydroxide with silica sand. A common ratio is one part sodium hydroxide to two parts silica. Reaction Process : Heat this mixture to about 800-1000 °C (1472-1832 °F). The heat triggers a reaction producing sodium silicate. Cooling : Once blended and reacted, let the mixture cool down. After cooling, it can be ground into a fine powder or dissolved to create liquid sodium silicate. Rotten Egg Sulfur Smell: Microbial Processes Arsenic Trioxide: Paint Pigment & Pesticide Paints of the Artist's Palette in Renaissance Europe History & Uses in Alchemy Ancient civilizations use sodium silicate to bind ceramics and in glassmaking. Evidence of applications appear in pottery preservation and waterproofing. Historically, sodium silicate is used in alchemical processes. The term "water glass" can also be traced back to alchemy in medieval practice. Glass production has been around since Neolithic times and its use accelerates in ancient Alexandria and more modern Renaissance. Obsidian: Ancient Volcanic Black Glass Gouache Painting: Artist Essentials & Art Tips Rosicrucians: Finding Christian Rosenkreuz European alchemists in the 16th century observe soluble silicates of alkali metals such as sodium or potassium. In 1567, Giambattista della Porta notes cream of tartar (potassium bitartrate) causes quartz to melt at a lower temperature. Early mentions of alkali silicates also come from Basil Valentine in 1520 and Agricola in 1550. Jan Baptist van Helmont, c. 1640, describes production of alkali silicates by melting sand with excess alkali, and demonstrates precipitation of silica by adding acid. Basil Valentine: Secrets of Medieval Alchemy Johann Glauber: Fulminating Gold & Sodium Sulfate Isabella Cortese: Renaissance Writer, Alchemist, Entrepreneur Silica is a prevalent mineral found in the earth's crust, with glass, beach sand, silicone, and granite being examples of silica-based materials. Silica exists in two forms: crystalline: crystalline silica is found in various materials such as sand, gravel, clay, granite noncrystalline: non-crystalline silica is found in glass, silicon carbide, and silicone Crystalline substances exhibit a structured 3D array of atoms in orderly and periodic ways. Generally, metals, many ceramics and some polymers are classed as crystalline. In contrast, noncrystalline materials lack periodic arrangement of atoms, showing a random order. What is Alum? Origins, Production & Use Alchemy: Ancient Mordant Recipes for Fabric & Stones Smelting Metals: Metalwork & Alchemy In 1646, Glauber produces potassium silicate, which he calls liquor silicum , by melting potassium carbonate, obtained from calcinated cream of tartar, and sand in a crucible until no more bubbles are released due to the escape of carbon dioxide. The resulting mixture is cooled and ground to a fine powder. Upon exposure to moist air, it transforms into a viscous liquid Glauber calls " Oleum oder Liquor Silicum, Arenæ, vel Crystallorum " or "oil or solution of silica, sand, or quartz crystal". Ancient Traders & Buyers: Art of Testing Metals Glass & Arts of Ancient Glass Making Alchemy & Renaissance Glass: Antonio Neri Modern Uses Today, sodium silicate is widely used across multiple industries: Water Glass : Sodium silicate solutions are often known as "water glass," playing a significant role in architectural glass and modern sealing products. Construction : Employed as a binding agent in cement, concrete, and adhesives. It acts as a waterproofing agent and is added to concrete to boost its strength and durability, reducing cracking by 15-30%. Soap and Detergent Manufacturing : Serves as a builder in cleaning products, enhancing performance of detergents. Its alkaline nature makes sodium silicate effective in detergent formulations. It helps soften water, which can improve stain removal by up to 20%. Automotive : Used in brake linings and seals to provide durability and heat resistance. Packaging : Beneficial as a barrier coating in various packaging materials. Fireproofing : Often deployed in fire-resistant materials due to its heat-resilient properties. Agriculture : Acts as a soil conditioner, improving nutrient and moisture retention. It enhances nutrient availability, leading to crop yield improvements of about 10-15%. Paper and Wood Treatment : Sodium silicate is used in making paper products, ensuring better quality and bonding of fibers. It also protects wood against pests, increasing its lifespan. Healthcare : In medicine, sodium silicate is part of some pharmaceuticals, helping in drug formulation and delivery systems due to its bonding properties. Albertus Magnus: Alchemy, Arsenic, Astrology Famous Women of Ancient Rome Renaissance Wars: Venice vs. Ottoman Facts About Sodium Silicate Environmental Friendliness : Sodium silicate is considered eco-friendly as it does not contribute to environmental pollution when properly used. It is also a product in cleanup processes, helping manage chemical spills effectively thanks to its absorbent qualities. Non-Toxic : It is generally recognized as safe for various applications. Unlike many industrial chemicals, sodium silicate is non-toxic and safe for household products, such as all-purpose cleaners and laundry detergents. Versatile Formulations : Sodium silicate can be formulated in a variety of grades and concentrations, making it adaptable for specific needs in industries. Thermal Stability : Sodium silicate can withstand temperatures higher than many synthetic polymers. This quality makes it suitable for high-temperature scenarios, such as in steel manufacturing. pH Neutralization : Its alkaline nature neutralizes acids effectively, making it beneficial in various chemical processes and environmental cleanup efforts. Ancient Roman Baths & Bathing Olympiodorus of Thebes & His Parrot Haruspices in History: The Gut Readers Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Thiobacillus, Thiothrix, and Beggiatoa are genera of acid-producing bacteria with significant contributions to creation of sulfuric acid. Much more is involved than simple chemistry. Get to know crucial functions of these industrious microbes in the process of sulfuric acid production. Catalase: Unseen Enzymes Essential to Life Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 Decomposition 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine A fascinating aspect of the natural world is the role of bacteria and microbes. Some bacteria produce the tang of cheese, bread or vinegar. Some dine on pathogens, and others make rust. In the formation of strong acids like sulfurous and sulfuric acid, acid-producing bacteria take part in biogeochemical cycles and influence trends in environmental science and engineering. The most active bacteria in this process are Thiobacillus bacteria . What are Thiobacillus Bacteria? Thiobacillus is a genus of sulfur-loving bacteria. They live in sulfur-rich environments as critical components of the sulfur cycle. Digestion & Horse Manure: Alchemy Process Methanogens: Microbes of Methane Production Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Also called chemolithotrophs, they get energy by oxidizing inorganic compounds. They fulfill energy need for growth by oxidizing inorganic compounds like hydrogen (H2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and reduced metals. They act on sulfur and thiosulfate, on oxyanion of sulfur. Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Thiobacillus thioparus can oxidize sulfur to sulfite by means of an oxygenase enzyme. Scientists believe an oxidase could be used as well as an energy saving mechanism. Thiobacillus species use elemental sulfur or sulfide as an electron donor, converting these compounds into sulfurous acid (H2SO3) and, ultimately, sulfuric acid (H2SO4). These bacteria are found in many environments including soil, freshwater, and marine ecosystems. Iron III Acetate - Formula, Production, Uses Arsenic Trioxide: Paint Pigment & Pesticide Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld The activity of these microbes lowers pH levels, causing ecologic problems for miners. Acid mine drainage causes water runoff to acidify due to sulfide oxidation, leading to issues like heavy metal leaching. Studies show the pH in some waters drops to as low as 3 (acidic). Other Bacteria Involved in Sulfuric Acid Production In addition to Thiobacillus , other bacteria contribute to the production of sulfuric acid, most notably from the genera Thiothrix and Beggiatoa . Thiothrix The genus Thiothrix  includes filamentous sulfur bacteria in freshwater and environments rich in hydrogen sulfide. These bacteria oxidize thiosulfate and various reduced sulfur compounds into sulfate, contributing further to acid production. Their unique filament structure allows them to form dense aggregates, enhancing their metabolic processes. Thiothrix  species are instrumental in sediment research. Their activity improves nutrient cycling in oxygen-depleted waters. The species thrive in environments with high organic matter and sulfur content. They're often found with waste treatment plants or polluted water bodies. Alchemy: Circulation & the Pelican Phantasy Etch Carnelian Beads Like It's Indus Valley 2500 BCE The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature Beggiatoa Beggiatoa  represents another group of sulfur-oxidizing bacteria. Unlike Thiobacillus  and Thiothrix , Beggiatoa  bacteria are long and slender. They can oxidize hydrogen sulfide (H2S) into sulfur or sulfate using oxygen. These bacteria often inhabit sediments rich in organic matter and tolerate low oxygen conditions, making them vital in such ecosystems. Filamentous bacteria, Beggiatoa can also oxidize hydrogen sulfide into sulfuric acid. They are commonly found in aquatic environments rich in organic matter, often leading to black streaks on submerged surfaces due to their distinctive pigmentation. Alchemy & Heat: Decomposition of Horse Manure Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Steps in Sulfuric Acid Production and the Role of Bacteria The process of sulfuric acid production by thiobacilli and other similar bacteria involves several steps: Oxidation of Sulfur Compounds The process begins with sulfur oxidation. Bacteria like Thiobacillus convert elemental sulfur or thiosulfate into sulfur dioxide (SO2), marking the initial transformation from solid to gas. The bacteria oxidize elemental sulfur or sulfide ions (H2S) into sulfurous acid (H2SO3). This initial reaction typically occurs in anaerobic (low oxygen) conditions. [ Sulfur {S} + Oxygen {O}2 --> Hydrogen{H}2 Sulfur Trioxide{SO}3 ] Conversion to Sulfuric Acid Following the oxidation, the SO2 dissolves in water, creating sulfurous acid (H2SO3). This reaction introduces acid into the environment, leading to a significant drop in pH. In the presence of oxygen, sulfurous acid can further oxidize to sulfuric acid. [ Hydrogen {H}2 Sulfur Trioxide {SO}3 + Oxygen{O}2 --> Hydrogen {H}2 Sulfate{SO}4 ] Zinc (Zn): Essential Metal in Alchemy & Medicine 10 Ancient Spices of Trade, Health & Beauty Johann Glauber: Fulminating Gold & Sodium Sulfate Acidification of Environment : The accumulation of sulfuric acid leads to a decrease in pH levels, which can have various effects on the surrounding ecosystem, including the solubilization of metals and alteration of microbial communities. Sulfuric acid produced is significant in natural weathering processes. It can dissolve minerals, impacting soil composition, nutrient availability, and health of plant and microbial life. Sulfuric acid is one of the world's most widely produced industrial chemicals, serving various applications, including fertilizer production, mineral processing, and wastewater treatment. The impact of sulfuric acid production by these bacteria extends into many disciplines. Impact on the Sulfur Cycle : As these reactions occur, sulfur is cycled through different oxidation states in the environment, which is essential for nutrient recycling in ecosystems. Sulfur - Treasures of the Underworld Gum Arabic, Guar, Xanthan: Guide for Artists & Artisans Alchemy & the Magnum Opus - Black White Yellow Red Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Reduction is a fundamental aspect of everyday life, from breathing oxygen to powering a phone. Reduction and its counterpart, oxidation , are crucial to the chemical processes keeping the planet and its denizens alive. Oxidation: Metabolism & Essential Molecular Action Biofilm: Metropolitan Microbes of People & Planet Acid-Producing Bacteria in Sulfuric Acid Creation What is the Process of Reduction in Chemistry? Reduction is a chemical process. An atom, ion, or molecule gains electrons. When a substance undergoes reduction, its oxidation state decreases because it has gained electrons. Meanwhile the substance from which it's gained the electrons oxidizes, or loses the electrons. This process is part of a larger reaction known as a redox (reduction-oxidation) reaction, in which one substance is reduced while another is oxidized, losing electrons in the process. What are Electrons? Electrons are subatomic particles with a negative charge, typically orbiting in the outer regions of an atom. With a mass roughly 1/1836 of a proton, they are vital to chemistry because they are involved in forming bonds and driving chemical reactions. Etch Carnelian Beads Like It's Indus Valley 2500 BCE Catalase: Unseen Enzymes Essential to Life Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 Decomposition They're important to chemical bonding as in the reduction-oxidation process. In reduction, electrons are crucial. When a molecule or atom gains electrons, its properties can change dramatically. For example, the addition of electrons through reduction can alter a substance's color or reactivity. This is evident in copper sulfate, which shifts from blue (Cu^2+) to colorless (Cu) upon reduction. Electrons are also important to electrochemistry. In a battery, for instance, the flow of electrons from one electrode to another creates electrical energy. This relationship is foundational in technologies like phones and electric vehicles. Divine Water: Sulfuric Acid in Alchemy Arsenic: Murderous Metal & Miracle Cure Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy How is Reduction Related to Oxidation? Reduction and oxidation are intrinsically interconnected—so much so that they are typically discussed together as the redox process. While reduction refers to the gaining of electrons, oxidation is the loss of electrons. In any redox reaction, one species will be reduced (gain electrons) while another will be oxidized (lose electrons). A classic mnemonic to remember this relationship is "OIL RIG"—Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain. Why Does Reduction Occur? Reduction happens as atoms seek stability, aiming for a full outer electron shell. It happens when there is a driving force behind the gain of electrons. This can include factors such as: Reactivity : Some elements have a higher affinity for electrons than others. For example, metals like copper readily accept electrons from more reactive metals like zinc. Energetics : Reduction processes are often linked to energy release or absorption, contributing to the stability of the resulting compounds. Cellular Processes : In biological systems, reduction reactions can support energy transfer processes, such as cellular respiration and photosynthesis, which are crucial for sustenance and growth. Paints of the Artist's Palette in Renaissance Europe Peracetic Acid: Origin, Reactions, Hazards Human Methane: Meet the Microbes of Flatulence Several factors drive reduction. In biological systems, reductions are energetically favorable during cellular respiration, allowing organisms to derive energy from food. In mining, the extraction of metals uses reduction to separate them from their ores. In nature, organisms and systems rely on reduction to maintain balance. In essence, stability and energy efficiency are the main motivators behind reduction, influencing many chemical reactions. How Does Reduction Occur in Nature and the Human Body? Photosynthesis : Plants utilize reduction during photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is reduced to form glucose, while water is oxidized to release oxygen. [ 6CO_2 + 6H_2O → C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 ] Cellular Respiration : In humans and other organisms, cellular respiration is a redox process where glucose is oxidized to generate energy, while oxygen is reduced to form water and carbon dioxide as byproducts. Geochemical Cycles : Various reduction reactions are essential in geochemical cycles, such as nitrification and denitrification, which affect soil health and nutrient availability. Lactic Acid Bacteria: Nature to Modern Uses The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Reduction is key to many natural and biological processes. In photosynthesis, plants convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen using sunlight. The reduction of carbon dioxide to glucose is essential for life. Another example is the nitrogen cycle. Bacteria in the soil reduce nitrogen compounds to enhance soil fertility, promoting plant growth. In the human body, reduction is vital for energy production. During cellular respiration, glucose loses electrons (oxidation) while oxygen gains them, forming water. This transfer of electrons is crucial for producing adenosine triphosphate or ATP, the energy source of cells. Talc (Magnesium Silicate): Beauty, Art & Industry Caterina Sforza: Renaissance Alchemy Bright Common Nails: Composition to Corrosion Reduction is especially significant in the function of the liver. This organ processes drugs and toxins through reduction reactions. Certain enzymes in the liver can convert harmful substances into less toxic ones, emphasizing importance of reduction in metabolic pathways. Facts about Reduction and Redox Redox is Everywhere : Redox reactions are fundamental not only in chemistry but also in numerous industrial applications—such as batteries, corrosion prevention, and metal extraction. Electrochemical Cells : In batteries, reduction and oxidation occur at the electrodes, driving the flow of current. The cathode is where reduction takes place, while the anode is where oxidation occurs. Standard Reduction Potentials : Each half-reaction of a redox couple has a standard reduction potential, which indicates the tendency of a substance to gain electrons. These values help predict the direction of electron flow in a reaction. Biological Enzymes : Many enzymes in biological systems facilitate reduction and oxidation (like dehydrogenases), highlighting the importance of these processes for life. Environmental Impact : Understanding redox reactions can help us comprehend environmental phenomena, such as the impact of pollution and the functioning of microbes in detoxifying harmful substances. Secret Life of Rust: Power of Bacteria Hematite: Iron Oxide Red Earth Pigment Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

The Indus Valley Civilization of the Bronze Age is one of the earliest urban societies, famous for trade, inventiveness and extraordinary artisanship. Among coveted creations are etched carnelian beads, first appearing c. 2500. Here's the secret to the etching process. Carnelian - Sunny Gems of the Ancient World Chalcedony Gems: Secrets of Silicon Dioxide Talc (Magnesium Silicate): Beauty, Art & Industry Visually stunning, etched carnelian beads are highly desired along trade routes spanning vast regions. The craft of etching these beads delights artists, archaeologists and historians, revealing remarkable skills and artistic expression. This is a guide to the intricacies of etching carnelian beads, materials involved and the chemistry behind the process. Get to know unique qualities of carnelian, and how artisans create stunning patterns using materials like soda and plant ash, a secret kept for millennia. The art of bead-making goes back to prehistory when people collect pretty or otherwise significant stones. The holes are done by hand, a tedious process. They're hand-drilled or made with a process of pecking, or precise hammering with a harder stone. Red Ocher (Ochre) Ancient Pigments Great Women Artists - Käthe Kollwitz Alchemy: How to Make Rosaceum Oil Carnelian is a relatively hard stone, given a 7 on the Mohs scale. It's harder than glass (6) but less than emerald (9) or diamond (10). The Indus Valley Civilization, flourishes from 3300 BCE primarily in the region of Pakistan, part of Afghanistan and North India. What is Carnelian? Carnelian is the stone favored by etchers and traders, and no wonder. With a vibrant orange to reddish-brown hue it seems to have an inner glow. Variable color tones can appear in the same rock. Carnelian belongs to the family of chalcedony, a type of silica mineral. Thus it's a member of the quartz family. Its beautiful color comes from iron oxide, which provides the warm hues. This semi-precious gemstone has been associated with vitality and energy for centuries, often used in jewelry and decorative items. Highly valued in antiquity, carnelian is favored for rich color and relative ease of workability. It's a good carving stone. The name derives from the Latin “carnis,” meaning "flesh." Rhinestones: Treasures of the Rhine Amethyst - Divine Purple Quartz Gemstone Alchemy: How to Make Emerald from Quartz For etching, artisans favor the redder stones due to the contrast, while gold-orange toned stones are often used in jewelry and decor. Sumerians and Egyptians also work with the stone, but the Indus Valley artisans most esteemed. Aside from visual aesthetic qualities, carnelian is given spiritual protective and healing properties, making it a popular choice in jewelry and amulets. In Egypt the stone represents the Sun. During the time of the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300 - 1300 BCE) the stone and beads are sought for bright colors and smooth surfaces, embodying beauty and status. Historical records suggest crafters produce about 300,000 beads over the civilization’s lifespan. Sapphire Gemstones: Colors, Myths, Origins & Gemology Making Sapphire & other Precious Gemstones Corundum: Secrets of Valuable Gemstones Carnelian is abundant in regions like modern-day Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, and Brazil. Due to its turbulent geological formation Pakistan yields some of the most beautiful stones in the world. Where Does Ash Get Its Etching Power? The art of etching carnelian beads relies on soda and plant ash, widely available materials in the Indus Valley. Soda, primarily sodium carbonate, is a powerful alkaline agent. Sodium carbonate is the disodium salt of carbonic acid with alkalinizing property. Dissolved in water, sodium carbonate forms carbonic acid and sodium hydroxide. Carbonic acid is widely used in the production of soft drinks, artificially carbonated sparkling wines, and other bubbly beverages. Peracetic Acid: Origin, Reactions, Hazards Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter Divine Water: Sulfuric Acid in Alchemy Plant ash, residue of burnt trees and shrubs, also contains silica and other minerals, and is rich in sodium and potassium carbonates. These are created during combustion of organic materials (wood). enhancing its effectiveness as an etching agent. Potassium, calcium, and magnesium carbonate or oxides are present in comparatively large quantities giving the ashes a strongly alkaline reaction. This can neutralize acid soils and used as a companion to fertilizer. Wood ash can also pacify the legendary German wicked ash tree woman . In the lab, mixed with water, the compounds of the ashes dissolve to produce a mildly basic solution. Catalase: Unseen Enzymes Essential to Life Rotten Egg Sulfur Smell: Microbial Processes Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 Decomposition Steps in the Etching Process of the Indus Valley 2500 BCE Here’s a step-by-step guide to replicating the ancient etching method used by Indus Valley artisans: Step 1: Material Preparation Select the Carnelian : The artisan starts with high-quality carnelian, ensuring the stones are free of fractures and imperfections. The ideal size for beads depends on design preference. Even smaller beads are receptive to detailed etching. Shaping the Beads: Carnelian is shaped into beads using tools made from harder stones or metals. The shaping results in various forms, from simple spheres to complex designs. Prepare the Ash : Collect ash from burnt wood or plants known to have high alkaline content. Sift ash to remove any larger particles that could damage the beads. White Lead Toxic Beauty, Art, Ancient Production Alchemy: Circulation & the Pelican Phantasy Iron III Acetate - Formula, Production, Use Step 2: Create the Etching Paste Ancient artisans mix soda or plant ash with water to create a thick etching paste. The consistency of this paste is crucial for effectively penetrating the bead's surface. Mixing the Paste : In a bowl, combine the ash with a controlled amount of water to form a thicker paste. The consistency should be such that it can easily adhere to the surface of the beads but doesn't run off. Add more ash if it's too runny, more water if too thick. Step 3: Apply the Paste Draw, lightly incise or create a stencil of the pattern. Start with basic shapes as there's a learning curve, which also helps the artisan get familiar with the materials. Human Methane: Meet the Microbes of Flatulence Methanogens: Microbes of Methane Production Hydrogen Peroxide: Chemistry, Production, Risks The prepared paste is rendered onto the surface of the shaped beads. Using a toothpick, metal rod, stick, stiff brush or stippling brush, create the design with the etching paste. Artisans may shift techniques to achieve different line depths, textures and patterns, ensuring consistency. Some designs are specific to certain makers, whose reputations become known through trade and travel. Step 4: Curing Let It Sit : Allow the beads to sit undisturbed for several hours. The alkaline nature of the ash will gradually react with the carnelian's surface, creating the desired white patterns. Length of curing can vary. Alternately, gently heating the beads speeds up the reaction. Lactic Acid Bacteria: Nature to Modern Uses Arsenic Trioxide: Paint Pigment & Pesticide Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Step 5: Rinse and Polish Rinse Off : Rinse the beads thoroughly in water to remove any residual ash. This step is crucial to reveal the contrasting patterns created by the etching process. Polish the Beads : Finally, polish the beads using a soft cloth to enhance natural finish and start stringing. Drilling bead holes in the time of the ancients is a feat of skill and patience. Boring holes into the beads uses rotating flint drills set into wooden handles. Flint is the same hardness as carnelian. These days carnelian is readily available in bead shops, gem shops and online. As a semi-precious gem carnelian is both beautiful and affordable. Pre-made carnelian beads are easiest to work with unless the artisan wants to stay in c. 2500 BCE and do the hand drill. 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Catalase is an enzyme found in carbon life forms, including humans. It's known for its exceptional ability to decompose hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), a potentially harmful byproduct of various metabolic processes within cells, into water (H2O) and oxygen (O2). Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 Decomposition Hydrogen Peroxide: Chemistry, Production, Risks Peracetic Acid: Origin, Reactions, Hazards Enzymes have various jobs in reactions. As biological catalysts, they accelerate chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to occur. Catalase is present in nearly all aerobic (oxygen-using) organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants and animals. In humans, catalase is found in the liver and blood cells, primarily in peroxisomes, cellular organelles active in lipid metabolism and detoxification. The primary function of catalase is to protect cells from oxidative damage caused by hydrogen peroxide. It facilitates the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide into harmless water and oxygen. Iron III Acetate - Formula, Production, Use Rotten Egg Sulfur Smell: Microbial Processes Human Methane: Meet the Microbes of Flatulence In so doing it prevents the accumulation of this reactive oxygen species, which can lead to cellular damage, aging and disease. By ensuring hydrogen peroxide levels remain low, catalase plays a crucial role in maintaining cellular health and promoting overall well-being. Hydrogen peroxide is a byproduct of several biological processes like cellular respiration and fatty acid oxidation. While it serves essential functions in cell signaling and immune responses, high concentrations of hydrogen peroxide can be toxic. It can cause oxidative stress and damage to proteins, lipids, and DNA. Catalase intervenes by catalyzing the following reaction: 2 H₂O₂ → 2 H₂O + O₂ This reaction demonstrates how catalase effectively neutralizes hydrogen peroxide, converting it into harmless water and oxygen. Thus it safeguards cells from oxidative damage. Verdigris: Creation of a Coveted Blue Green Pigment White Lead Toxic Beauty, Art, Ancient Production Alchemy: Circulation & the Pelican Phantasy Do All Animals Have Catalase? Most animals, particularly those who breathe oxygen, possess catalase as part of their cell defense mechanisms. Presence and activity levels of catalase can vary among different species. Certain anaerobic organisms, which don't need oxygen for survival, may lack catalase due to different metabolic processes. Many complex organisms, including humans, have evolved antioxidant defenses, including catalase. What If We Did Not Have Catalase? Without catalase, cells are at a high risk of oxidative damage due to accumulation of hydrogen peroxide. High levels of reactive oxygen species can cause cellular aging, inflammation and the development of various diseases. These include cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and cardiovascular diseases. The absence of this crucial enzyme disrupts normal cellular function and could ultimately result in cell death and tissue damage. Woad, the People's Blue: Ancient Pigments Herbology & Lore: Rowan (Mountain Ash) Spirit of Wine of the Wise: Alchemy Recipe Facts About Catalase Speedy Reactions : Catalase is one of the fastest enzymes, capable of converting millions of hydrogen peroxide molecules into water and oxygen each second . Enzyme Variants : While catalase is mostly similar across various organisms, some species may possess different isoforms that can vary in function and efficiency. Influence of Temperature and pH : Like all enzymes, catalase has an optimal temperature and pH range for maximum activity. Extreme conditions can denature the enzyme, leading to decreased activity. Role in Food Safety : Catalase is used in the food industry to ensure the safe storage of food by eliminating hydrogen peroxide residues from processing. Applications in Biotechnology : Catalase is important to fields like biotechnology, biochemistry, and clinical therapy for its protective roles against oxidative stress. Catalase is integral to cellular health by breaking down harmful hydrogen peroxide. Its presence across a variety organisms highlights its importance in protecting cells from damage. Magnetite: Ubiquitous Iron Ore with Soul Herbal Remedies in Medieval Alchemy Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a basic disinfectant and bleach of many households. If stored too long it will decompose. The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide can involve invisible microbes and eye-catching aeration effects. Here's the science behind it. Peracetic Acid: Origin, Reactions, Hazards Hydrogen Peroxide: Chemistry, Production, Risks Human Methane: Meet the Microbes of Flatulence A simple yet fascinating compound, hydrogen peroxide is known for its remarkable properties, most commonly its disinfection, bleaching and as a propellant. Explore its composition, hidden secrets, decomposition process, shelf life, and interesting facts about this volatile liquid. What is Hydrogen Peroxide? Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a pale blue liquid, slightly more viscous than water, clear and odorless. It's known for strong oxidizing properties to help kill bacteria and other microbes. As a disinfectant, antiseptic and bleach, H2O2 is used in homes and medical settings. As an oxidizing agent, hydrogen peroxide effectively breaks down organic materials. It is available in several concentrations, from 3% for household use to industrial concentrations exceeding 30%. Higher concentrations can cause chemical burns on skin. Methanogens: Microbes of Methane Production White Lead Toxic Beauty, Art, Ancient Production Alchemy: Circulation & the Pelican Phantasy What is the Composition of Hydrogen Peroxide and Its Molecules? Hydrogen peroxide is composed of two hydrogen atoms and two oxygen atoms, bonded together to form a molecule with the formula H2O2. The molecular structure features a central peroxide bond (-O-O-), which is responsible for many of its reactive properties. Each oxygen atom is bonded to a hydrogen atom, creating a peroxide linkage. The bonds are weak and easily break, releasing hydrogen and oxygen. It makes H2O2 an unstable compound, particularly when exposed to certain conditions initiating its decomposition. Compared to water (H2O), hydrogen peroxide's additional oxygen atom makes it more reactive. This increased reactivity grants it properties that allow it to function as both a bleaching agent, solvent and powerful disinfectant. Heavy Metals Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Chromium & Arsenic Arsenic Trioxide: Paint Pigment & Pesticide Lactic Acid Bacteria: Nature to Modern Uses How Long Does Hydrogen Peroxide Last? Shelf life of hydrogen peroxide depends on factors like concentration and storage conditions. Commercial hydrogen peroxide solutions (3% concentration) last about one to three years if stored in a cool, dark place. Once opened, potency decreases and it becomes less effective. Hydrogen peroxide doesn't last forever. If stored properly, a 3% hydrogen peroxide solution typically maintains its potency for about one year. Research finds hydrogen peroxide stored in clear containers loses nearly 30% of its effectiveness within six months due to light exposure. Why Does Hydrogen Peroxide Decompose? Hydrogen peroxide decomposes primarily due to its instability. The decomposition is influenced by factors such as temperature, light exposure, and the presence of catalysts (substances to speed up chemical reactions). Microbial Alchemy: Fermentation, Digestion, Putrefaction The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature Separatory Funnel: Alchemy Lab Equipment The reaction is accelerated by heat, light or contaminants. Hydrogen peroxide's inherent instability stems from the weak O-O bond within its structure. Over time, if not disturbed by outside forces, this bond naturally breaks, leading to spontaneous decomposition. Factors like heat, light, and the presence of certain catalysts can speed up this process. Other catalysts include: Manganese (IV) Oxide Potassium Iodide Lead Dioxide Iron (III) Chloride Catalase Steps of H2O2 Decomposition When hydrogen peroxide decomposes, it breaks down into water (H2O) and oxygen gas (O2). This decomposition can be initiated in several stages: Initiation Phase : The peroxide bond in H2O2 begins to break, usually due to heat or a catalyst. Propagation : Free radicals are formed as the bonds break. These radicals can react with more hydrogen peroxide molecules, producing more radicals and amplifying the decomposition. Termination : The reaction ends when the free radicals are consumed or when there are no more hydrogen peroxide molecules available for reaction, resulting in the production of water and oxygen. Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses Digestion & Horse Manure: Alchemy Process Alchemy & Heat: Decomposition of Horse Manure The release of oxygen gas is responsible for the bubbling effect when hydrogen peroxide is applied to a wound or mixed with catalyzing agents like baking soda. [2H₂O₂ --> 2H₂O + O₂] Various factors can catalyze this reaction, including temperature, acidity, and specific catalysts like manganese dioxide or potassium iodide. This reaction often produces bubbles of oxygen gas. Microbes Involved in Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide Microbes also contribute to decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. Some bacteria have the enzyme catalase, which catalyzes breakdown of H202 to water and oxygen. This is a protective mechanism for bacteria. They acquire oxygen and detoxify hydrogen peroxide. Meet the Microbes - History of Microbiology Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter Talc (Magnesium Silicate): Beauty, Art & Industry Found in various organisms including bacteria, fungi, and mammals, catalase speeds up the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide into harmless water and oxygen. Humans also produce catalase as a protective mechanism against hydrogen peroxide exposure. This enables safe cellular processes. Microbes lacking catalase may struggle in environments with hydrogen peroxide, leading some to evolve survival tactics, or perish. Storing Hydrogen Peroxide To maintain hydrogen peroxide's effectiveness, proper storage is important. Here’s a quick guide: Container Type : Use opaque, dark-colored containers to reduce light exposure. Temperature : Store in a cool, dry area, away from heat sources. Seal Properly : Be sure the container is tightly sealed to limit air exposure, which can expedite decomposition. Check Expiration : Regularly verify expiration dates and look for any discoloration—this can indicate H2O2 degradation. Paints of the Artist's Palette in Renaissance Europe Gouache Painting: Artist Essentials & Art Tips Bright Common Nails: Composition to Corrosion Facts About Hydrogen Peroxide Uses : Beyond its household applications, hydrogen peroxide is used in various industries, including paper and textiles, food processing, and wastewater treatment. Concentration Variants : Commercially, hydrogen peroxide is available in various concentrations, ranging from low (around 3%) for household use to much higher concentrations (30-35%) for industrial applications. Safety : While hydrogen peroxide is effective for disinfection, high concentrations can be hazardous and should be handled with care, as they can cause skin burns and damage to surfaces. Versatile Uses : Beyond disinfection, hydrogen peroxide is effective in hair bleaching, laundry brightening, and as a natural cleaning agent. Historical Context : Discovered in 1818 by French chemist Louis Jacques Thénard, hydrogen peroxide has a rich history. Environmental Impact : Hydrogen peroxide is frequently used in water treatment as it breaks down into oxygen and water, with minimal harmful residues. Bacteria: Unseen Driving Force Behind All Life Secret Life of Rust: Power of Bacteria Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Exploring the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide reveals important insights into its chemical behavior. With its unique molecular structure, hydrogen peroxide remains a vital tool in both household and industrial settings. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top