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Throughout the ages people gaze upon lapis lazuli with wonder and awe. Mines in the Indus Valley date back to the Neolithic Age. Since 7000 BCE Afghanistan produces some of the most beautiful lapis stones in the world. Lapis Lazuli: Creating Ultramarine Bronze Age Europe - The Amber Road Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Brilliant blue lapis lazuli with pyrite inclusions Along with amethyst , amber  and turquoise , lapis lazuli is a treasured item of trade. The Latin name simply means "blue stone". Afghanistan brings lapis to the Indus Valley cultures by 6500 BCE. Beads of lapis are often found in ancient burial sites of c. 4000 BCE. Lapis is used by Assyrians, Akkadians and Babylonians as ring seals and jewelry. The Epic of Gilgamesh (1800 - 1700 BCE) mentions lapis several times, which reflects its popularity among the contemporary public. Egyptian Blue Lotus: Visionary Beauty Alchemy & Prague: Countess Barbara von Zweibrücken-Neuburg Living Metals & Genders in Ancient Alchemy Statuette of Ptah, Egyptian God of Creation & Creativity The figurine above is Ptah, the great creator god of Egypt. He's a patron of artists, designers, sculptors, creators. His son Nefertum is called 'the Beautiful One'. And that's no lie. The traits and spiritual meaning of lapis lazuli gemstone include prosperity, intuitive action, prophetic or revealing dreams. It can open channels to a rise in status or greater spiritual awareness, peace, harmony, truth, healing of emotional trauma. Curse of the Evil Eye & Apotropaic Magic Tiamat - Queen of Chaos & the Sea Chalcanthite: Crystal Blue Explosion Lapis helps heal, dream, balance Lapis is vibrant in jewelry. The intense royal blue color, sometimes with golden pyrite inclusions, makes it one of the most desired and precious stones of the ancient world. Queen of Egypt Cleopatra takes an exotic cosmetic step and colors her eyelids with the blue pigment. Lapis is also a favored stone for carving beetles or scarabs, which are traded through the east and Mediterranean. Lapis Lazuli & Gold: Jungian Alchemy Symbolism Turquoise: Precious Stone of Ancients Ugarit - Trade Hub of Bronze Age Syria Polished lapis lazuli deep blue bracelet Lazurite, a type of sodalite, gives the stone its intense blue color. Besides lazurite, most lapis lazuli also includes calcite  (white), other sodalite  (blue), and pyrite  (metallic gold). Lapis lazuli is among the components of the rich funeral mask of Tutankhamun  (1341–1323 BCE). Despite its use in the ancient world, knowledge of lapis lazuli did not reach Europe until the Middle Ages. Wadjet - Winged Snake Goddess of Egypt Noisy Spirits of German Mythology 10 Alchemical Metals - Ancient Metals of Alchemy Lapis lazuli relates to the throat chakra & self-expression Lapis lazuli relates to the throat chakra (self-expression, speech, song), and the chakra of the third eye. The third eye chaka is between the eyebrows and relates to perception, increased awareness and divine or spiritual communication. In the European Middle Ages lapis is ground down to pigment, creating the color ultramarine blue. Ultramarine is the most expensive of all pigments during the Renaissance but finds its way into the palettes of painters such as Vermeer and Titian. 3 Great German Artists for Art Lovers Wild Women and Winter Tales Egyptian Blue Faience - Ceramic Glass Vermeer, 'Girl with Pearl Earring' 1665 Much lapis lazuli still comes the mines of northeast Afghanistan today. Other sources include Lake Baikal in Russia and the Chilean Andes. It's used in Inca jewelry and carvings. Pakistan, Italy, Mongolia, the United States and Canada all contribute to the global market. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Amygdalin is a compound in the seeds of many fruits, like peaches and bitter almonds. During metabolism, it produces hydrogen cyanide (HCN). Amygdalin is a subject of ongoing debate in science and health. Prussic Acid: Secrets of Hydrogen Cyanide Escherichia coli (E. coli): The Good Bacteria Celandine: Plant Toxins & Medicine Almonds on the tree About Amygdalin Amygdalin is a cyanogenic glycoside, or compound containing sugar which releases cyanide when broken down. It's famously found in the seeds of apricots, almonds, cherry laurel , apples , peaches, plums and bitter almonds. Almonds are often called nuts but they are in fact fruit, or more specifically drupes, as are peaches. Like the pistachio and cashew (drupes without amygdalin), an almond is a large seed in the fruit's hard outer casing. Maillard Reaction: Science & Flavor in Browning Food Veratrum album - Tragic Toxins Poison Hemlock: Herbology & Lore In peaches, the outer casing of the drupe is sweet and tender; in almonds it's hard, a "shell" Amygdalin is a combination of a sugar molecule and a cyanide group. The structure of amygdalin comprises one unit of benzaldehyde, one unit of hydrocyanic acid, and two units of glucose. Bitter almonds contain about 5% amygdalin, a risk in large amounts. Sweet almonds, common snacks, have negligible levels of amygdalin. For baking, amygdalin is usually removed from almonds before they hit the shelves. Tannins: Complex Astringents of Nature Agrippina & Son: Poisonous Plots of Rome Rosemary: Immortal Essence & Balm of Kings How Amygdalin is Created Amygdalin is synthesized naturally within the cells of over 2000 plant species. It's formed through a complex series of biochemical reactions by a multitude of enzymes. The precise biosynthesis pathway varies slightly depending on plant species. Aromatic amino acids are enzymatically modified, ultimately leading to the formation of the amygdalin molecule. Is Cherry Laurel Poisonous? Scheele's Green: History's Most Toxic Pigment Orpiment - Painter's Golden Poison Plants create amygdalin as protection. When a plant is chewed by herbivores, the enzymes are activated to start the conversion of amygdalin into hydrogen cyanide. The compound has a bitter burning taste. Apple seeds for instance contain amygdalin to discourage animals from chewing them when dining on the sweet fruit. This ensures seeds pass through the animal's digestive tract safely, to germinate on the other side. Flavonoids: the Big Five of Aroma, Flavor & Color Poison Pigments of Painters: Renaissance Glycolysis: Biochemistry of Holistic Health Cyanogenic Compounds The toxicity of cyanogenic compounds depends on several factors. These include the specific compound, the amount ingested, the presence of enzymes to break it down, and the individual's ability to detoxify cyanide. Common examples of plants containing cyanogenic compounds include cassava, sorghum, flaxseed and fruits with amygdalin-containing seeds. Flaxseeds release hydrogen cyanide when they're crushed and come in contact with fluids. Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy Asclepius: Greek Medicine Snake God White Lead Toxic Beauty, Art, Ancient Production brown flax seeds Cassava, a prevalent starch source of the tropics, is commonly soaked or boiled before consumption to defuse the toxins. Livestock like cows have a higher risk of cyanide toxicity when grazing on plants like sorghum. Amygdalin itself isn't directly toxic. The enzyme β-glucosidase, found in the digestive microbiota as well as the seeds, breaks it down to release cyanide. The human body has some capacity to detoxify small amounts of cyanide with the enzyme rhodanese. This converts cyanide to a less toxic form, thiocyanate, excreted in the urine. Prussian Blue - Delight of Artists & Poisoners Candida albicans : Nature of the Yeast Three Types of Amylase in Digestion & Fermentation Too much cyanide overwhelms the detox pathway. Symptoms of toxicity can manifest as headaches, confusion, nausea, dizziness, and in severe cases, can escalate to convulsions, coma and death. Between 0.5 to 3.0 mg of cyanide per kg of body weight can be toxic in varying degrees. One would need to eat about 10 to 20 apple seeds for severe toxicity. Animals present similar symptoms, which may not be recognized right away, depending on the animal's size and behavior. The key indicator is sudden illness or death after ingesting fruit seeds or kernels. Wolfsbane (Aconitum) Ancient Poisons Leap to Flames: Why Did Empedocles Jump into Mount Etna? Acetic Acid: Vinegar 🜊 in Ancient Alchemy Facts About Amygdalin "Laetrile" Controversy: Amygdalin gains notoriety as "Laetrile," a purported cancer treatment promoted in the 1970s. However, numerous scientific studies have shown that Laetrile is ineffective in treating cancer and can be dangerous due to cyanide poisoning. Bitter Almonds: Bitter almonds contain significantly higher levels of amygdalin than sweet almonds. For this reason, bitter almonds are often processed to remove the amygdalin before being used in food products. Genetic Diversity: The amygdalin content in different varieties of fruits can vary significantly due to genetic differences. Breeding programs can select for varieties with lower amygdalin levels. Ongoing Research: While its use as cancer treatment is debunked, research continues on amygdalin, focusing on its potential anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. These studies are still in early stages. Song of the Loreley - Lethal Attraction Death Cap Mushrooms: Deadly Poison Vermilion - Scarlet Pigment of Death Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

White lead, lead(II) carbonate or PbCO₃, has a long sordid history in art, paint and industry, a major source of white for artists and in cosmetics. At one time it influences economy. Consumer awareness initiates change. White Pigments of Ancient Artisans Arsenic Trioxide: Paint Pigment & Pesticide Methanogens: Methane Production Bacteria What is White Lead? White lead is a chemical compound with the formula PbCO₃. Known chemically as lead carbonate, it appears as a fine, white powder favored for opaque qualities. In brightness it's not as vivid as some suggest. It's a slight off-white, but with good coverage. It begins with the natural weathering of lead ore deposits. Lead (Pb) doesn't exist in elemental state. It's a by-product of silver mining. Lead is extracted from the primary lead ore, galena (PbS, lead sulfide). The rock is crushed and smelted. Galena: Silver Lead Ore of Metallurgy Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy Heavy Metals Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Chromium & Arsenic Galena lead ore with gold-colored pyrite Lead is further refined in a furnace made hotter by blasts of forced air from a bellows. By the time of Roman natural historian Pliny the Elder in the 1st century AD, production is on an industrial scale. Scientific Properties Chemical Composition : PbCO₃ consists of lead in a +2 oxidation state and carbonate ions. Solubility : It is sparingly soluble in water but can dissolve in acidic solutions. Density : White lead is denser than many other commonly used pigments, giving rich body to paints and coatings. Opacity : Its high opacity makes it a good covering medium. Woad, the People's Blue: Ancient Pigments Romanesque - Magic of Light & Stone Alchemy: Dyeing Stones to Look Like Gems White lead powder How White Lead is Made Historically Known white lead production dates back to the 4th century BCE. The stack process is the traditional method for creating the pigment. Historically, white lead is produced by exposing metallic lead to acid fumes created by the reaction of vinegar with either lead or lead oxide. This slow process results in the formation of lead carbonate, which is then ground into a fine powder. The production of white lead through the "Dutch process," comes from the 16th century. In this method, lead sheets are stacked in a container with vinegar and covered with a lid. Johann Glauber: Fulminating Gold & Sodium Sulfate Alchemical Salt: Essential Salts of Alchemy How to Make Copperas Red: Simply Science Acetic acid vapors form lead acetate. Over time, exposure to air transforms the lead acetate into white lead through a series of chemical reactions, yielding a fine white powder. Long before in 1st century Rome, Pliny describes how workers embed hundreds or thousands of earthenware pots containing vinegar and lead in a layer of tan bark or cow dung. The pots are specially designed to keep vinegar and lead separate but in contact through vapor. The lead, typically coiled into a spiral, is placed inside the pot on a ledge. A lead grid loosely covers the pot, allowing carbon dioxide produced by fermentation of tan bark or dung gasses to circulate. Poison Pigments of Painters: Renaissance 3 Great German Artists for Art Lovers Tanning Hides - the Ancient Process Cow Dung releases methane gas which acts on the lead Each layer of pots is covered with tan, followed by another layer of pots. The heat generated by fermentation, acetic acid vapor, methane and carbon dioxide within the stack causes formation of white lead crust on the lead coils within a month. This crust is removed, washed and ground into pigment. The process is highly perilous for workers. Romans often put criminals and incorrigible slaves to that work. Later medieval texts caution about risks of "apoplexy, epilepsy and paralysis" associated with handling lead white. Historical Uses of White Lead The uses of white lead evolved significantly over the centuries: Art and Decoration : Renowned for covering power and durability, it's extensively used in paintings of masters like Rembrandt and Johannes Vermeer. Architecture : White lead is used in architecture as a surface finish due to excellent weather resistance. Botulism: Causes, Symptoms & Prevention Four Humors & Medical Stagnation Natural Health: Paracelsus & Hermetic Principles Lead White is a favorite of Dutch artist Vermeer (1632 - 1675) White Lead as a Paint Pigment For centuries, white lead is the preference of artists and manufacturers. Its exceptional covering properties allow daring color mixtures. Due to its toxicity, white lead is now largely replaced by safer alternatives in the paint industry. It can be had as a synthetic color, but it tends to look dull beside paint pigments developed later. For artists titanium white is the most brilliant white on the market today. White Lead in Makeup Historically, white lead is used in cosmetics, primarily in facial creams and powders. Women in the past seek pale complexions achievable with white lead. At first, using cosmetics containing lead can give consumers a bright white complexion and clear skin tone. Lead White & Minium Red: Colors to Die For Cattle Goddesses & the Cosmic Cow Antimony (Stibnite, Kohl) Ancient Metal of Science & Beauty Lead White is used in (vintage) makeup for a glowing complexion However, if the white lead treatment is discontinued, the skin may darken, develop freckles, enlarged pores, melasma, premature aging, and other issues. Its use in beauty products is widespread, despite known health risks associated with lead exposure. White lead is used in the makeup of geisha girls and Japanese performers until the 20th century, when the effects can no longer be ignored. Today the white makeup is made with such exotic ingredients as silk. Mulberry Tree (Morus): Uses, Folklore & Myth Kermes Insect & Ancient Red Pigments Scheele's Green: History's Most Toxic Pigment White Lead in Medicine Not surprisingly, white lead is used in traditional medicine. Lead compounds have been prescribed for various ailments, ranging from eye infections to skin conditions. However, its toxicity can outweigh its medical benefits. White Lead's astringent properties make it a popular choice in traditional medicine. It's used in treatments for skin conditions and as a general remedy for various ailments. However, its toxic nature means prolonged exposure can have severe health consequences. Curse of the Evil Eye & Apotropaic Magic Castle Frankenstein - Legend & Lore Agrippina & Son: Poisonous Plots of Rome White Lead is used in history to treat eye infections Other Uses of White Lead Beyond art, architecture, makeup, and medicine, white lead found utility in: Glass Making : Its unique properties were utilized in producing lead glass. Ceramics : White lead was employed in glazes to improve the finish and aesthetic appeal of ceramic wares. Apart from its role in paints, cosmetics, and medicine, White Lead found applications in other areas such as plumbing, where it was used in pipes, and as a mordant in textile dyeing. Its versatility made it a valuable commodity despite the risks associated with its use. Earth of Chios: Ancient Alchemy, Cosmetics, & Medicine Spagyria: Botanical Science of Alchemy Talc (Magnesium Silicate): Beauty, Art & Industry Pencil leads contain no lead. Graphite is "black lead" in the 16th century as people didn't know what to call it. Dangers of White Lead The dangers of white lead cannot be overstated. Exposure to lead can result in serious health issues, including: Lead Poisoning : Acute or chronic exposure can lead to neurological damage, kidney dysfunction, and reproductive issues. Environmental Contamination : Improper disposal of lead-based products poses significant ecological risks. Due to these dangers, many countries have enacted strict regulations regarding the use of white lead, particularly in paint and consumer products. Facts about White Lead Banned in Most Paints : White lead is banned in many countries for use in residential paints due to health concerns. Harmful to Pregnant Women : Exposure to lead has been linked to pregnancy complications, and it's particularly harmful to developing fetuses. Long Lasting in Environment : Lead has a significant half-life in soil and can persist for decades, leading to long-term environmental contamination. Leap to Flames: Why Did Empedocles Jump into Mount Etna? Acetic Acid: Vinegar 🜊 in Ancient Alchemy Isabella Cortese: Renaissance Writer, Alchemist, Entrepreneur Crystal Cerussite, a lead ore - its name comes from Latin cerussa, white lead While White Lead has been favored for its unique properties, its toxicity poses significant risks to human health. Prolonged exposure to lead can lead to serious health issues, including neurological disorders, developmental delays, and organ damage. As a result, regulations on the use of White Lead have become increasingly stringent over the years. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Acidophiles, neutrophiles, and alkaliphiles are microbes which prosper at certain pH levels and environmental conditions such as sulfur springs and salt lakes. Some, like bacteria, have a legacy going back to times when conditions on Earth are inhospitable to extremes. GI Yeast Hunter: Bacteroides thetaiotomicron Predators of the Microworld: Vampirovibrio  & Lysobacter Silent Destroyers: Microbes of Concrete Corrosion pH in Microbial Ecosystems pH measures the acidity or basicity of water. The scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 as the neutral point. A pH below 7 signifies acidity, while a pH above 7 signifies a base. Mid range is from 5 - 9. This is not a sharp cutoff, and different bacterial types can mingle. Microorganisms able to function at very high acidity or alkalinity, salinity, heat and other harsh ecosystems are known as extremophiles. Among the three major groups, pH preference determines their habitats. Many also have intriguing life habits, such as the extremophile Cupriavidus metallidurans , which consumes metals and excretes visible 24k gold. Bdellovibrio : Lifestyles of Predatory Bacteria Acid-Producing Bacteria in Sulfuric Acid Creation Catalase: Unseen Enzymes Essential to Life Above: Cupriavidus metallidurans Acidophiles or acid lovers help weather rocks and minerals, increasing nutrient availability in acidic soils. Soil enriched with acidophiles improves bioavailability of essential minerals, such as iron and zinc, by up to 40%. Neutrophiles dominate environments like compost heaps, where they decompose organic matter and recycle nutrients back into the soil. These bacteria break down about 25% of the organic material added to compost. Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 Decomposition 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine Microbes like bacteria decompose dead organisms, animal waste and plant litter to get nutrients. They are efficient recyclers. Decomposition releases chemicals like carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus, which ultimately go into the creation of new life forms. Alkaliphiles or alkali lovers contribute to the productivity of soda lakes, supporting a variety of microbial communities. In these environments, they create a balanced ecosystem that allows other species to thrive, maintaining ecological diversity. Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Seven Probiotics: Human Digestive Health Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter Baking soda raises water alkalinity Soda lakes get their name from high concentrations of dissolved sodium and carbonate, similar to baking soda. Interactions between water and volcanic rocks below create soda lakes. They often contain high salt concentrations. Acidophiles - low pH Acidophiles are at home in highly acidic environments, typically pH levels less than 5. This group includes both bacteria and archaea. Their membranes, proteins and other cellular structures are uniquely adapted to withstand extreme acidity. They're found in locations like acidic hot springs, metal-rich sites and areas impacted by acid mine drainage. Acidophiles are equipped with biochemical resources to protect their cellular functions from the harsh conditions of low pH. Flowers of Sulfur (Brimstone): Creation & Uses Metal to Rust: Unseen Organisms in Action Nitric Acid: Aqua Fortis the Acid Queen sulfur mine One example is Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans . The bacterium oxidizes iron and sulfur, and is used in bioleaching processes. It facilitates the extraction of metals like copper and gold from ores. Examples of Acidophiles: Thermoplasma spp. : These archaeans are found in hot springs and mine drainage areas, where they thrive in very low pH environments. Ferroplasma spp. : Found in iron-rich, acidic mine drainage, these microbes are known for their ability to oxidize iron while tolerating extreme acidity. Sulfolobus spp. : This genus of hyperthermophilic sulfur-reducing archaeans is often found in geothermal areas, thriving at pH levels as low as 2-3. Acidophiles often produce organic acids as metabolic byproducts, which can contribute to their survival by lowering the pH further. Some acidophiles are essential bioleaching, a method used in mining to extract metals by oxidation in low pH solutions. Lunar Caustic AgNO3: Lapis Infernalis  of Alchemy Rotten Egg Sulfur Smell: Microbial Processes Lactic Acid Bacteria: Nature to Modern Uses Above: Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans Neutrophiles - midrange pH Neutrophiles prefer neutral pH ranges, typically between pH 5 and 9. This group of microbes encompasses the majority of known microorganisms, including both pathogenic and beneficial species. Neutrophiles are remarkably diverse. This group comprises microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi, and represents a vast majority of microbial life. A classic example is Escherichia coli , commonly found in intestines of warm-blooded animals including humans. Microbial Alchemy: Fermentation, Digestion, Putrefaction Gold-of-Pleasure: Bronze Age Crops Broad Beans (Fava) - Bronze Age Crops Escherichia coli image courtesy of CDC (Centers for Disease Control & Prevention) Neutrophiles are experts at nutrient cycling, decomposition, and industrial processes such as food production. About 80% of all microbial life falls into this category. Many form biofilms, or communities working together to create protective structures. Plaque on teeth is a type of biofilm. Listeria monocytogenes can create biofilms on food processing equipment and withstand cleaning processes. Killer Yeast: Assassins of the Microworld Biofilm Communities: Metropolitan Microbes Honey Mead: Most Ancient Ambrosia bacterial biofilm of Staphylococcus aureus Examples of Neutrophiles: Escherichia coli : A well-known bacterium that is a typical inhabitant of the human gastrointestinal tract (GI), E. coli has optimal growth around pH 7. Staphylococcus aureus : This pathogen flourishes in neutral pH environments and is notorious for causing various infections. Saccharomyces cerevisiae : Commonly known as baker's yeast, it is vital in fermentation and thrives best at around pH 5-6. Neutrophiles are important to nutrient cycling and ecosystem stability. They decompose organic material and contribute to soil fertility, allowing other organisms to live. They are essential in industrial processes, such as fermentation, brewing and bioremediation due to their adaptability to varied environments. Malevolent Microfungi: Hazards of Health & Home Radioactive Gas: Radon (Rn) Noble & Deadly Science of Onion Tears: Demystifying Acids cheers! Alkaliphiles - high end pH Alkaliphiles are hardy organisms preferring a pH greater than 9. These microorganisms are prevalent in environments such as soda lakes, alkaline springs, and hypersaline regions. Their unique adaptations empower them to flourish where most other life forms struggle. A notable alkaliphile is the archaeon Natronobacterium in highly saline alkaline habitats, like Lake Natron in Tanzania. Natronobacterium has specialized ion pumps to manage its internal pH, so it can function efficiently in extreme alkaline environments (over 12). Brownian Motion: Physics & Phenomena Difference Between Gram-Positive & Gram-Negative Bacteria S. pasteurii : Calcium Eating Limestone-Making Bacteria Lake Natron, Tanzania Examples of Alkaliphiles Natronomonas spp. : These halophilic archaea are found in highly alkaline environments like soda lakes and are known for tolerating both heat and high pH. Bacillus alcaliphilus : This bacterium has industrial significance, found in alkaline soil and is known for its enzyme production. Corynebacterium glutamicum : This organism is significant in the biochemical industry for its use in amino acid production. Alkaliphiles often produce enzymes that can function under high pH conditions, making them valuable in industrial applications such as detergent formulations and bioremediation. Some alkaliphilic bacteria can survive extreme salinity, helping scientists understand the complexity and ingenuity of life in extreme environments. Glycerin (Glycerol): Darling of Cosmetics, Health & Science The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature Ethyl Alcohol: Science of Solvents & Booze Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Yeasts metabolize nutrients like nitrogen, biotin (vitamin H) and thiamin (B1) for optimal health in the competitive microworld. They're needed by species like Saccharomyces cerevisiae , Candida and Brettanomyces spp . Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld Maltose: Sweet Delight of Brewing & Energy Saccharomyces cerevisiae : Queen of Yeasts Famous for gobbling sugars like glucose and maltose , yeast cannot live by sweets alone. Healthy yeasts are plump and abundant under a microscope. Malnourished yeasts can look spindly, but this depends on the species. Some wild yeasts are naturally spindly. Lack of nutrients can impair yeast activity and cause "lazy yeast". Feeding yeast for best performance can be an experimental endeavor before yielding proof positive. Beer: Malting & Mashing in Grain Fermentation Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Esters: Nature's Fragrance & Flavor Makers healthy fermentation Nitrogen Nitrogen can be obtained as ammonia , more specifically ammonium, an odorless form with a slightly different chemical composition. Nitrogen is essential for cell structures, part of amino acids, proteins and nucleic acids. Ammonium occurs in compounds such as ammonium carbonate, ammonium chloride, and ammonium nitrate. It's part of the nitrogen fixing cycle of soil bacteria and plants like legumes. Galactose: Simple Sugar of Nature & Health Candida albicans : Nature of the Yeast Three Types of Amylase in Digestion & Fermentation nitrogen in the environment Yeast can get nitrogen from two main sources. In environments rich in organic matter, like decaying fruit or plants, they absorb nitrogen from amino acids or peptides. When nitrogen is scarce, some yeast species switch to ammonium salts. Yeast lacking nitrogen hasten to colonize more nutritious territory by branching out with "legs"(elongated cells), links or hyphae of daughter cells. Fermentable & Non-Fermentable Sugars Amazing Yeast: Feeding, Breeding & Biofilms Esters & Phenols in Brewing, Perfumes, Food Making "leggy" form of S. cerevisiae with pseudohyphae of daughter cells Saccharomyces cerevisiae , or baker's yeast, can use both ammonium and amino acids . In brewing, high nitrogen availability can raise fermentation rates and produce superior quality end products. Low nitrogen levels can slow growth and fermentation, resulting in lackadaisical or incomplete fermenting processes. This affects flavor, integrity and quality of the bread or brew. Occasionally this is desired, as fermentation may be initiated by a wild strain for specific flavors or terroir . It's continued and completed by a trusty favorite like S. cerevisiae . Starch: Power of Plants & Human Energy Yeast & Vineyard Microbes: Flavors of Wine Top Fermenting & Bottom Fermenting Yeasts healthy S. cerevisiae growth with budding Biotin: Vitamin H Biotin, also known as vitamin H, is another essential nutrient for yeast. It has functions in metabolic pathways, such as fatty acid synthesis and carbohydrate metabolism. While yeast species can synthesize biotin, they may need external sources in some conditions. In fermenting, biotin is a coenzyme in carboxylation reactions, enabling conversion of fats and carbohydrates into energy. Carboxylation is a chemical reaction forming a carboxylic acid such as formic or acetic acid, by reacting a substrate with carbon dioxide. Lack of biotin slows yeast growth and impairs fermentation activity. Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Ninkasi: Beer Goddess Mesopotamia Hildegard von Bingen: Nature, Music & Beer checking the brew Pantothenic Acid - vitamin B5 Pantothenic acid, or vitamin B5, is vital for yeast and forms a part of coenzyme A (CoA). The coenzyme is important to biochemical reactions such as metabolism of fatty acids and synthesizing essential molecules like cholesterol and neurotransmitters. Yeast can gain pantothenic acid from their environment or create it from precursor substances. Yeast like Saccharomyces cerevisiae have up to 25% higher fermentation rates in pantothenic acid-rich environments. With appropriate levels of this vitamin, yeast can convert sugars into energy more effectively, leading to increased cell growth and better fermentation outcome. Five Types of Resistant Starch: Fiber & Health Polysaccharides: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose Five Sugars: Glucose, Maltose, Fructose, Sucrose, Lactose Thiamin - Vitamin B1 Thiamin is another critical B vitamin necessary for yeast function. It's a cofactor for enzymes in carbohydrate metabolism, especially converting sugars to energy. Without enough thiamin, yeast can struggle with sugar metabolism. For instance, Brettanomyces or "Brett", a yeast used in craft beer brewing, needs thiamin to function effectively and regulate its wild ways. Gingerbread Houses: German Folklore Seven Trace Minerals: Nature's Little Helpers Fermenting Green Beans: Salt, Brine & Bacteria Brett - healthy growth Thiamin deficiency may result in fermentation slowdowns, with potential reductions in alcohol production by as much as 30%. Yeast typically acquire thiamin from grains and plant materials. Adding thiamin-rich substrates in fermentation can boost yeast activity. This improves product quality, texture and flavor complexity. Zinc Zinc has multiple functions in yeast physiology, like supporting enzyme functions and cell signaling. As a cofactor for many enzymes, including alcohol dehydrogenase, zinc is vital for conversion of sugars into alcohol. Zinc (Zn): Essential Metal in Alchemy & Medicine Phenols: Powerful Compounds of Nature Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper beer For yeast like Saccharomyces cerevisiae , adequate zinc levels are crucial. A deficiency can hinder fermentation efficiency, reduce growth, and increase oxidative stress. Magnesium Magnesium is important to yeast metabolism. It's a cofactor for over 300 enzymes, which are essential for biochemical reactions and enzyme stabilization. It also functions in DNA and RNA synthesis. In Brettanomyces and other yeast species, magnesium is critical for growth and fermentation performance. It assists in transporting phosphates and stabilizing ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the cell's energy currency. Glycolysis: Biochemistry of Holistic Health Science of Onion Tears: Demystifying Acids Magnesium (Mg): Ecology & Human Health parts of a budding yeast cell Sources of magnesium include minerals in fermentation media or specific nutrient additives. Proper magnesium levels elevate yeast activity and health, especially in brewing and baking. Yeast Nutrients These are only some of the nutrients used by yeast. Interdependence of these nutrients influences overall yeast health and efficiency. For instance, if nitrogen is insufficient, yeast might struggle to utilize thiamin or biotin. This can cause lazy yeast, stunted growth or reduced fermentation ability. A balanced nutrient profile in yeast cultivation can optimize health and activity, for robust enthusiastic microbes. Ethyl Acetate: Scent of Flowers, Wine & Fruits Hanseniaspora : Wild Lovers of Sweet Grapes Terroir in Wine & Food: Expression of Place energy Facts About Yeast & Microbe Nutrition Yeast Fermentation : Depending on strains and nutrient availability, yeast can produce different flavors and byproducts. These variations contribute richness to beers, wines, and breads. Natural Sources : Yeast nutrients can be sourced from organic materials. Adaptability : Yeast can adjust their metabolic pathways based on nutrient availability. This allows them to prosper in different environments. Seven Probiotics: Human Digestive Health Lactobacillus : Nature of Lactic Acid Bacteria Cherish the Chocolate: Sweet Fermentation Historical Significance : Yeast is a crucial component of human diets for thousands of years. Beer or wine and bread are basics of nutrition for early people. Used in the Neolithic, S. cerevisiae is considered the world's first domesticated microorganism. Biogas Contribution : Some yeast species including Saccharomyces pombe , and strains of S. cerevisiae wild type to mutated yeasts, are exploited in biogas production. Temperature affects yeast metabolism, with yeast going dormant below 4°C (40°F). Fermentation and yeast functions are slower at cool temperatures. It also dies in heat above 60°C (140° F). Whey & Whey Products: Health & Science Listeria  Bacteria: Health and Environment Lactase: Nature's Milk Digestion Enzyme Optimal temperature for yeast is 32 - 35˚C (90 -95˚F) Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Candida albicans is a common yeast dwelling in humans and the natural environment. Usually unnoticed unless pathogenic, it's found in the gastrointestinal tract, mouth and vagina, coexisting with other microbes. Three Types of Amylase in Digestion & Fermentation Fermentable & Non-Fermentable Sugars Saccharomyces cerevisiae : Queen of Yeasts Candida albicans colonizing agar with modified cells or hyphae branching out Candida albicans is first identified in the late 19th century by German botanist Heinrich Anton de Bary. Since then, extensive research has focused on uncovering its characteristics and effects on human health. In nature, Candida albicans  contributes to the breakdown of organic material, and nutrient cycling. It's  isolated from soil, plants and decomposing matter. Yeasts need nitrogen ( ammonium ), vitamins such as thiamine (B1) and minerals such as magnesium and zinc for maximum performance. Nitrogen starved yeast puts out hyphae, filaments or pseudohyphae made of daughter cells in search of new territory. Amazing Yeast: Feeding, Breeding & Biofilms Brettanomyces : Favorite Artisan Wild Yeast Yeast & Vineyard Microbes: Flavors of Wine zinc A unicellular fungus, Candida albicans can create filamentous hyphae, associated with its pathogenic side, or float as an ovoid cell through the body. Under normal growth conditions it's white or cream-colored. In humans, it is primarily found in mucous membranes, such as the gastrointestinal tract, oral cavity and vaginal canal. It can also be on skin, mainly in folds where moisture accumulates, or around the anal opening. In the human body, Candida albicans  is usually harmless and exists as a component of the natural microbiota. It helps maintain a balance in the microbial community. C. albicans  is important to digestive health. Yeast: Microbiology of Bread & Food Making Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Ninkasi: Beer Goddess Mesopotamia digestive tract Candida albicans  is a heterotrophic organism, extracting nutrients from organic materials. Specifically, it loves simple sugars like glucose, a monosaccharide providing energy for many of life's processes. While it can't break down polysaccharides like starches, the enzyme amylase can. Amylases are in saliva and the small intestine, produced by salivatory glands or the pancreas. They reduce starch to fermentable sugars. C. albicans metabolizes fermentable sugars like glucose as a source of energy. During metabolic processes, it releases ethanol, CO2 and other byproducts which can alter pH levels of its environment. Glycolysis: Biochemistry of Holistic Health Honey Mead: Most Ancient Ambrosia Yeast: Microbiology of Bread & Food Making C. albicans can live in pH levels from very acidic (<2) to extremely alkaline (>10) This can create dysbiosis, when the balance of microorganisms is upset. The imbalance affects about 30% of adults who have digestive issues. High sugar intake can feed Candida past the tipping point. Conditions such as immune suppression, diabetes, antibiotic use or hormonal changes also result in overgrowth . This can cause thrush (oral candidiasis) and vaginal yeast infections (Candidal vulvovaginitis) . Symptoms may include fatigue, sore throat, white patches on mouth, itching in genital areas, digestive and skin problems. It may cause further infection from invasive candidiasis. Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life How Yeast Transforms Sugars to Booze Radioactive Gas: Radon (Rn) Noble & Deadly Candida albicans filamentous Unlike Candida infections of the mouth or vagina, invasive candidiasis is a progressive, and potentially fatal infection. It can affect blood (fungemia), heart, brain, eyes, bones and other parts of the body. Genetic Resilience: Candida albicans has a remarkable ability to adapt genetically, allowing it to survive in various environments and resist some antifungal treatments. Oil-Dwelling Microbes: Bacteria, Yeast & Mold Science of Onion Tears: Demystifying Acids Ammonium Carbonate: Sal Volatile Smelling Salts Biofilm Formation: This yeast is capable of forming biofilms on medical devices and mucosal surfaces, which complicates treatment and eradication efforts. Diverse Strain Variants: Over 200 different types of Candida exist, and more than 20 species can cause infection, but C. albicans is the most common in humans. Model Organism: Candida albicans is a model organism in scientific research and experiments. Terroir in Wine & Food: Expression of Place Top Fermenting & Bottom Fermenting Yeasts Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper yeast biofilm Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Glucose is a monosaccharide important to human and environmental health. It fuels cells and supports intricate ecosystems. Often called blood sugar, glucose is essential to human mind and body wellness. Carbohydrates: Sugars of Nature & Health Five Sugars: Glucose, Maltose, Fructose, Sucrose, Lactose Structures of Starch: Amylose & Amylopectin A monosaccharide or simple sugar, glucose is initially created by plants through photosynthesis. It's made into complex sugars like starches, which can be broken down to their glucose states for energy. Glucose belongs to the carbohydrate family. It has a chemical formula of C6H12O6, or six carbon (C) atoms, twelve hydrogen (H) atoms, and six oxygen (O) atoms. This is the key to life as we know it. Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Bdellovibrio : Lifestyles of Predatory Bacteria Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper It's abundant in foods like fruits, vegetables, and grains. In plant and human bodies, glucose is restructured into polysaccharides like fiber and cellulose, disaccharides like maltose, and other sugar complexes . When humans eat carbohydrates like bread, pasta, fruit and vegetables, the gastrointestinal (GI) tract breaks them down into smaller units, primarily glucose, easily absorbed into the bloodstream. Starch-Loving Bacteria: Nature, Science, Nutrition Hanseniaspora : Wild Lovers of Sweet Grapes Lapis Lazuli: Vibrant Blue Gem of Ancients Once in the bloodstream, glucose is transported to cells for energy. The hormones insulin and glucagon regulate blood glucose levels to help keep them stable. Diet has a significant effect on glucose levels. Foods high in refined sugars can cause erratic blood sugar swings, nausea, fatigue, irritability and depression. Maillard Reaction: Science & Flavor in Browning Food Glycolysis: Biochemistry of Holistic Health Escherichia coli (E. coli): The Good Bacteria blood sugar fluctuations can cause mood swings and irritability Cells use glucose through the process of cellular respiration. Glucose combines with oxygen to make energy, carbon dioxide (CO2), and water (H2O). Energy is calculated as Power x Time. The energy is stored as ATP (adenosine triphosphate) , also called the energy currency of cells. A human cell consumes up to 10 million ATP molecules per second as it performs its vital functions. Fermentable & Non-Fermentable Sugars Radioactive Gas: Radon (Rn) Noble & Deadly Starch: Power of Plants & Human Energy Incorporating complex carbohydrates and fiber such as whole grains, nuts and legumes, can stabilize glucose levels. This is because complex carbs or polysaccharides are hard to digest, earning them the label resistant starch . They're considered prebiotics, as they feed beneficial digestive bacteria or probiotics. Their purpose in humans is blood sugar regulation, easing digestion and providing a consistent energy flow. Pan: Wild Rustic God of Music & Flocks Feed the Yeast: Nutrients for Microbe Health Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg legumes Regular physical activity affects how human bodies use glucose. Exercise increases insulin sensitivity, allowing cells to absorb glucose more effectively. Glucose is important to mental health. The brain relies on glucose for energy. Low levels can lead to cognitive decline, exhaustion and mood fluctuations. Blood vessels in the brain transport oxygen-rich blood. Over time excess glucose can degrade them. When the brain has insufficient blood, neurons die causing cognitive dysfunction and ultimately vascular dementia. Maltose: Sweet Delight of Brewing & Energy Seven Trace Minerals: Nature's Little Helpers Botulism: Causes, Symptoms & Prevention Process of Glucose Absorption & Use Digestion: When people and other animals like cows and elephants consume carbohydrates, enzymes in saliva and digestive system break them down into glucose. Absorption: The glucose is absorbed into the bloodstream through the small intestine. Insulin: As glucose levels rise in the blood, the pancreas releases the hormone insulin. Insulin provides a pathway for cells to receive glucose. Without it, glucose remains in the blood. Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment 7 Primary Electrolytes: Essential Ions & Health Amino Acids: Optimal Body Health & Energy sucrose (table sugar), a disaccharide of glucose and fructose Cellular Respiration: Once inside the cells, glucose undergoes a series of chemical reactions, or cellular respiration. This converts glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the energy currency of the cell. Storage ( Glycogen ): When bodies have more glucose than cells need immediately, excess is converted into glycogen, stored in the liver and muscles. Glycogen is a readily available reserve. ATP: Nature of Energy & Vital Functions Catalase: Unseen Enzymes Essential to Life Beer: Malting & Mashing in Grain Fermentation complications of glucose imbalance include serious health problems like fatty liver Glucose Levels: Hypoglycemia & Hyperglycemia Hypoglycemia, or very low blood sugar, can cause symptoms like dizziness and confusion. Hyperglycemia, or high blood sugar, is a precursor to health problems like diabetes 2. Hyperglycemia (High Blood Sugar): Occurs when the body doesn't produce enough insulin or the cells become resistant to its effects. Diabetes 2 is a chronic condition characterized by high blood glucose levels, which can damage blood vessels, nerves and organs over time. Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Flavors of Coffee: From Harvest to Homestead Honey Mead: Most Ancient Ambrosia Hypoglycemia (Low Blood Sugar): Occurs when blood glucose levels drop too low, often due to excessive insulin production, skipping meals, or intense exercise. Symptoms can include shakiness, sweating, dizziness and fainting. In beauty, glucose is added to skin creams for its moisturizing capabilities. Glucose and fructose link the amino acids of collagen and elastin, supporting skin structure and flexibility. In ecosystems, glucose part of the carbon cycle. It's a key energy source for microorganisms working to decompose organic materials, recycle nutrients and support plant development in processes like nitrogen fixation . Three Types of Amylase in Digestion & Fermentation Phytic Acid: Mother Nature's Nutrient Secrets Saccharomyces cerevisiae : Queen of Yeasts Nitrogen nourishes plants, microbes and people. It combines with glucose to make protein. 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The Maillard reaction is a process in browning and flavor enhancement for food such as chicken, steak, bread and roast marshmallows. As food heats up, amino acids and reducing sugars create rich, flavorful compounds. Flavonoids: the Big Five of Aroma, Flavor & Color Ethyl Acetate: Scent of Flowers, Wine & Fruits Glycolysis: Biochemistry of Holistic Health Identified in 1912 by French chemist Louis-Camille Maillard, this reaction is a chemical process. It occurs when heat converts proteins and sugars in food, usually above temperatures of 140°C (284°F). The reaction initiates a series of changes producing mouthwatering flavors and aromas. It creates a variety of new compounds, known as melanoidins, which contribute to the flavor, appetizing scent and color of browned food. ATP: Nature of Energy & Vital Functions Irrwurz or Mad Root: German Folklore Lactase: Nutrition & the Milk Sugar Enzyme The Chemistry of Flavor Fundamentally the Maillard reaction is a form of non-enzymatic browning. As food is heated, the amino acids and reducing sugars interact in a complex series of chemical reactions. A series of aromatic compounds are formed. For example in meat they include ketones, aldehydes, alcohols, furans, and their derivatives such as pyrrole, pyridine, pyrazine, thiophene, and sulfides. These flavor compounds create the rich, savory, and often slightly sweet notes associated with roasted and grilled meats, as well as baked food. Esters: Nature's Fragrance & Flavor Makers Artisan Perfumery: Four Degrees of Fragrance Oil of Philosophers: Alchemy Health & Beauty In depth, the reactive carbonyl group of the sugar interacts with the nucleophilic amino group of the amino acid. This results in a complex mixture of molecules which contribute to various aromas and flavors. The process is accelerated in an alkaline environment, such as using lye to darken pretzels. The amino groups (RNH+3 → RNH2) are deprotonated ie a proton is removed, enhancing their nucleophilicity. A nucleophile is "nucleus loving", an electron-rich species inclined to be drawn to the positive nuclear charge of an electron-deficient species, or electrophile. This reaction is the base for many industry flavoring recipes. Structures of Starch: Amylose & Amylopectin Five Sugars: Glucose, Maltose, Fructose, Sucrose, Lactose Carbohydrates: Sugars of Nature & Health nucleophiles are attracted to electrophiles At high temperatures, the possible carcinogen acrylamide may form. Major food sources of acrylamide are French fries, bread and cookies. It's also found in cereals; canned black olives; prune juice and coffee. Effects of acrylamide can be mitigated by heating at a lower temperature, adding asparaginase or carbon dioxide. The bubbly texture of leavened bread comes from the CO2 expelled by yeast, present in the bake. Asparaginase, an enzyme, converts asparagine into aspartic acid and ammonia. It can also transform glutamine into glutamic acid. Aspartic and glutamic acid are naturally found in foods like meat, poultry, fish and eggs. Fermentable & Non-Fermentable Sugars Maltose: Sweet Delight of Brewing & Energy Esters & Phenols in Brewing, Perfumes, Food Making grilled salmon Examples of the Maillard Reaction Grilling Meat A steak seared on high heat is the classic Maillard reaction in action. The surface of the meat caramelizes, developing a deep brown crust to enhance visual appeal and adding robust flavors. During high-heat cooking, the exterior of a steak can reach around 200°C (392°F) very quickly. This creates a rich, savory tastes. Meat grilled for eight to ten minutes has double the flavor compounds than if cooked just a few minutes. Botulism: Causes, Symptoms & Prevention Listeria  Bacteria: Health and Environment Famous Women of Renaissance Alchemy Toasting Bread Making toast is a perfect illustration of the Maillard reaction. As bread is toasted, the combination of heat and moisture triggers the reaction, resulting in the golden-brown exterior with a crispy texture. Roasting Coffee The Maillard reaction is essential in roasting coffee beans. It contributes to the complex flavor profile coffee lovers cherish, moving from the grassy notes of raw beans to the rich, aromatic depth of roast coffee. During coffee roasting, the combination of sugars and acids in the beans generates more than 800 distinct flavor compounds. Coffee roasting encourages the artisan flair. Five Types of Resistant Starch: Fiber & Health Flavors of Coffee: From Harvest to Homestead Cherish the Chocolate: Sweet Fermentation roasting coffee beans Baking Cookies In baked goods like cookies, the combination of sugars and proteins in the flour and eggs reacts under heat. It creates the layered tastes of croissants and the crispy edges and chewy centers of cookies. The golden-brown crust of bread also comes from the Maillard reaction. A loaf of sourdough bread can develop more than 250 flavor compounds as it bakes, giving it unique tastes and aromas. Factors Influencing the Maillard Reaction Temperature Sensitivity The Maillard reaction typically occurs at temperatures above 140°C (284°F). High-heat cooking methods such as grilling, frying, and roasting are needed for the desired browning. Digestive Enzymes: Amylase, Lipase & Protease SCOBY & Mother of Vinegar: Cultured Cuisine 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Temperature and time influence the Maillard reaction. Higher temperatures speed the process but can cross over to burnt or carbonized food. Food cooked at 175°C (347°F) for longer periods develop deeper flavors than those cooked at lower temperatures. Complexity of flavors produced by the Maillard reaction increases with time. This appears in processes like slow roasting or braising. For instance, slow-cooked caramelized onions develop a sweet, rich flavor profile. pH Factors pH levels affect the Maillard reaction. A higher pH or more alkaline conditions (>7) can accelerate the reaction. Ingredients like baking soda may be added to recipes for fried foods for deeper color and flavor. Power of Pepsin: Potent Digestive Enzymes Lactase: Nature's Milk Digestion Enzyme Galactose: Simple Sugar of Nature & Health Color and Aroma Variety Melanoidins are responsible not just for color but also for the immense variety of aromas present in cooked foods. This is a major reason why food flavors vary with different techniques. It also affects flavor and color of aged beverages like cognac and whiskey as they mature in barrels. The flavor profile of aged cheese develops its singular taste through these chemical interactions. The Maillard reaction produces over 1,000 different compounds. This complexity lets chefs create unique and memorable dishes. Secrets of Xanthan Gum for Artists & Chefs Best Mortar & Pestles for Artists, Chefs, Scientists Spirit of Wine of the Wise: Alchemy Recipe aged whiskey Achieving the Optimal Maillard Reaction in Cooking Start with Dry Heat To maximize the effect of the Maillard reaction, use dry heat cooking methods such as grilling, roasting, or baking. These bring food to higher temperatures, leading to better caramelization and richer flavors. Browning Controlled browning is necessary for flavor development. For example, searing meat in a hot pan locks in moisture while creating a tasty crust. Marshmallows are perfect roasted over a campfire due to the Maillard reaction changing lipids and sugars into mouthwatering flavors. Marinades Using marinades containing sugars and acids can encourage the Maillard reaction. A marinade made with honey, sugar, or fruit juices can promote a caramelized crust on grilled meats or roast vegetables. Marinating chicken in honey and lemon juice can tenderize it and elevate flavors. Seven Trace Minerals: Nature's Little Helpers Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Yeast: Microbiology of Bread & Food Making chicken Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Starch is a carbohydrate indispensable to food, the environment and plant biology. It's an energy reserve for plants, consisting mainly of two types of polysaccharides working in tandem: amylose and amylopectin. Carbohydrates: Sugars of Nature & Health Five Sugars: Glucose, Maltose, Fructose, Sucrose, Lactose Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Starch is a polymeric carbohydrate made up of many glucose units connected by glycosidic bonds. It occurs predominantly in plants, especially grains, vegetables and tubers. Energy storage molecules, starches provide life's essence to plants and other organisms, like humans. Amylose and amylopectin compose starch. Their proportions affect the physical and nutritional properties of food. Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper Rhododendron & the Toxic Ambrosia Ammonium (NH+4): Nitrogen Needs of Plants High-amylose starches usually have a glycemic index 20-30% lower than those with high amylopectin. A mixture of two polysaccharides fuels life as we know it. These two forms of starch, both made of glucose molecules, have unique structures and properties, dictating their diverse roles in plants, the environment, and human body. Fermentable & Non-Fermentable Sugars Maltose: Sweet Delight of Brewing & Energy Amazing Yeast: Feeding, Breeding & Biofilms Formation: Building Blocks of Energy Both amylose and amylopectin are polymers of glucose, meaning they are long chains formed by linking numerous glucose molecules together. This happens through glycosidic bonds, specifically alpha-1,4-glycosidic bonds. Structurally it means the carbon atom number 1 of one glucose molecule is linked to the carbon atom number 4 of the next glucose molecule. Amylase: Starch to Sugar Enzyme of Digestion & Fermentation Honey Mead: Most Ancient Ambrosia Ephedra - Oldest Medical Stimulant Herb Amylose Amylose has a linear structure made of glucose units linked mainly by α(1→4) glycosidic bonds. This linear shape allows amylose to coil into a helical structure, which is important for its functions. In plants, amylose is made in the chloroplasts and is needed for energy storage. Amylopectin Amylopectin is a branched polymer made of glucose units connected by both α(1→4) and α(1→6) glycosidic bonds. The branching occurs roughly every 24 to 30 glucose units, resulting in a more complex structure than amylose. Listeria  Bacteria: Health and Environment Lactase: Nature's Milk Digestion Enzyme Galactose: Simple Sugar of Nature & Health many branches for flexibility and strength Amylase Amylase is the enzyme necessary for the body to reduce amylose and amylopectin to their absorbable forms. Humans make amylase in saliva and in the pancreas. It also breaks down sugars for essential digestive bacteria. In plants it provides energy for young seedlings. In brewing, it helps release maltose and glucose to the wort, to feed the yeast in the fermentation process. Beer: Malting & Mashing in Grain Fermentation Three Types of Amylase in Digestion & Fermentation Starch: Power of Plants & Human Energy brewing: well-fed yeast at work The linearity of amylose allows it to associate strongly and form compact structures less soluble and more resistant to digestion. Branching in amylopectin prevents close packing, making it more soluble and easily accessible to digestive enzymes. Amylose is able to form a gel when heated in water. This property is particularly valued in the food industry, affecting texture and thickness of products like pasta and pastries. The branching of amylopectin improves water solubility and digestibility. Amylopectin’s structure allows it to release glucose quickly, making it an immediate energy source for living organisms. Starch-Loving Bacteria: Nature, Science, Nutrition Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Whey & Whey Products: Health & Science Importance to Environment, Plants and Human Bodies In Plants Amylose It functions primarily as a long-term energy storage molecule in plants, especially in seeds like rice and wheat, and tubers like potatoes. Its compact structure allows a large amount of glucose in a small space. Its slower digestibility ensures a sustained release of energy for the developing plant. Amylose influences soil texture and structure. Microbe pH Levels: Acidophiles, Neutrophiles & Alkaliphiles GI Yeast Hunter: Bacteroides thetaiotomicron Predators of the Microworld: Vampirovibrio & Lysobacter soil nutrients infuse plants By interacting with other organic matter, amylose enhances soil aeration and water retention, which benefits plant growth. In humans, amylose is digested more slowly than amylopectin. This slower digestion leads to a gradual release of glucose into the bloodstream, providing a stable energy source. Foods rich in amylose, like lentils and beans, have a low glycemic index, best for stable blood sugar. Five Types of Resistant Starch: Fiber & Health Chicken Soup: Chickens in German Folklore Esters: Nature's Fragrance & Flavor Makers beans Amylopectin It contributes significantly to solubility and texture of starch granules within plant cells. Its branched structure facilitates rapid mobilization of glucose when the plant needs energy, making it a readily accessible source. Amylopectin forms a gel on cooling below room temperature. This can appear in rice and pasta. If allowed to cool for several hours it increases the amount of resistant starch in the food even if it's reheated. Lactic Acid Fermentation: Beneficial Bacteria Polysaccharides: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine In human nutrition, amylopectin is more prevalent. It's in foods like rice, potatoes, pasta and corn. Its rapid digestibility causes spikes in blood glucose This can be useful during high-intensity work and exercise. As always, balance is important. Too much amylopectin over time is linked to health problems like insulin resistance. Cherish the Chocolate: Sweet Fermentation Cornstarch: Cuisine, Beauty, Cleaning Uses Potash: Agriculture, Plant & Garden Health In the Environment Starch is a biodegradable, renewable resource. Plant-based starches are vital to the global carbon cycle. As plants grow, they use atmospheric carbon dioxide to synthesize glucose, which is then stored as starch. When plants decompose, the starch is broken down, releasing glucose back into the environment. This contribute to soil health and feeds essential microorganisms like nitrogen fixing bacteria. Nutrient cycling vitalizes microbe activity and promotes biodiversity. In nature, starch helps in carbon absorption to combat climate change. Metal to Rust: Unseen Organisms in Action Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Hildegard von Bingen: Nature, Music & Beer Facts About Amylose and Amylopectin The ratio of amylose to amylopectin varies depending on the plant source. Common ratios are: Rice (15-35% amylose), Corn (20-30% amylose) and Potato (20-30% amylose). "Waxy" starches, like waxy cornstarch, are almost entirely composed of amylopectin. The iodine test, which produces a characteristic blue-black color in the presence of starch, specifically interacts with the helical structure of amylose. Amylopectin produces a reddish-brown color because it does not form strong helices. Digestibility and nutritional properties of starch can be manipulated through various food processing techniques, such as retrogradation (cooling cooked starch to increase amylose crystallization) and modification (chemically altering starch to enhance certain properties like viscosity). Escherichia coli (E. coli): The Good Bacteria Botulism: Causes, Symptoms & Prevention Seven Trace Minerals: Nature's Little Helpers corn 20-30% amylose Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Botulism is a serious food-borne illness caused by potent toxin of the bacterium Clostridium botulinum . This neurotoxin can lead to paralysis and may be lethal without immediate treatment. Listeria Bacteria: Health and Environment Rhododendron & the Toxic Ambrosia Mad Hatter's Disease: Mercury Madness Botulism is primarily recognized as a foodborne illness acquired by eating food tainted with botulinum toxin. Symptoms emerge 18 - 36 hours after ingesting contaminated food. This is the most common form. In low-oxygen environments, spores germinate and bacteria multiply, releasing deadly toxin. Clostridium botulinum  thrives in environments with little to no oxygen. Arsenic: Murderous Metal & Miracle Cure Candida albicans : Nature of the Yeast Agrippina & Son: Poisonous Plots of Rome Clostridium botulinum club & rod shapes (image courtesy of CDC) Improper home canning and preserves are leading causes of foodborne botulism. Low-acid foods like green beans, corn and meats are especially vulnerable. Besides foodborne botulism, there are other types. They include wound botulism, infant botulism, and adult intestinal colonization botulism and Botox poisoning. Arsenic Trioxide: Paris Green Paint Pigment & Pesticide Seven Deadly Diseases of the Renaissance Valerian: Natural Health & Essential Oils Wound botulism occurs when spores enter the body through broken skin. This is frequently seen in intravenous drug users who inject contaminated substances. Spores can also enter wounds which are deep or contaminated with soil, They germinate in the anaerobic conditions and produce toxin. Botulinum toxins are among the most potent known to science Asclepius: Greek Medicine Snake God Scheele's Green: History's Most Toxic Pigment Radioactive Gas: Radon (Rn) Noble & Deadly canned fish and other low-acid foods are especially risky Infant botulism occurs when infants consume spores, usually from sources like honey or contaminated environments. The underdeveloped digestive systems of infants make them particularly susceptible. Clostridium botulinum  spores colonize the intestines and produce the toxin. Honey is a known source of spores and should not be given to infants under one year of age. Iatrogenic Botulism is a rare form of botulism. It can occur from overdoses of botulinum toxin (Botox) injections used for medical or cosmetic purposes. Prussic Acid: Secrets of Hydrogen Cyanide White Lead Toxic Beauty, Art, Ancient Production Methanogens: Microbes of Methane Production honey can be toxic to infants Adult intestinal toxemia , also called adult intestinal colonization, is an extremely rare form of botulism. It occurs when bacterial spores enter an adult's intestines, develop and generate the toxin, much like in infant botulism. Clostridium botulinum and Its Toxin Clostridium botulinum is an anaerobic, Gram-positive, spore-forming bacterium. While the bacterium itself isn't inherently harmful, its production of the botulinum toxin makes it dangerous. Eight+ distinct types of botulinum toxin have been identified, each with varying degrees of potency. As little as 2 ng/kg of some strains can lead to severe effects. Other strains of Clostridium can mimic botulism symptoms. Microbial Alchemy: Fermentation, Digestion, Putrefaction Meet the Microbes - History of Microbiology Advances in Chemistry 1600-1800: German just a copy ... Effects and Symptoms The botulinum toxin disrupts nerve function by blocking the release of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter responsible for muscle contraction. This leads to a characteristic descending paralysis. It usually starts in the head and works its way down the body. Common symptoms include: double or blurred vision drooping eyelids slurred speech difficulty swallowing dry mouth muscle weakness difficulty breathing constipation paralysis respiratory failure death Symptoms can emerge suddenly. Famous Women of Renaissance Alchemy Malaria: Roman Fever & Renaissance Plague Rabbit Fever Plague & Warfare: Hittites The toxin is released from the bacterium as a single chain, then becomes activated when cleaved by its own proteases . Botulinum toxin functions by breaking down essential proteins needed for nerve activation. The toxin attaches to the surface of neurons which use the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. The neuron internalizes the toxin into a vesicle through receptor-mediated endocytosis. As the vesicle travels deeper into the cell, it becomes more acidic. This activates a part of the toxin enabling it to penetrate the vesicle membrane and enter the cell's cytoplasm. SCOBY & Mother of Vinegar: Cultured Cuisine Celandine: Plant Toxins & Medicine 10 Ancient Spices of Trade, Health & Beauty human cell Killing the Pathogen: Heat and Oxygen The botulinum toxin is heat-labile and can be inactivated by boiling food for several minutes. Heating to 85 °C (185 °F) for at least 5 minutes can neutralize the toxin; spores are highly resistant to heat. Proper sterilization is essential to eliminate spores when canning or preserving foods. Pressure cookers can destroy spores of C. botulinum . The bacteria are also obligate anaerobes, meaning they can't live in oxygen. Botulism bacteria and spores are vulnerable to salt. 10% salt will deactivate spores and kill microbes. The typical salt concentration in fermenting brine is less than half that, though in some cases it can go up to 20%. Five Types of Resistant Starch: Fiber & Health Starch-Loving Bacteria: Nature, Science, Nutrition Terroir in Wine & Food: Expression of Place salt Unique Survival Skills and Traits Clostridium botulinum spores are resilient, allowing them to survive in harsh environments for extended periods. They can withstand high temperatures, radiation and chemical disinfectants. This hardiness makes them strong survivors but a major challenge in food preservation and sterilization. Clostridium botulinum is in soil, sediment, and even intestinal tracts of some animals such as (healthy) fish and pigs. Lignans: Nature's Weapons of Defense Seven Trace Minerals: Nature's Little Helpers Power of Pepsin: Potent Digestive Enzymes cute piglets Its widespread distribution means contamination is a constant risk in food processing and handling. Spores can persist for many years, waiting for the right environmental conditions. Clostridium botulinum toxins convey no smell, taste or visual cues. Food looks and tastes normal. Treponema pallidum : About the Syphilis Bacteria Castor Oil, Wigs & Death in Ancient Egypt Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor heat can kill botulism bacteria and most other microbes Botulinum antitoxin can be administered to prevent symptoms from getting worse, but cannot reverse existing nerve damage. Mechanical ventilation might be needed to prevent respiratory failure. The nerve damage may recover over weeks to months. In medicine, botulinum toxin is given to treat muscle spasms associated with conditions like cerebral palsy. It's also used in other muscle disorders, migraines and excessive sweating, besides its well-known cosmetic use. Dioscorides: Natural Medicine of Ancients Irrwurz or Mad Root: German Folklore 7 Primary Electrolytes: Essential Ions & Health Prevention of Botulism Preventing botulism is a focus of food safety practices. Some preventative measures include: Proper Canning Techniques: Follow recommended procedures for home canning. Ensure accurate processing times and temperatures to kill Clostridium botulinum spores. Avoid Damaged Cans: Discard any canned goods with bulging lids, leaks, or signs of spoilage. Don't taste food from suspicious looking cans. Refrigeration: Refrigerate leftovers promptly and keep them at a temperature below 4°C (40°F) to prevent growth of C. botulinum . Avoid Honey for Infants: Do not give honey to infants under one year of age due to the risk of infant botulism. Wound Care: Clean wounds thoroughly and get medical attention for deep or heavily contaminated wounds. Tetanus is another concern here if the patient is not vaccinated. Avoid Home Canning Certain Foods : Foods like garlic in oil or asparagus are especially risky. Hygiene : Clean and sterilize equipment and jars during food preparation to minimize contamination hazards. Storage : Keep canned items in a cool, dark location, and be aware of their expiration dates. Poison Hemlock: Herbology & Lore Grayanotoxins: the Madness of Honey Black Hellebore: Toxins, Health & Lore store in a cool dark place Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Sugars are primary consumables and influence how bodies function, often in surprising ways. Sugars are essential for overall health. The five key sugars are glucose, maltose, fructose, sucrose, and lactose. Let's briefly explore each one. Gingerbread Houses: German Folklore Isolate Yeast & LAB Strains for Artisan Flavors Lactic Acid Bacteria: Nature to Modern Uses 1. Glucose Creation Glucose is a simple monosaccharide, produced through photosynthesis in plants. During this process, plants convert sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into glucose and oxygen, creating the fundamental energy source for themselves and, indirectly, for the entire food web. Glucose is the major energy source for human cells. Plants produce glucose during photosynthesis, turning sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into glucose and oxygen. It's found in fruits, vegetables, and honey. It is also a product of starch digestion, abundant in carbohydrate-rich foods like potatoes, rice and bread. Krausen (Kräusen): Bubbles of Brewing Success Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Yeast: Process from Culture to Consumer Rice grains Characteristics: Chemical Structure: C₆H₁₂O₆ Taste: Sweet Solubility: Highly soluble in water Forms: Exists in a straight-chain form and various cyclic structures. Purpose in Nature Glucose is the primary energy source for most living organisms. It fuels cellular respiration in animals and serves as the building block for starch and cellulose in plants, contributing to structural integrity and energy storage. Pyruvate (Pyruvic Acid): Key to Life's Energy How Lactic Acid Bacteria Make Yogurt Mold Spores: Power Packs of Creation & Purpose Human Body Glucose is essential for brain function and is the preferred energy source for red blood cells. After consuming carbohydrates, the body breaks them down into glucose, which then enters the bloodstream. In the body, glucose is used in cellular respiration. Cells convert glucose into ATP ( adenosine triphosphate ), the primary energy currency. Insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas, regulates blood glucose levels. ATP: Nature of Energy & Vital Functions Milk into Cheese: Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Too little glucose can lead to hypoglycemia, with symptoms of dizziness, pallor, weakness and confusion, as well as risk of diabetes. Hyperglycemia or too much glucose causes symptoms of thirst, fatigue, weight loss and recurrent infections. The brain needs about 20% of our body's total glucose. Glucose can also be stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen, which can be converted back into glucose when the body requires immediate energy. Difference Between Gram-Positive & Gram-Negative Bacteria Amazing Yeast: Feeding, Breeding & Biofilms Microbial Alchemy: Fermentation, Digestion, Putrefaction 2. Maltose Creation Maltose, known as malt sugar, is a disaccharide made from two glucose molecules. It's found in fermented food and drink, especially in beer; malted beverages, malt vinegar, malt whiskey and grain products. It's produced during digestion of starch, when grains are germinated or malted. Malt refers to barley or other grains which are steeped, germinated, and dried, used for brewing or distilling and vinegar-making. Characteristics Chemical Structure: C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ Taste: Less sweet than glucose Solubility: Soluble in water Glycolysis: Biochemistry of Holistic Health Bdellovibrio : Lifestyles of Predatory Bacteria Oil-Dwelling Microbes: Bacteria, Yeast & Mold Malt grains Purpose in Nature Enzymes such as maltase convert starches into sugars, creating maltose. Maltose occurs naturally in plants and along with glucose is often found in germinating seeds as a source of energy for young plants. Brewing / Baking Maltose is used in production of malt extract, a popular ingredient in brewing and baking due to rich flavor and nutrient content. It's part of the fermentation process, whereby yeast converts sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide. 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life German Traditions - Candy Canes Great Women Artists - Käthe Kollwitz Human Body In humans, maltose is broken down into glucose by the enzyme maltase during digestion. The process provides a rapid source of energy. Maltose can also be found in some malted foods and beverages. While not as common in our diets as glucose or sucrose, maltose can still provide energy, especially in foods like malty snacks and beverages. Maltose contributes to the flavors of beer and baked goods. Creators often rely on maltose for extra richness in the final product. Lactic Acid Bacteria: Team Players of Fermentation Human Methane: Meet the Microbes of Flatulence Cupriavidus metallidurans : Metal Eating Gold Making Bacterium 3. Fructose Creation Fructose, known as fruit sugar, is a monosaccharide naturally found in many fruits, honey, and root vegetables. It is produced by plants during photosynthesis and is often accompanied by glucose in sucrose. Fructose is especially abundant in plants nearing harvest time. Fructose is known for its intense sweetness, which makes it popular in processed foods and beverages, like sodas and candies. Characteristics: Chemical Structure: C₆H₁₂O₆ (isomer of glucose) Taste: Very sweet Solubility: Highly soluble in water Microfungi: Mysterious Web of Life & Death 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine Amoebae: Microbial Predators on the Move Purpose in Nature Fructose attracts pollinators and seed dispersers through its sweetness, encouraging the consumption of fruits. This natural process aids in the plant's reproduction and the spread of its seeds. Human Body Fructose is absorbed in the small intestine and metabolized primarily in the liver, where it can be converted to glucose or stored as fat. Unlike glucose, fructose does not stimulate a significant insulin response, making it a popular sweetener in processed foods. Binary Fission: Speedy Microbe Reproduction Pan: Wild Rustic God of Music & Flocks Sanguine: Red Chalk of Renaissance Masters When humans consume fructose, it enters the bloodstream from the intestine. From there it's sent to the liver where it can be changed into glucose or stored as fat. Although fructose has a low glycemic index overconsumption has been linked to obesity and metabolic disorders. Fructose is about 1.5 times sweeter than glucose. This high sweetness level is why food manufacturers often use it more in items like desserts and sugary drinks. Elixir Vitae: Giambattista della Porta Four Humors & Medical Stagnation Panacea: Goddess of Universal Health dentist 4. Sucrose Creation Sucrose, commonly known as table sugar, is a disaccharide composed of one glucose and one fructose molecule. It is found in many plants, with the highest concentrations in sugarcane and sugar beets , from which it is commercially extracted. When ingested, sucrose is broken down into glucose and fructose by the enzyme sucrase. It quickly provides energy but can also contribute to weight gain and dental problems. Sucrose is one of the most widely used sugars globally. Popular as as a sweetener it's a preservative and flavor enhancer in various foods. Dioscorides: Natural Medicine of Ancients Wine God Liber: Liberty & Liberal Libation Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper Characteristics Chemical Structure: C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ Taste: Sweet Solubility: Highly soluble in water Purpose in Nature Sucrose serves as an energy storage compound in plants. It is transported through the plant's vascular system and can be converted into glucose or fructose for immediate energy needs. Hair Loss: 9 Natural Cures of Physician Dioscorides Women Scientists of the Ancient World House of Wisdom: Medieval Scholarship in Baghdad Human Body When humans ingest sucrose, the enzyme sucrase breaks it down into glucose and fructose in the small intestine. This process allows the body use of these sugars for energy. The World Health Organization advises limiting added sugars to less than 10% of total daily calorie intake. For 2,000 calories a day, added sugars should be below 200 calories or about 50 grams. Pyrococcus furiosus : Extremophile of Vulcano Turmeric (Curcuma longa): Ancient Uses & Medicine Ancient Traders & Buyers: Art of Testing Metals 5. Lactose Creation Lactose, or milk sugar, is a disaccharide formed from one glucose and one galactose molecule. It is produced in the mammary glands of mammals and serves as the primary carbohydrate in milk. Characteristics: Chemical Structure: C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ Taste: Mildly sweet Solubility: Moderately soluble in water Milk & Dairy: Ancient Lactose Gene Butter - Food of Peasants & Barbarians Queen Eleanor & the Calamitous Crusade Purpose in Nature Lactose is often called "milk sugar" as it's naturally present only in the milk of mammals including cows, goats and humans. Cow and goat milk are used to produce cheese and yogurt. Lactose content varies among different milk products. Human Body Lactose is used in the pharmaceutical industry to manufacture tablets and capsules. It's abundant in products like milk, cheese, and yogurt. Lactose supports calcium absorption and GI health. Fermentation processes in yogurt produce beneficial probiotic bacteria. Secret Lives of Sulfuric Acid-Eating Bacteria Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter Art of Egg Tempera: Paint Like the Old Masters yogurt parfait Lactose is vital for the nutrition of infants, providing a rich source of energy and supporting digestive health. It promotes the growth of beneficial bacteria in the intestines. Lactose is broken down into glucose and galactose by the enzyme lactase. Many adults have a decline in lactase production. This causes lactose intolerance and gastrointestinal (GI) upset when eating or drinking dairy products. Biofilm Communities: Metropolitan Microbes Arsenic Trioxide: Paris Green Paint Pigment & Pesticide Valerian: Natural Health & Essential Oils Lactose intolerance varies by ethnicity, with higher prevalence rates in certain populations. Around 90% of East Asian adults are lactose intolerant, while a significant percentage of Northern Europeans can digest lactose through adulthood. In food and beverage production, yeast is lactose-intolerant. When used together with milk products it teams up with LAB (lactic acid bacteria) which easily digest lactose. For those with lactose intolerance, a vast number of alternative foods and drinks can be found in supermarkets. They include soya, rice, oat, almond, hazelnut, potato, quinoa and coconut drinks. Famous Women of Ancient Rome Christine de Pizan: Medieval Writings Lora Ley Adventures - Feast of Fools coconut drink Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Salts are ubiquitous in nature and play critical roles in sciences from biology to medicine. In alchemy, salts are standard ingredients. Some essentials include Glauber’s salt, sal alembroth, sal ammoniac, sal petrae, salt (common salt), salt of tartar, salt of hartshorn, and tin salt. Paracelsus: Renegade Renaissance Physician The Alembic: Essential Alchemy Equipment Writing in Letters of Gold: Ancient Alchemy 1. Glauber’s Salt: Sodium Sulfate (Na₂SO₄) Glauber’s salt, named after German chemist Johann Rudolf Glauber (1604-1670), is a well-known hydrate of sodium sulfate. In alchemical contexts, it's often considered a purification and cleansing agent. Also known as mirabilite, it's often used in alchemical experiments In medicine Glauber's salt has laxative properties as it draws liquids into the intestines. With chemical formula Na₂SO₄·10H₂O, this salt is highly soluble in water and often appears as a white crystalline solid. Literature: Great Literary Patrons in History Isabella Cortese: Renaissance Writer, Alchemist, Entrepreneur Ancient Traders & Buyers: Art of Testing Metals Glauber's Salt (Mirabilite) minute particles of iron, chromium or copper can imbue salts with hues like pink or green 2. Sal Alembroth: Amalgam of Ammonium and Mercury Sal alembroth is an alchemical salt composed of equal amounts of ammonium chloride and corrosive sublimate ( mercury ). Known as the Salt of Wisdom, it's important to alchemy experiments such as tincture creation of tinctures, and as a catalyst in transformations. Earliest known use of the noun sal alembroth is in the Middle English period (1150 - 1500). Historically, sal alembroth is a compound or catalyst in chemical reactions and methods of extraction. In modern times it's rarely used due to hazards of mercury toxicity. Zodiac Alchemy - Metals & Planets Literature: Great Literary Patrons in History The Pseudos: Underground Alchemy Writers 3. Sal Ammoniac (Ammonium Chloride) Sal Ammoniac or ammonium chloride is known for use in metallurgy, particularly soldering. Salammoniac, sal ammoniac or salmiac, is a rare mineral found in nature. It consists of ammonium chloride, NH4Cl and forms colorless, white, or yellow-brown crystals. Salammoniac exhibits very poor cleavage and tends to fracture in a brittle, conchoidal way. It is soft, with a Mohs hardness ranging from 1.5 to 2, and soluble in water. Salis armoniaci  is the common medieval name for sal ammoniac). 🜹 is the alchemy sign for salammoniac. The first attested reference to sal ammoniac as ammonium chloride is in the Pseudo-Geber work De inventione veritatis (on the discovery of truth). A preparation method is given in the chapter De Salis armoniaci præparatione Red Ocher (Ochre) Ancient Pigments Pseudo-Geber: Medieval Alchemy Zodiac, Astrology & Jungian Psychology Salammoniac or sal ammoniac 4. Sal Petra (Salt of Petra/Saltpeter/Nitrate of Potash, KNO₃) Sal Petra, saltpeter or potassium nitrate, is a vital alchemical salt with significant historical importance as a preservative and in the creation of gunpowder. It's instrumental in glass-making. In the supermarket meat often looks very red. This due to potassium nitrate. Added to meat it causes a reaction between the myoglobin and hemoglobin in the blood, reddening the meat. How to Make Copperas Red: Simply Science Elderberry Tree: Germanic Nature Lore Elixir Vitae: Giambattista della Porta As a source of nitrogen it acts as both fertilizer and food preservative. It also has applications in the production of nitric acid and in various chemical processes such as creation of Royal Water or aqua regia . 5. Salt/Common Salt: Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Common salt, or sodium chloride, is perhaps the most widely recognized salt and an essential compound for life. Used as a seasoning and preservative for centuries, NaCl is vital for maintaining electrolyte balance in biological systems. Aqua Regia: The Green Lyon of Alchemy Salt: Exalted Mineral of Alchemy Salt in Alchemy: Alchemical Uses & Lore Beyond cuisine it's valued in chemical industry processes, production of chlorine and soda ash, and de-icing roads during winter. In humans and other life forms, sodium and chloride ions are critical for nerve impulse transmission and cellular function. In the alchemical tria prima , salt is the stabilizing factor for mercury  and sulfur . In trade and commerce the preservative and medicinal (antibacterial) properties of salt are used to salt fish for trade and travel, and in preparations to treat infections. Mercury: Miracle Metal of Madness Alchemy Tria Prima of Paracelsus: Three Primes Sulfur - Treasures of the Underworld 6. Salt of Tartar: Potassium Carbonate (K₂CO₃) Salt of Tartar, also known as potash, is a potassium carbonate compound forming as a byproduct of winemaking. This alchemical salt is used in various tinctures and elixirs. The salt is valued in food, widely used in baking as a leavening agent when combined with an acid. Applications extend to glassmaking, fertilizers, and mild alkaline in cleaning products. Potassium carbonate is the prime component of potash and the more refined pearl ash or salts of tartar. Historically, pearl ash is made by baking potash in a kiln to remove impurities. The fine, white powder remaining is pearl ash. Tartar salts are used in soap and glass production. How to Extract Red from Hematite: A Step-by-Step Guide Mugwort (Wormwood) Herbal Lore White Pigments of Ancient Artisans   Potassium Carbonate 7. Salt of Hartshorn: Ammonium Carbonate ((NH₄)₂CO₃) Salt of Hartshorn, or sal volatile, is ammonium carbonate created through the distillation of animal bones and horns. This is a salt of Alchemist Dippel of Castle Frankenstein , who creates an animal bone oil in his lab, later claiming it to be an elixir of immortality . The Salt of Hartshorn, derived from distilling bones and horns, is primarily ammonium carbonate from animal horn. It's historically used as a remedy for various ailments and a leavening agent in baking. Today it's often used in confectionery. Diplosis: Gold Doubling & Multiplication in Alchemy Der Türst: Dread Huntsman & the Wild Hunt Zinc (Zn): Essential Metal in Alchemy & Medicine Alchemists often use hooves, horns and bones of animals 8. Tin Salt: Hydrated Stannous Chloride (SnCl₂) Tin Salt, hydrated stannous chloride or tin(II) chloride is a white crystalline solid. It forms a stable dihydrate, but aqueous solutions tend to undergo hydrolysis (breakdown of bonds between substances), particularly if hot. SnCl2 in acid solution is widely used as a reducing agent. Stannous chloride is used in electrolytic baths for tin-plating. Tin(II) chloride should not be confused with the other chloride of tin; tin(IV) chloride or stannic chloride (SnCl4). Ancient Traders & Buyers: Art of Testing Metals Tanning Hides - the Ancient Process Pistachio: Turpentine, Resin & Nuts Tin has the symbol ♃ in alchemy, corresponding to planet Jupiter. Hydrated stannous chloride, or tin salt, has numerous applications in the tin plating industry and as a reducing agent in various chemical reactions. Tin is often used in the making of asem , silver and gold . It’s used to produce spiritus fumans , another chloride of tin, acting in the synthesis of other chemical compounds. It's important to analytical chemistry and food preservation. Spiritus fumans (lit. smoking spirit) or stannic chloride is used as a chemical weapon in World War I. How to Make Asem: Essential Alchemy Argyropoeia: Silver Making of Ancients Alchemy and the Art of Gold-Making Alum Salt Crystal Alum Alum is a chemical compound, usually a hydrated double sulfate salt of aluminum, general formula X Al(SO4)2·12 H2O, such that X is a monovalent cation like potassium or ammonium. On its own, "alum" often means potassium alum. Other alums include sodium alum and ammonium alum. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top