Search Results

Silica, silicon, and silicone refer to related but distinct substances with specific properties, applications, and origins. Silica is created from silicon, especially preferred in glass making. Silicon, a metalloid, is also used to make the synthetic material silicone. Silica (SiO2): Nature of Glass & Gems Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future Chalcedony Gems: Secrets of Silicon Dioxide Silica Silica or silicon dioxide (SiO₂), is a natural compound of silicon and oxygen. One of the most prevalent minerals in the Earth's crust, it's found in forms such as quartz, cristobalite, and tridymite. Silica is abundant in materials like sandstone, granite, and various types of sand. The fusion of this sand by lightning, meteor impact, sudden cooling of lava, or nuclear weaponry creates various types of glass. Varieties include yellow Great Sand Sea Glass (Libyan Desert Glass), black obsidian and dynamic green formations of moldavite. Natural Glass Gemstones: Cataclysmic Fusion Diatoms: Glass-Making Algae Crucial to Life Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Moldavite Silica is recognized for hardness and resistance to chemicals. It can endure high temperatures and withstands acids, essential in construction materials like cement and glass. Silica sand makes up about 70% of the raw materials used in glass manufacturing. Silica is used in many industrial processes. It's necessary for production of silicon, especially in for electronics and solar panels. The global silicon market is projected to grow 6.5% annually, reaching $24 billion in 2026. Silica (SiO2): Nature of Glass & Gems Glass & Arts of Ancient Glass Making Çatalhöyük (Catalhoyuk) Neolithic Anatolia Silicon Silicon is a chemical element (Si) in group 14 of the periodic table. As a metalloid, it has properties of both metals and non-metals. Silicon constitutes about 27.7% of the Earth's crust, typically present as silica or silicates. Its unique semiconductor properties are used in the electronics industry. To produce silicon, silica is heated with carbon in an electric furnace, reducing silicon dioxide to silicon and carbon dioxide. Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health Copper (Cu) Effects on Human & Plant Health This method yields metallurgical-grade silicon, which can be further refined to high-purity silicon for electronic applications. For instance, silicon wafers, used in semiconductor devices, are often produced from crystalline silicon with purities exceeding 99.9999%. Silicon is extensively used in various applications, from solar panels to computer chips. In 2022, more than 95% of the silicon produced globally was dedicated to the semiconductor industry. A semiconductor has specific electrical properties in computers and other devices. Glass of Antimony: Renaissance Purgatives Sodium Silicate: Alchemy of Water Glass Kohl: Eye Beauty Magic of Ancients Silicone Silicone is a term used for a group of synthetic materials made mainly from silicon, oxygen, carbon and hydrogen. Unlike silica and silicon, which are naturally occurring, silicone is man-made through polymerization. This process combines silicone compounds to create a versatile substance available in various forms, ranging from fluids to rubber-like solids. Alchemy & Renaissance Glass: Antonio Neri Silicon (Si): Fueling the Robot Apocalypse Algae in Glass Houses: Diatomaceous Earth Silicone utensils Silicone has qualities such as flexibility, and heat and water resistance. These traits make it popular in medical devices, bakeware and sealants. Silicone bakeware can withstand temperatures of over 260 °C (500 °F). With non-toxic properties it's a versatile product, for instance in baby bottle nipples and medical implants, where biocompatibility is critical. Silicone is often used in medical devices. It's less likely to cause allergic reactions in patients compared to other materials. Uric Acid: Kidney Stones & Peeing on Plants Calcite: Metal-Eating Bacteria to Coral Reefs Etch Carnelian Beads Like It's Indus Valley 2500 BCE Similarities and Differences Property/ Characteristics Silica (SiO₂) Silicon (Si) Silicone Nature Naturally occurring compound Element Synthetic polymer Composition Silicon and oxygen Pure silicon Silicon, oxygen, carbon, hydrogen Physical Form Solid, crystalline Solid, brittle Flexible polymer Abundance in Nature Very abundant (59% of crust) Very abundant (27% of crust) Man-made Uses Construction, glass, semiconductors Electronics, solar panels Cookware, medical devices, sealants Health Hazards Respiratory risks from dust Minimal, but fine powder caution Generally safe, potential allergic reactions Rotten Egg Sulfur Smell: Microbial Processes Calcium (Ca): Earth Metal of Structure & Strength Hair Loss: 9 Natural Cures of Physician Dioscorides Silicon is widely used in cell phones Hazards and Safety Silica : Crystalline silica can pose health risks when inhaled, leading to respiratory issues like silicosis. Protective masks are essential in environments where silica dust levels are high. Silicon : Generally considered safe, silicon poses minimal hazards. The processes to convert silica to silicon can create chemical risks, including exposure to carbon monoxide during reduction processes. Silicone : Silicone is largely viewed as safe for general use. It is biocompatible, or less likely to cause adverse reactions in contact with the body. Silicone products from high-quality materials usually have fewer fillers than lower-grade silicone. Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Heavy Metals Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Chromium & Arsenic Almadén Mines: Ancient Mercury Extraction robotic technology eliminates the need for people Facts Natural vs. Synthetic : While silica and silicon occur naturally, silicone represents human manufacturing and use of these elements to create versatile materials. The human body has around 7 grams of silicon in tissues and fluids. Silicon in tissues is usually bonded to such glycoproteins as cartilage. Silicon in technology : Silicon's contribution to technology is immense. It is the second most abundant element in the universe, after oxygen, essential for many electronic devices. Bdellovibrio : Lifestyles of Predatory Bacteria Killer Yeast: Assassins of the Microworld Sirius the Dog Star: Stellar Mythology Silicon is a primary factor in self-healing polymers . Silicone’s Versatility : Silicone can be engineered to mimic natural rubbers or plastics. This versatility leads to products like waterproof outdoor gear, breast implants and durable kitchen essentials. Silica in Everyday Life : Silicon dioxide (as silica) plays a key role in making most commercial glass products. Its use dates back thousands of years. Environmentally Friendly : Silicone can be produced to be more stable and longer-lasting than plastics, creating interest in using it as an eco-friendly alternative for many consumer products. Sodium Silicate: Alchemy of Water Glass Carbuncle: Red Stone of Magic & Medicine Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Quartz - silicon dioxide (SiO2) Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Self-healing silicone is a regenerative polymer network valued in robotics, where durability and longevity are vital. It revolutionizes technology, medicine, warfare and consumer lifestyles. Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Self-healing silicone is a type of silicone rubber. It can mend itself autonomously and and restore original properties after suffering damage like cuts or abrasions. The breakthrough behind self-healing silicone results from advancements in polymer science and material engineering. Self-healing silicone can recover its strength by up to 90% within 24 hours after damage. Construction and Materials Self-healing silicone is a carefully engineered polymer network. Its properties come from its unique composition and architecture. Fundamentally it's made of silicone polymers. Heavy Metals Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Chromium & Arsenic Silica (SiO2): Nature of Glass & Gems Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas Base Silicone Polymer: Typically, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) forms the backbone of self-healing silicone. PDMS is known for its flexibility, biocompatibility, and excellent thermal stability. Capsule-Based Healing:  When the silicone is damaged, the microcapsules rupture to release healing agent into the wound. Polymerization starts, converting liquid monomers into a solid polymer to fill the void and restores structural integrity. Dynamic Chemical Bonds: These bonds are capable of breaking and reforming, enabling the material to "re-stitch" itself at the point of damage. Examples include disulfide bonds, hydrogen bonds, and Diels-Alder reactions. Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 Decomposition Cinnabar (Mercury Sulfide) Red Death Scheele's Green: History's Most Toxic Pigment If damage breaks the dynamic chemical bonds within the silicone the bonds can reform when brought into close proximity, resealing the crack. External stimuli like heat or pressure may accelerate the healing process. Reinforcement Fillers: To enhance mechanical strength and durability, fillers like silica nanoparticles or carbon nanotubes can be added.   Polyhedral Oligomeric Silsesquioxane (POSS): Enhances strength and durability. Amino-terminated Polymers: Increases speed and efficiency by promoting the links of materials during the healing process. Copper(II) Sulfate: Blue Vitriol, Chalcanthite Lunar Caustic AgNO3: Lapis Infernalis of Alchemy Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure muscle strength and flexibility Applications of Self-Healing Silicone Robotics: Self-healing silicone is a subject of great interest. Soft robots, designed to be more adaptable and resilient than their rigid counterparts, are particularly suited for this technology. Soft robotic grippers clad in self-healing silicone that can pick up delicate objects without fear of damage, and even recover from cuts and punctures. Robots can operate in harsh and unpredictable environments. Wearable Robots : Exoskeletons help people who have mobility problems. These devices tend to undergo repeated stress, and self-healing properties help maintain functionality over time. Peracetic Acid: Origin, Reactions, Hazards Leap to Flames: Why Did Empedocles Jump into Mount Etna? Silver - Queen of Precious Metals ... a little healing adjustment Sensors and Actuators : Self-healing silicone materials are used in sensors and actuators. Their durability ensures that they can quickly return to their original shape and functionality after being compressed or distorted. Medical Devices: Biocompatibility and self-healing make it suited for implants, prosthetics, catheters, and wound dressings. A self-healing coating on pacemakers means fewer replacements due to degradation or damage. It lowers infection risk and improves longevity of medical devices. Electronics : Flexible electronics uses self-healing silicone in components and protective covers, prolonging the lifespan of devices susceptible to scratches and physical damage. Manufacturers of everyday items like phone cases and wearables are starting to use this technology. Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Secret Life of Rust: Power of Bacteria Nitric Acid: Aqua Fortis the Acid Queen silicone tipped kitchen tongs Aerospace : Self-healing silicone p rotects aircraft components from wear and tear in flights and extreme environments . Facts About Self-Healing Silicone Depending on the material design and damage severity, self-healing can occur anywhere from seconds to hours. Multiple Healings: Some formulations can heal multiple times, further extending the material's lifespan. Energy Efficiency: The self-healing capability reduces material waste. Stimuli-Responsive Healing: Researchers use external stimuli like light, heat or magnetic fields to trigger and control the healing process. Customized Formulations: Scientists can create tailored self-healing silicone for specific needs by changing the types of polymers and healing agents used. Biomimicry: Inspiration is often drawn from nature, mimicking the self-healing capabilities of organisms like starfish and salamanders. Fulminating Silver: Dangerous Explosives in Alchemical Science Women Scientists of the Ancient World Hair Loss: 9 Natural Cures of Physician Dioscorides Salamanders can regenerate any body part Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Space satellites or artificial satellites orbit Earth sending and receiving data. Many function in navigation (GPS) and global communication. Self-contained robotic spacecraft, they rely on a complex interplay of systems. Sirius the Dog Star: Stellar Mythology Sacred Geometry: Insight to the Mysteries Ancient Greek Astrology & Astronomy Satellites operate based on principles of physics, specifically orbital mechanics. When a satellite is launched, it reaches a certain speed and altitude to maintain a stable orbit around the Earth. A satellite needs a balance of factors to stay in orbit. They include velocity, or its speed in a straight line; and Earth's gravitational pull. Orbiting closer to Earth a satellite needs higher velocity due to stronger gravitational force. The Earth’s gravitational pull keeps the satellite aloft, while satellite speed stops the craft from falling back to the planet. Equipped with specialized instruments, satellites perform their designated functions. Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities What is Alum? Origins, Production & Use A communication satellite, for example, can relay signals for over 300 million people worldwide. It processes data between ground stations and end-users. Power Source: Most satellites rely on solar panels to convert sunlight into electricity, which powers onboard systems. Batteries are essential for storing energy for periods when the satellite is in Earth's shadow. Propulsion: Satellites need propulsion systems, such as small rocket engines or thrusters, for orbital adjustments, maintaining their position in space, and sometimes changing orbits. Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure Silicon (Si): Fueling the Robot Apocalypse Asteria - Starry Gems of Myth & Magic Communication System: They receive commands from Earth and transmit data back. It involves antennas, transponders which amplify and relay signals, and electronic systems. Onboard Computer: This is the "brain" of the satellite, controlling its various systems. It's instrumental in processing data and executing commands from ground control. Payload: This is the specific equipment the satellite carries to perform its intended function. This could be a camera for Earth observation, a transponder for communication, or a scientific instrument. Glutamates: Umami Flavors & Brain Cells Sophie Brahe Writer, Alchemist & Astronomer Carl Wilhelm Scheele: Poisonous Chemistry tracking hurricanes What They Do Communication: Relay phone calls, internet data, and television broadcasts across vast distances. These satellites relay signals for television, internet, and radio communications.   Navigation: Precise location information for Global Positioning System (GPS) used in cars, phones and aircraft. With 31 satellites in orbit, GPS enables accurate location tracking. The GPS is owned by the U.S. Government and operated by the United States Air Force (USAF). It can pinpoint a three dimensional position to meter-level accuracy and time to 10 nanoseconds, worldwide and 24/7. Potash: Agriculture, Plant & Garden Health Fungal Biofilms: Ecology of Biofilm-Producing Molds & Yeasts Chalcanthite: Crystal Blue Explosion Earth Observation: Monitor weather patterns, track environmental changes, and map the Earth's surface. Scientific Research: Study the Earth's atmosphere, monitor space weather, and observe distant galaxies. They gather data about Earth processes, solar activity, and cosmic phenomena. The Hubble Space Telescope, for example, has provided valuable insights into the universe since its launch in 1990 with stunning photographs and vital information. Hubble is currently orbiting 525 km above Earth's surface. Silent Destroyers: Microbial Corrosion of Concrete Oxidation: Metabolism & Molecular Action Phosphorus: Element of Fatal Fascination Crab Nebula satellite photo by Hubble Military Applications: Surveillance, reconnaissance, and communication for military purposes. Weather Satellites : They monitor weather patterns by capturing images and data. The GOES (Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites) collect data supporting accurate forecasts up to 10 days in advance. Connecting to Earth: Bridging the Cosmic Gap Satellites communicate with Earth through radio waves. Ground stations equipped with large antennas transmit signals to the satellite, which then relays them back to other ground stations or directly to users. Tycho Brahe: Golden Renaissance Astronomer Difference Between Astrology & Astronomy in the Ancient World Ptolemy: Earth, Almagest & Ancient Astronomy The frequency and modulation of radio waves used are chosen to minimize interference and maximize transmission speed. Communication occurs by way of specific frequency bands such as L-band, Ku-band, and Ka-band. Each frequency band serves different satellite operations. Satellites receive commands from ground stations, instructing them to perform specific tasks, such as taking pictures or adjusting their orbit. They process information gathered by their payloads and send it back to Earth. This data can be images, measurements, or communication signals. Specialized coding and error correction techniques ensure accuracy. Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) Caustic Potash Renaissance Astrology: Power of Stars & Planets Medieval Astrology of Islam computer chip Transponders : These devices receive signals from Earth, amplify them, and send them back. Communication satellites like Intelsat use multiple transponders to handle vast numbers of simultaneous calls. Antennas : They capture incoming signals and sending outgoing data to ground stations. Data Processors : These analyze and format information collected by satellite sensors before transmission. For instance, Landsat satellites collect up to 600 scenes per day, providing data on land use and changes. Diana's Tree: Silver Crystals of Lunar Caustic Cobalt (Co): The Little Goblin Who Could Calcium (Ca): Earth Metal of Structure & Strength Materials for Extremes of Space Aluminum and Titanium: These lightweight yet strong metals are used extensively for the satellite's structure. Aluminum is commonly used in satellite frames due to its lightweight, strength and corrosion resistance. Up to 50% of a satellite's structure may be aluminum. Known for its high strength-to-weight ratio, titanium is often found in components exposed to high temperatures. Carbon Fiber Composites: For high strength and stiffness while minimizing weight. Materials like carbon fiber are favored for low weight and high strength, making them suitable for many satellite structures. Metal to Rust: Unseen Organisms in Action Antimony (Stibnite, Kohl) Ancient Metal of Science & Beauty Flowers of Antimony: Pure Medieval Purgative Multilayer Insulation (MLI): Protects sensitive components from extreme temperature variations. Radiation-Hardened Electronics: Resists the damaging effects of radiation in space. Specialized Coatings: Protect the satellite from corrosion and degradation due to the vacuum of space and ultraviolet radiation. They shield satellites from intense radiation and thermal fluctuations. Ammonium Carbonate: Sal Volatile Smelling Salts Compost: Heart of Sustainable Gardening Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Who's in Control? Government Agencies: Space agencies like NASA and ESA oversee scientific and research satellites. Commercial Companies: Companies like Intelsat operate communication and Earth observation satellites. Military Organizations: Responsible for military communication and surveillance satellites. These entities have dedicated control centers. Personnel monitor satellite health, manage their orbits and process their data. Metal Salts: Ancient History to Modern DIY Cupriavidus metallidurans : Metal Eating Gold Making Bacterium Johann Glauber: Fulminating Gold & Sodium Sulfate Agencies like NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) handle various satellite missions. The largest satellite operators are SES (Luxembourg) Intelsat SA (Luxembourg) EchoStar Satellite Services (USA). Dangers in Space Space Debris: Collisions with debris, such as defunct satellites and rocket fragments, are a significant threat. Thousands of uncontrolled objects orbit Earth. Micrometeoroids, tiny particles traveling at up to 48,000 km/h, can damage the satellite's surface. Nickel (Ni): Metallurgy Facts & Folklore Guido Bonatti: Medieval Astrology Star Compost Heat: Microbes & Decomposition Radiation: Exposure to high levels of radiation can damage electronics and degrade materials. High-energy particles from solar flares can interfere with satellite instruments and electronics, affecting their performance. Extreme Temperatures: Drastic temperature swings can cause components to expand and contract, leading to failures. Intense bursts of energy from the sun can disrupt satellite communications and damage electronics. Orbital Decay : Over time, atmospheric drag can gradually lower orbits, potentially leading to re-entry. Satellites typically have a lifespan of about 10 to 15 years before they're decommissioned. Lunar Caustic AgNO3: Lapis Infernalis of Alchemy Silver - Queen of Precious Metals Carbon Fixation: Environmental Heath & Ecology Facts About Space Satellites The first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, is launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. Over 3000 active satellites orbit Earth, and the number is constantly growing. Some satellites orbit just a few hundred kilometers above the Earth, while others are in geostationary orbit, about 36,000 km away. The International Space Station (ISS) is the largest artificial satellite ever built, used as a scientific lab and observatory. CubeSats: This new generation of small, cost-effective satellites is becoming increasingly popular. Synchronicity: Psychology of Coincidence Alchemy & Astrology: Cosmic Connections Reduction in Chemistry: Gaining Electrons Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Asteria or Star Stones create a star-like inner glow. Star sapphires belong to this group. In the ancient world they're valued by Greeks as love charms. Helen of Troy wears star corundum, sapphire with a dramatic six-ray effect. Gold - Precious Metal of the Su n Bronze Age Afterlife & Burial Beliefs Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Blue star sapphire, glowing asteria effect The phenomenon asterism is caused by a high number of rutile needles, or fine inclusions, also called 'silk', within the gemstone. Made of titanium dioxide, the rutile needles react with light to create a lustrous star effect. Some star sapphires from Thailand contain hematite and rutile needles, forming a phenomenal 12-ray star. Star stones are dedicated to the Greek Titan Goddess Asteria. She's the goddess of falling stars. Asteria is also associated with nighttime divinations such as oneiromancy (dream interpretation to foretell the future) and astrology. Kish: Glory Days in Ancient Babylonia Lamashtu, Baby-Eating Demon of Mesopotamia Mythic Fire Gods - Vulkan of Germania In Greek her name means 'of a star, full of stars, starry'. Asteria is the mother of Hecate, Greek Goddess of crossroads, entrance-ways, night, magic, witchcraft, Moon, knowledge of herbs and poisonous plants, graves, ghosts and necromancy. Zeus once takes a liking to Asteria. To escape she turns herself into a bird, then a wandering island. Zeus impregnates her sister Leto instead. Although Zeus' wife Hera forbade anyone to take the pregnant woman in, Asteria defies her and allows her sister on the island. Ancient Deities: Proto Indo European Gods Immortal - Quest for the Elixir of Life Sun Goddesses of World Mythology A wandering island in a blue sea Leto gives birth to Apollo and Artemis. The island receives the name Delos, and Apollo makes it his sacred land. It's one of the smaller Aegean islands and still bears the ruins of a temple of Apollo. Asterism can occur in various gemstones including sapphire , ruby , garnet , spinel, diopside, beryl, and quartz. It manifests in one of two ways: Epiasterism , as in sapphire and most other gems. It's the reflection of light on parallel inclusions inside the gemstone. Diasterism , as in rose quartz, is caused by light transmitted through the gemstone. The stone must be lit from behind. Rose quartz can also display epiasterism. Lapis Lazuli: Vibrant Blue Gem of Ancients Rhinestones: Sparkling Treasures of the Rhine Amethyst - Divine Purple Quartz Gemstone Asterism in rose quartz crystal sphere Star stones are considered to promote calmness, mental clarity, and intuition. These unique gems inspire spiritual growth and awareness. They relate to astral journeys and safety while traveling. Star gemstones can help recall dreams. Some believe they can open communication channels with spirits of loved ones. German Folklore - Irrwurz or Mad Root Bronze Age Europe - The Amber Road Chalcanthite: Crystal Blue Explosion Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Nanshe is an active goddess in old Mesopotamia. Deity of sea water, fresh water, marshes and the animals of these environments, she also rules oneiromancy or dream interpretation, and the realm of justice. Girsu (Tello): Ancient Sumerian City Kish: Glory Days in Ancient Babylonia Heqet, Frog Goddess of Egypt Nanshe - Goddess of the Sea, Marshes, Fish, Birds, Justice, Dreams Nanshe loves water be it salt or fresh. She cares for the reeds of the marsh, the birds who nest there and the abundant fish. She's a friend of frogs, ducks and even water rats. She tends the brackish regions and harmonizes the ecology. She guards the coasts and those who inhabit the wild watery places. In this she takes the aspect of an elemental nature spirit, like the later Greek naiads and the nixies of Europe. She can also cultivate an abundance of fish to ensure a good catch for the fisher's nets. Gula - Medicine Goddess of Mesopotamia Enki (Ea) God of Water & Creation Nanaya: Goddess of Erotic Love Casting the Net She's also a deity of dreams and dream interpretation or oneiromancy, as water relates to intuition and the subconscious workings of the mind. In representations she's often surrounded by birds, fish or flowing streams of water. Her father is Enki , Sumerian god of water, wisdom or knowledge, crafts and creation. He's also called Ea, and is a consort of Inanna in Kish . He's one of the Old Gods, and his worship spreads throughout Mesopotamian lands. Ullikummi - Rock Monster of Legend Immortal - Quest for the Elixir of Life Dumuzi & Geshtinanna: Reasons for Seasons Enki lives in the watery Abzu between the realm of mortals and the Underworld Nanshe's mother, Mesopotamian goddess Damgalnuna or Damkina, is associated with ritual purification. She can intercede with Enki on behalf of mortal supplicants. In myth she's compared to Ninhursag the great mother mountain goddess. She's also depicted among a procession of Goddesses in a rock carving at the Yazılıkaya sanctuary by Hattusa, Anatolia, making it clear Damgalnuna is more than a local goddess. Nanshe is sister to the popular patron deity Ninurta (Ningirsu). Her husband, Nindara, is a minor god whose worship is solely in connection to that of Nanshe. Ancient Arabia - Stone Age to Bronze Carnelian - Gems of the Ancient World Sacred Scarab: Lucky Bug of Ancient Egypt Her major cult center is Tell Zurghul (Nina, Sirara), part of the temple complex at Lagash. Her official symbols are birds and fish. She's the subject of various literary works. Nanshe and the Birds  explores the relation with her symbolic animal, the " u5  bird". The species is identified variously as goose, cormorant, gull, pelican and swan. In the myth Enki and Ninhursag , she appears as one of the deities created by Ninhursag to cure Enki's illness. Rhytons - Animal Vessels of the Ancients Ornithomancy - Prophecy by the Birds Bird Woman Elwetritsch: German Folklore White Swan Her deific duties in justice, social welfare and administration reflect a modern world, one where laws are made and lawbreakers punished. The disadvantaged can receive help from the state. The sick and elderly are given care. Nanshe is divine protector and benefactor of disadvantaged groups such as orphans, widows or people belonging to indebted households. Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Cinnamon - Spice Trade of Ancients Ninazu: Healing, Death, Snakes & War Administration is central, with governing bodies and distinct courts of law. There are no lawyers in ancient Mesopotamia. The people plead their cases to government authorities, who make the decisions. The infamous Law Code of Hammurabi, Babylon, appears 1792 - 1750 BCE. It's inscribed on a black marble stone stela though much of the inscription is worn down. The stele is placed in the middle of the city so it can be read by all. Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Before the Viking Age - Gods of the Sámi Herbology & Lore: Stinging Nettle Small portion of the Law Code of Hammurabi 1793 - 1751 BCE Black Marble Unfortunately those who can read make up only 10% of the population. Punishment often involves chopping off one or more body parts. The Code remains one of the earliest standards of law, equity and punishment. Nanshe's evolution as a goddess reflects social changes and matters of importance in the kingdom. She's known as a compassionate deity. Prayers, praise and sacrifice are given to her for the fertility and bounty of the flowing waters and seas. She can be invoked in oaths and for guidance or assistance with justice and administration. Ereshkigal & the Mesopotamian Underworld Bull of Heaven - Inanna vs Gilgamesh Lammašaga: Sumerian Angel Goddess Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Abzu (Apsu) is a primordial proto-god in Sumerian creation myth whose consort is Tiamat , demonic deity of destruction. Tiamat is sea water, the endless realm, the personification of Chaos. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Exciting Bronze Age Adventure Abzu is both elemental groundwater and a water deity. When ground water and sea water mix, they create life. See also: Ninurta (Ninĝirsu) - God of the People Tiamat - Queen of Chaos & the Sea Bashmu (Bašmu): Voracious Serpent Dragon Waters of Chaos Today's Zazzle Specials   Smashwords Books Abzu is the origin of lakes , springs, wells and underground aquifers, layers of rock trapping water. In Mesopotamia groundwater sustains life especially in hot arid seasons. Fig trees often grow near sources of groundwater, reaching deep down with their normally shallow roots. The oasis, the wadi, the fertile river deltas are all fed by the waters of Abzu. In Sumerian and Akkadian mythology Abzu is known as the primeval sea below the void space of the Underworld ( Kur ) and the earth ( Ma ) above. See also: Chaoskampf: Order & Chaos Battle Out Lotan - Chaos Sea Dragon of Ugarit Giant Cinnamon Birds of Arabia Oasis trees & water surrounded by desert sands Sylvia Rose Books  on Smashwords   Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series   Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries   Sylvia Rose Art  on Zazzle Among the children of Tiamat and Abzu is Anu , the oldest of the Gods. They also give birth to the god Kinghu, who becomes the King of the Gods after the death of Abzu his father. Abzu is presented as both water and a deity in the Babylonian creation myth Enūma Eliš. The Enūma Eliš begins: "When above the heavens (e-nu-ma e-liš) did not yet exist nor the earth below, Apsu the freshwater ocean was there, the first, the begetter, and Tiamat, the saltwater sea, she who bore them all; they were still mixing their waters, and no pasture land had yet been formed, nor even a reed marsh." See also: Ancient Marsh Muse - Rough Horsetail Ancient Arabia - Stone Age to Bronze Cress, Watercress: Natural Health of Ancients Primordial Waters of Creation Today's Zazzle Specials   Smashwords Books In the Sumerian city of Eridu, the temple of the god Enki is listed as E2-abzu , meaning 'house of deep waters'. it's located at the edge of a marsh, called the abzu. As an early elemental God Enki prefers his temples built near water. He's a god of water, knowledge, crafts and creation, sometimes known as Ea. Enki is thought to have lived in the abzu before emerging as a deity. His entire family and entourage dwell in the abzu too. The term abzu is also given to vessels of sacred waters in the temple courtyard. See also: Nanaya - Goddess of Erotic Love Mountain Gazelle: Wild Ancient World Shulpae (Šulpae): Demon Warrior God Water's bouncy today Sylvia Rose Books  on Smashwords   Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series   Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries   Sylvia Rose Art  on Zazzle Among the children of Abzu and Tiamat are the Lahamu and Lahmu. Lahamu is considered the female version of the Lahmu, river spirits connected with Abzu. They're seen as caretakers of wild animals, servants to Enki and later his son Marduk. Abzu is killed by his children and grandchildren, who want to usurp his deific position as head of the pantheon. In rage Tiamat declares war on her offspring. She gives birth to dragons and monsters, and fills their bodies with poison instead of blood. See also: Ninhursag - Great Mountain Mother Seduction of Hedammu, Father of Snakes Goddess Nisaba - First Lady of Writing Monster Skeleton Today's Zazzle Specials   Smashwords Books Marduk challenges her, and after the 12 Days of Zagmuk the forces of Order (Marduk) defeat those of Chaos (Tiamat). After this, Marduk creates the heavens, earth, and people. A different version of this myth has hero god Ninurta in the starring role. See also: The Igigi - Why Humans are Created Demons - Evil Udug of Mesopotamia Warrior Portal Gods Lugal-irra & Meslamta-ea Back to Top

Under Alaric in 410 AD, the Visigoths invade Italy and attack Rome, the nerve center of the civilized world. Before that, with Visigoths relocating in Germania, Alaric makes an uncertain peace with Rome. It goes badly. Agrippina & Son: Poisonous Plots of Rome Queen Eleanor & the Calamitous Crusade Ancient Roman Baths & Bathing King Alaric of the Visigoths Enthroned - 1894 photogravure of Alaric I taken from a painting by Ludwig Thiersch Alaric I is the first king of the Visigoths, uniting the tribes to rule from 395 - 410 AD. His name means ruler of all . He takes leadership of the Goths occupying Moesia, south of the Danube River. Under the Roman emperor Theodosius (r. 379 - 395 AD) Alaric becomes a Roman ally. He suffers serious disappointment when he supports the Romans to defeat Franks at the Battle of Frigidus River in 394. Pagan Solstice Fests: Saturnalia Gallic Wars: Caesar's Invasion of Germania Alexandria & the Siege of Diocletian The Franks are another Germanic group of the lower and middle Rhine. Despite thousands of losses, with his men in the forefront as human shields for the Romans, Alaric gets barely a mention in Roman annals of victory. The lack of gratitude upsets him and he departs the Roman army. In 395 the emperor dies and the armies dissolve. In this year Alaric is mentioned as King of the Visigoths. Romanesque - Magic of Light and Stone Herbology & Lore: Death Cap Mushrooms Brunhilde: Tragic Germanic Warrior Queen The flames of battle flair, and war isn't fair He's born into a time of tumult. The Huns advance and force his family and tribes across the Danube. There waits the Roman Eagle to snatch them in its claws. Alaric grows up in the Balkans, where the Goths settle by agreement with Roman Emperor Theodosius. Living near the Romans, Alaric understands early the wartime situation. Haruspices in History: The Gut Readers Casting the Bones - Astragalomancy Shamhat: Sacred Prostitute & the Wild Man Balkan view He becomes familiar with traditional and Roman methods of life. He also witnesses slaves and captives of Rome, from many tribes. Surrounded by Gothic veterans of the Battle of Adrianople in 378, a decisive victory against the Romans, he hears much about warfare. He is trained by Gothic warrior Gainas and later joins the Roman Army. Silvanus: Roman God of Wild Lands & Fields Rise of Pan: Fertility Goat God Péh₂usōn Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Barbarians in the army? This bodes ill. At this time the Goths have achieved an unstable contract with Rome. It allows them to settle the Balkan lands and remain independent as long as they supply soldiers for Roman military campaigns. The Goths of Alaric become the Visigoths, joined by scattered tribes. After the death of Emperor Theodosius, and the subsequent barbarian uprisings, Alaric takes his people on a roundabout route to raiding and pillaging. Their ferocity earns them the name "wolves of the north". Werewolf & Werewolves of Germany Pagan Solstice Fests: Mithras & the Sun Malaria: Roman Fever & Renaissance Plague Wolf of the North He and his people occupy Roman roads just outside Rome in the first years of the 5th century, looting with swift guerrilla tactics. By now Alaric has acquired great wealth. Then comes a fateful battle in 402 at Pollentia, with a decisive victory for the Romans. Not only do they capture his wife and family, they steal all his loot. Alaric is sorely pissed. Despite the Romans' offers to return the hostages, he refuses to settle for the easy compromise of pretend peace. He meets another defeat at Verona. The Visigoths withdraw from Italy and Alaric returns to the Balkans. Poppaea Sabina: Child Bride to Roman Empress Stymphalian Birds & Greek Heroics Black Hellebore: Toxins, Health & Lore Roman arches in Verona He doesn't sit and lick his wounds for long. In 405 a swath of Goths and other barbarians from outside the empire cross the Danube River and march into northern Italy. Under their leader, Gothic king Radagaisus, they plunder the countryside and lay siege to cities and towns. Radagaisus intends to sacrifice the Senators of the Christian Roman Empire to the gods and burn Rome to the ground. Alaric plays it cool. He's in a good position in the Balkans, as a threat or potential ally to either side. In 406 - 407 another group of barbarians arrives, including Vandals and Sueves (Suebi). Roman Empire: Situation 300 AD Baltic Aetsi & the Roman Amber Texts Mysteries of Bona Dea: Women's Rites in Ancient Rome Suebi Alaric goes to what is now Austria. From the Romans he demands 4,000 pounds of gold to withhold another invasion. Declared an enemy of the Emperor, Alaric takes an army of 30,000 men to Rome to prove the point. In 408 he besieges Rome, allowing nothing and no one in or out. With the realm falling apart from the core, barbarian attacks and attempts of puppet emperors to overthrow the system, the Romans begin to realize they aren't the most powerful force in the ancient world any more. Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg 12 Days of Zagmuk: Chaos & the King Drude: Germanic Demon of Darkness In Rome, things are falling apart After Imperial threats, senatorial pleas and much bargaining, on behalf of the starving citizens the emperor agrees to pay a ransom. The ransom consists of 3,000 hides dyed scarlet 3,000 pounds of pepper 4,000 silken tunics 5,000 pounds of gold 30,000 pounds of silver 40,000 freed Gothic slaves Alaric departs, pleased. The emperor Honorius, young son of the defunct Theodosius, then goes back on his promises. His primary point of opposition is the appointment of Alaric as head of the Roman Army. Vulcano: Child Miners, Gods & Extremophiles Dioscorides: Natural Medicine of Ancients Natural Glass Gemstones: Cataclysmic Fusion Hello, I'll be your puppet today In 409 Alaric sets up a puppet Emperor, a common trend, who causes one disaster after another. After a major strategic blunder, Alaric deposes him and heads for Rome. On 24 August 410, Alaric and his forces begin the sack of Rome, an assault lasting three days. Alaric needs food for his people, which he takes in abundance. Riches follow, then clerics and the sister of Honorius, Galla Placidia. He sets about pillaging and plundering nearby Roman towns. Faust: Fact & Fiction German Renaissance Famous Women of Renaissance Alchemy Women Scientists of the Ancient World In the 6th century the writer Procopius says: "... they destroyed all the cities which they captured, especially those south of the Ionian Gulf, so completely that nothing has been left to my time to know them by, unless, indeed, it might be one tower or gate or some such thing which chanced to remain. And they killed all the people, as many as came in their way, both old and young alike, sparing neither women nor children. Wherefore even up to the present time Italy is sparsely populated." Black Tea ( Camellia sinensis ): Harvest to Cup Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Terramare Culture - Bronze Age Italy Death - The Final Frontier After sacking the area for three days, Alaric takes his troops on a sea journey to Sicily, possibly to get more food. A raging storm destroys the whole fleet. Not long afterward, in 411, Alaric is on a return journey to Rome. He takes ill with an unknown disease, described as fever, and dies. According to legend his body is buried under the riverbed of the Busento in southern Italy. It's traditional practice among Visigoths to divert the flow of a watercourse, bury the body then remove the blockade and let the river resume its route. Titans of the Renaissance: Powerful Italian Families Naples Renaissance: Holy Alchemy German Vampires - Nachzehrer Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Dioscorides is a physician of Rome in the first century AD. He serves as a doctor in Nero's army and later writes De Materia Medici , perhaps the greatest tome of natural medicine ever known. He enthuses about salt. Dioscorides: Natural Medicine of Ancients Poppaea Sabina: Child Bride to Roman Empress Famous Women of Ancient Rome salt flats Techniques of extracting salt from brine date to c. 6000 BCE in Romania and China. They forge trade routes to Neolithic Solnitsata  by the Black Sea. Salt is taken from brine by vacuum evaporation using briquetage vessels. This evolves to become part of the later process of vacuum distillation. Briquetage are coarse pottery pots made to be broken. Sherds of briquetage are evidence of ancient salt production. Solnitsata - Neolithic Salt Trade Town Neolithic Salt & Brine Works Europe Hair Loss: 9 Natural Cures of Physician Dioscorides The briquetage vessel is broken to remove the salt cake The ancient Romans establish the Via Salaria, trade routes specificially designed around salt. The mineral is used as money, in rituals and even cuisine. Salt is first added to food about 5000 years ago. The preservation and drying qualities of salt come to the attention of Diogenes, inspiring him to explore its healing properties and medical potential. He isn't the first. The practice of rubbing salt into wounds is a form of torture practiced for centuries, but might have saved some lives by preventing infection. Salt is also an age-old folk treatment. Diogenes records his conclusions in detail. Natural Health: Paracelsus & Hermetic Principles Galen: Medical Methods of Ancient Physicians Alexandria: Jewel of Ancient History De Materia Medica Byzantine copy He explains, "... Mineral salt is the most useful — usually that which is without stones, white, transparent, thick and equally compacted — as well as ammonia salts, which are easily cut and have straight edges. Thick sea salt must be taken, white and even. "The best is from Salamine in Cyprus, Megara, Sicily, and Africa. Salt from the lakes in these places is considered the best. The Phrygian is the strongest, also called Tattaean." The Phrygians are an ancient Indo-European speaking people who inhabit central-western Anatolia. Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides Agrippina & Son: Poisonous Plots of Rome Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Isle of Cyprus "These salts all have similar properties - useful as an astringent, and to clean and dissolve, as well as repress, reduce the intensity of symptoms, and form scabs - only differing slightly. "They are binding for rotten ulcers, and mixed with sebaceous treatments for psoriasis. They repress abnormal growths in the eyes, and consume pterygium [membrane on eye]." Salt (NaCl): Science, History & Cuisine Asphodel: Ancient Dye & Medicine Plants Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment pterygium "They take away other abnormal growths, are fit to put in suppositories, and smeared on with oil they remove weariness and oedema from dropsy. Warm packs are made from them in little bags to ease pain. Rubbed on by the fire with oil and vinegar (until the person sweats) they lessen itching. In the same way (rubbed on with honey and vinegar) they lessen lichen [skin disease with red pustules], parasitical skin diseases, leprosy, and a synanchic [abscessed] throat." Magnesium (Mg): Ecology & Human Health Fermenting Green Beans: Salt, Brine & Bacteria Soap & Medicine Herb of Ancients oil and vinegar "For the tonsils and adenoids they are roasted with honey, and for spreading ulcers, apthas [small ulcers], and moisture of the gums they are applied burnt with polenta. For the strikes of scorpions they are used with flax seed ... For the bites of vipers with origanum, honey and hyssop; for the horned viper with pitch, cedria or honey; and for the bites of centipedes or millipedes with honey and vinegar." The Great Library of Alexandria Honey Bees (Apidae): Nature & Myth Celandine: Plant Toxins & Medicine centipede "For wasp stings, gnawing worms, white pustules in the head, the thymus, and tubercles [growths] they take it with calves’ suet. With raisins, swines’ grease or honey they dissolve boils [inflammatory tumours]; and with origanum and fermented dough they ripen oedema of the genitals sooner." Pharos Lighthouse: Ancient Wonder of Alexandria Salt Trade - the Most Precious Mineral Casting the Bones - Astragalomancy swine grease "Pounded into small pieces and bound in a linen cloth dipped in vinegar and then bound to the wounds with bandages, they help those bitten by crocodiles. With honey they help those bitten by venomous creatures, and bruises on the face. As an antidote for drinking the juice of poppy or eating mushrooms it is taken as a drink with vinegar and honey." Death Cap Mushrooms: Deadly Poison Sinope: Poison, Honey, Greeks & Clay Ephedra - Oldest Medical Stimulant Herb honey "They are used for dislocations with meal and honey; and applied with oil do not allow burns to blister. Salts are similarly applied to gout and earache with vinegar. Smeared on with vinegar (or applied as a poultice with hyssop they stop erysipela [streptococcal skin infection] and creeping ulcers. They burn salts by throwing them into an ostracean [clay] jar, carefully closed so that they may not leap out, and then hidden in live coals until fully burnt." Gallic Wars: Caesar's Invasion of Germania Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Ancient Roman Baths & Bathing "Some wrap the sales fossiles [mineral salt] with dough, place it under hot coals, and leave it alone until the dough has burnt. You may burn common salts as follows; wash them once in water and allow them to dry ... ... then put them into a corked ceramic pot and make a fire underneath, shaking the pot until the salt no longer leaps." Mysteries of Bona Dea: Women's Rites in Ancient Rome Status & Rights of Women in Imperial Rome 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine In modern medicine salt is known to help with the balance of electrolytes and fluids and carry nutrients into cells. It regulates acid-base balance, supports transfer of nerve impulses, helps regulate blood pressure and gastric acid secretion. Drugs are often converted to chemical salts to ease dissolution, enhance absorption to the bloodstream and increase effectiveness. A drug can't have therapeutic effects unless absorbed so a salt form is used for some. Alkanet: Ancient Dye Magic & Medicine Great Women of Renaissance Alchemy Salt: Exalted Mineral of Alchemy natural salt, spices and herbs While humans need salt to live, signs of too much salt can include: bloating thirst frequent urination high blood pressure headache exhaustion heart palpitations Excess salt can also put stress on the kidneys. While their role includes excreting salt, the kidneys might not do so effectively. They may retain salt, causing swollen ankles and fluid accumulation around the heart and lungs. Olympiodorus of Thebes & His Parrot Asclepius: Greek Medicine Snake God Alexandria & the Siege of Diocletian Salt offers potential skin health benefits due to exfoliating and antiseptic qualities but is not advised for all skin types. People with sensitive or dry skin should keep it to a minimum in beauty treatments. If bathing in Epsom salts be sure to rinse off with clear water. Drinking sea water or salt water comes with hazards. Human kidneys can produce only urine less salty than seawater. To eliminate the extra salt a person must urinate more water than ingested. Great Persecution Rome vs. Christianity Malaria: Roman Fever & Renaissance Plague Reishi or Lingzhi - Mushroom Magic This ultimately leads to dehydration, causing symptoms like confusion, cramps, delusions and dizziness while thirst increases. Eventually the person dies. It's known in cases when shipwrecked sailors try to drink seawater to survive. Salt has many benefits in improving food flavors, food preservation and healing sore throats in a gargle. It provides two of the electrolytes necessary for health, sodium and chloride. 7 Primary Electrolytes: Essential Ions & Health Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Wine Making Process: Grape to Glass Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Julius Caesar's military campaigns in Germania provoke fierce opposition, strategic alliances and guerilla warfare. Rome conquers most of the known world, but cannot subjugate Germania. Status & Rights of Women in Imperial Rome Pagan Solstice Fests: Saturnalia Baltic Aetsi & the Roman Amber Texts The Gallic Wars are a series of brutal conflicts chronicled by Caesar. They're remembered for the conquest of Gaul, the resistance of conquered people and Caesar's campaigns into Germania. Germania is home to many tribes, including the Cherusci and Suebi including the Marcomanni. These groups are recognized for their warrior might and close ties to the land. Silvanus: Roman God of Wild Lands & Fields Nature Spirits of German Mythology The Great Library of Alexandria German tribes based on Tacitus 1 AD. Suebi include the Marcomanni, Hermunduri & Semnones For the Romans, Germania represents uncharted territory, filled with valuable resources and a strategic military position. As Rome expands its territory, interactions with Germanic tribes intensify. Following annexation of Gaul, the tribes frequently cross the Rhine River, causing conflicts and threatening Roman stability. From 58 to 50 BCE, tensions escalate as Germanic raids become more common. In 55 BCE, Caesar embarks on a mission to assert Roman authority in Germania. His motivations include countering the growing power of the Germanic tribes and flexing military muscle to protect Roman territories. Ancient Roman Baths & Bathing Brunhilde: Tragic Germanic Warrior Queen Feudalism & the German Peasants' War Specific events fueling the conflict include: Invasions of Gaul : The Suebi and other tribes launch raids into Roman lands, prompting a strong military response from Caesar. Demonstrating Power : Caesar believes in showcasing Roman strength to deter future threats. By attacking, he wants to display the might of Rome. Strategic Alliances : Caesar seeks alliances with certain tribes to turn them against their rivals, applying a divide-and-conquer approach. Nibelung - Stories of Heroes & Worms Warrior Queen: Kriemhild of the Burgundians Famous Women of Ancient Rome Political and Historical Context In the 1st century BCE, the Roman Republic is fading, plagued by internal strife and expansionary ambitions. Gaul, fragmented and wealthy, is a tempting prize. Germania, beyond the Rhine, is a land of powerful tribal confederations, constantly migrating, raiding, and presenting both a threat and an opportunity to their neighbors the Celts, a Gallic people. The Gauls and Germans are strongly interactive. In the 1st century BCE some tribes are allies, others enemies, a volatile situation often exploited by Caesar. Haruspices in History: The Gut Readers Great Persecution Rome vs. Christianity Pagan Solstice Fests: Mithras & the Sun The Gauls are not a unified entity. They often seek help from the Germans or form alliances, and invite the Germans to cross the Rhine. The constant state of flux gives Caesar a pretext for intervention, ostensibly maintaining stability on Rome's borders and protecting its allies. Fear of a unified Gallic-Germanic threat gnaws at Roman anxieties. Caesar presents the Germans as aggressors and a threat to Roman order. He also uses his expeditions to bolster his political power and popularity in Rome. Military success means prestige, influence, and ultimately, power. Mythic Fire Gods: Vulkan of Germania Lora Ley Adventures - Feast of Fools Chicken Soup: Chickens in German Folklore From a Roman perspective, the Germans are raiders and plunderers, destabilizing and threatening Roman interests. From a Germanic perspective, they're defending their lands and resources. Caesar's most notable encounters are during his campaigns into Germania, such as the Battle of the Rhine in 55 BCE and a clash against the Suebi the following year. Military strategies include: Testudo (Turtle) Formation : In this tactical arrangement, soldiers align their shields to create a protective barrier. It's effective for defending against arrows and other projectiles in battle. Cavalry Support : Although the Roman cavalry was not as dominant as the infantry, it's especially important in flanking strategies to undermine enemy formations. Well-disciplined Roman legions, armed with gladii  (short swords), pila  (javelins), and scuta  (rectangular shields), are masters of coordinated warfare. Chaoskampf: Order & Chaos Battle Out Agrippina & Son: Poisonous Plots of Rome Rise of Pan: Fertility Goat God Péh₂usōn Testudo or turtle formation, 17th century depiction W. Hollar The Germanic tribes are adept at guerrilla tactics. Their intimate familiarity with the lands is conducive to ambushes and surprise raids. The trained Roman legions struggle to adapt to unpredictable Germanic warfare. Germans wield spears, axes and the framea  (a long, narrow spear). They often fight in loose formations. Guerilla-style tactics include ambushing Roman columns in forests and swamps, where Roman discipline falters. The Germanic campaigns are characterized by raids and punitive expeditions rather than full-scale conquests. There is no singular, pivotal battle marking Roman victory or defeat in Germania. Ziu - Ancient Sky God of Germania German Myth: Father Rhine River God Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Notable conflicts include: Battle of the Vosges Mountains (58 BC): Caesar defeats the forces of the Suebi, a powerful Germanic confederation led by Ariovistus, who has crossed the Rhine at the invitation of the Sequani tribe. This victory helps establish Caesar's dominance in Gaul. It temporarily deters further large-scale German incursions. Caesar's Rhine Crossings (55 and 53 BCE): Caesar twice constructs temporary bridges across the Rhine. He leads his legions on reconnaissance and punitive raids into Germanic territory. Ancient Cultures: Yamnaya Steppe People 12 Days of Zagmuk: Chaos & the King Schrat: German Nightmare Forest Elf Caesar's wooden Rhine bridge, 19th century illustration These expeditions are intended to demonstrate Roman power, intimidate the tribes, and punish those who help the Gauls. They are however costly, and fail to make permanent gains. Rome's military prowess cannot conquer Germania. Several factors contribute to the failure. The Terrain: Germania's vast, dense forests, marshes, and waterways were ill-suited to Roman tactical doctrine. They hinder movement, disrupt supply lines, and favor the German guerilla tactics. And then there's winter. The Many Faces of Frau Holle German Romanticism: Nature & Emotion Slavic River Spirits & Roman Gods Lack of Centralization: Unlike Gaul, where some degree of political organization existed, Germania was a patchwork of independent tribes that were difficult to engage in a single campaign. Defeating one tribe didn't translate to control over the rest. Logistical Challenges: The distance from Roman supply bases, combined with the harsh terrain, made maintaining a large army in Germania extremely difficult. Supplying large Roman forces across wide and diverse territories stretched resources thin. Difficulty maintaining a supply line weakens the Romans over time. Butzemann, Witches & Nyx - Scare 'em Good Elderberry Tree: Germanic Nature Lore Night Raven (Nachtkrapp) Germania Alliances Among Tribes : Many Germanic groups united to resist Roman encroachment, realizing that their independence was at stake. This collaboration allowed them to mount a more organized resistance. Germanic Resilience: The Germans, accustomed to the harsh conditions and fiercely independent, are highly resistant to Roman domination. They're willing to fight to the bitter end. Their constant raids and ambushes make the prospect of conquest very costly to the Romans. Limited Strategic Value: Unlike the rich farmland of Gaul, Germania offered limited economic resources that would have justified the expense of subjugation. Thirty Years' War: Conflict, Antagonists, and Impact on Society Visigoths, King Alaric & the Ruin of Rome German Folklore - Irrwurz or Mad Root Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Carnelian (early: cornelean ) is already used in the Stone Age to make beads. Pebbles of the reddish orange gemstone might be polished by nature in rivers. With bow drills, people make holes in the beads. Carnelian is chalcedony, with a chemical structure SiO2 (silicon dioxide) Egyptian Blue Faience - Ceramic Glass Turquoise: Precious Stone of Ancients Carbuncle: Red Stone of Magic & Medicine polished deep orange-red carnelian Carnelian appears in the Wadjet crown worn by Egyptian royal women. With its inner glow, the stone is greatly esteemed by Egyptians as it holds the power of the Sun and the warmth of the soul. This is what ancient merchants are selling, and well they know their markets. The Egyptian scarab  is a widespread symbol of protection. The dungball it rolls equates to the sun, because it fertilizes the land as it buries these balls. Scarab amulets and decorations are made of gems such as carnelian or unique Egyptian blue faience . Magnetite: Ubiquitous Iron Ore with Soul Sacred Scarab: Lucky Bug of Ancient Egypt Wadjet - Winged Snake Goddess of Egypt Sun and Scarab The red-orange stone is popular for making wax seals, as wax doesn't stick to carnelian. In some cultures the stone is considered to have inner fire and to deflect negative or unwanted energy. In the ancient world magic is part of everyday life. Associated with sun gods Ra or Atum in Egypt, and other deities throughout the world, carnelian is a stone of rulers and elites, but also of the people. Use of carnelian in jewelry, talismans and tools is not determined by class. Anyone can buy and wear this beautiful gem. Asteria - Starry Gems of Myth & Magic Hattusa Green Stone - Mystic Secrets Gold - Precious Metal of the Sun Carnelian Scarab Amulets of carnelian are found within the wrappings of mummified corpses. A carnelian mine in south Egypt is producing in ancient times. Carnelian is an important trade item along with other gemstones such as turquoise , amber and lapis lazuli . The inner glow is created in carnelian by inclusions of hematite, a red iron oxide lending its hue to jewels and rocks and potters' clay. It's said the ram-headed god Khnum , or Banebdjedet in Mendes, cre ates humans of clay on his potter's wheel. Bes: Household Protector God of Egypt Copper - Ruddy Metal of Mystic Magic Arabian Leopard: Bronze Age Predators Necklace of Gold and Carnelian c. 1400 - 1200 BCE from Cyprus A type of chalcedony, carnelian gets its color from iron oxide inclusions. The stone color can range from opaque to translucent and pale orange yellow to deep red and is often valued for its color gradation. With a Mohs hardness of 6.5 - 7 it's a good carving stone. A similar stone, sard, may be used interchangeably with carnelian. It's harder, more opaque and with brown-red tones. Sard is often the choice of the ancients for making stamp, ring and cylinder seals due its resistance to wear. Unus Mundus One World: Psychology Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides Alchemy: Ancient Mordant Recipes for Fabric & Stones Greek Ring, 18th century. Carved Head of Asclepius, God of Medicine Beads of carnelian have been found in Greece from a Neolithic source, indicating early trade. Later, carnelian trends during the Greco-Roman era. In crystal healing the gem carnelian connects with the lower chakras. It relates to stability, grounding, creativity and self-confidence. Carnelian forms in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. Basalt stone harbors the largest carnelian gems, with the purest reds. Shen Rings Egypt - Divine Protection Natural Iron Oxide Pigments: Extraction, Types & Colors Black Pigments of Ancient Artisans Falcon of Tutankhamun w carnelian stones as solar disc, in shen rings & feathers Carnelian is a semi-precious stone today, but in ancient times this striking rock is among the most valued of gems. It's often found in grave burials and in the tombs of Egyptian pharaohs such as Tutankhamun. The ancient Egyptians may have had more local sources but only one mine is mentioned. In the metal ages BCE, India is a major supplier of carnelian. Another producer is the Arabian Peninsula, to the northeast and southeast. Not all mines of ancient times are still operating. Today, producers of carnelian include Yanacodo  ( Peru ); Ratnapura  ( Sri Lanka ); and Thailand . Carnelian has been found in Indonesia , Brazil , India , Russia  ( Siberia ), and Germany . Silica (SiO2): Nature of Glass & Gems Zaffre: Vintage Cobalt Blue Glass & Artists' Pigment Pharos Lighthouse: Ancient Wonder of Alexandria Carnelian Beads - the Indus Valley civilization is known for their unique bead etching method Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Turquoise is beloved for thousands of years by people from royals to the richly challenged. The world's first known turquoise mine is 7000 years old. Turquoise is introduced to Europe in the 13th century AD by the Ottoman. Carnelian - Sunny Gems of the Ancient World Amethyst - Divine Purple Quartz Gemstone Carbuncle: Red Stone of Magic & Medicine Enchanting necklace with turquoise mosaic tiles The name turquoise comes from the French word for Turks. It's the only rock to have a color named after it. Turquoise can range from green-blue to scumbled or light blue shades. Most esteemed of quality is the robin's egg blue color of turquoise mined in Persia. Neyshabur Mine in Iran is considered the oldest turquoise mine in the world. Verdigris: Coveted Blue Green Copper Pigment Chalcopyrite (CuFeS₂): Shining Copper Ore Copper (Cu): Ruddy Metal of Myth & Magic Untreated (top) and polished turquoise showing variation I n architecture, Iranian blue turquoise covers the domes  of palaces . The intense blue is a symbol of heaven on earth. The bright blue stone of Iran is color-changing, as it turns green when heated. The blue of turquoise comes from the copper content in the stone. Turquoise can contain other minerals like pyrite or fool's gold, or veins of limonite, a mix of iron oxides. Green indicates iron inclusions. Considered a semi-precious gemstone now, turquoise is a valuable commodity in ancient times. Copper (Cu) Effects on Human & Plant Health Copper(II) Sulfate: Blue Vitriol, Chalcanthite Almadén Mines: Ancient Mercury Extraction Shah Mosque c. 1611 AD Turquoise is created when mineral-laden water infiltrates crevices in rocks. Over time, only the minerals are left behind, forming turquoise. The presence of copper in turquoise bestows blue and green hues. The stone polishes to an almost translucent gleam and is just slightly harder than glass. Due to its proximity to ground level and its lustrous beauty, turquoise is one of the first stones to be mined. Zircon - the Primordial Gemstone Corundum: Secrets of Valuable Gemstones Lapis Lazuli: Vibrant Blue Gem of Ancients Some ancient mines are still in use today. It's a valuable gemstone on the early trade routes such as the Amber Road and the Steppe routes . In spirituality and magic, turquoise wards off evil and creates a protective aura. It's a stone of communication, and promotes productive discussion and an open mind. Wearing, rubbing or holding turquoise can soothe anxiety and channel productive thinking. Chalcanthite: Crystal Blue Explosion Asteria - Starry Gems of Myth & Magic Shen Rings Egypt - Divine Protection hold me ... Turquoise also comes from the United States, with large deposits throughout the lands. It's originally used by the indigenous people. Arizona currently produces the highest quantity of turquoise in the US. In Aztec lore, Xiuhtēcuhtli also called Turquoise Lord or Lord of Fire is a father god of fire, day and heat. For Aztec priests, turquoise is a symbol of fire. In every Aztec home, a small fire is kept burning at the sacred center in tribute to Xiuhtecuhtli. Sacred Geometry: Insight to the Mysteries Soot & Lampblack: Beauty, Art and Medicine Obsidian: Ancient Volcanic Black Glass Turquoise mosaic mask of Xiuhtecuhtli (photo: Hans Hillewaert) Turquoise is lucky for marriage and relationships, aiding communication with one's partner(s). Blue is calming to the mentality and also one of the colors of the element Water, both being yin energies focused on thought and intuition. Pure blue brings clarity. Turquoise is especially lucky for people born under the zodiac signs of Pisces and Sagittarius. Aquarius can benefit from this stone too. Like a mountain stream, turquoise causes thoughts and words to flow. Mandalas: Psychology & Art Therapy Active Imagination: Creative Therapy Unus Mundus One World: Psychology Silver, turquoise indigenous jewelry Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Salt is primarily sodium chloride (NaCl). As a naturally occurring mineral it's known as halite or rock salt. Vital for food preservation and health, salt provides the electrolytes sodium and chloride. Fermenting Green Beans: Salt, Brine & Bacteria Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment Magnesium (Mg): Ecology & Human Health Salt is one of the most common substances on Earth. Oceans have about 3.5% salt by weight. The flavor of salt is one of the five basic tastes, which also include sweetness, sourness, bitterness, and umami . Salt enhances flavors and increases palatability of food. For thousands of years it's used in food preservation, such as salting, brining, and pickling. Difference Between Pickling & Fermentation Seven Probiotics: Human Digestive Health Salt: Exalted Mineral of Alchemy Salt is mostly sodium chloride (NaCl). Sea salt and mined salt may contain trace elements . Mined salt is often refined. In many counties, table salt has iodine added, except Norway, where iodized salt is illegal. Salt crystals are translucent. Cubic in shape they're normally white but can have a blue or purple tinge due to impurities. When dissolved in water sodium chloride separates into Na+ and Cl− ions. Salt in Alchemy: Alchemical Uses & Lore Nigella Sativa: Black Seed of Healers Ammonium Carbonate: Sal Volatile Smelling Salts Solubility is 359 grams per liter. From cold solutions, salt crystallizes as the dihydrate NaCl·2H2O. Solutions of sodium chloride have very different properties from those of pure water. The freezing point is −21.12 °C (−6.02 °F) for 23.31 wt% of salt. The boiling point of saturated salt solution is around 108.7 °C (227.7 °F). Table salt is about 40% sodium by weight. Six grams have 2400 mg. Sodium is also an electrolyte. It helps nerves and muscles function and works in osmotic regulation of water content or fluid balance in body organs. Science of Onion Tears: Demystifying Acids Why Apples Turn Brown: Science & Nature Powder of Algaroth: Antimony Oxychloride Purgative Salt processing goes back to Neolithic times in today's Romania and later the Black Sea region of Solnitsata in Bulgaria. Agricultural lifestyles increase the body's need for salt, which is previously obtained from meat. While people supplement early agriculture with hunting or livestock raising, the need for salt gives this compound a central role in history. Food preservation helps people survive long winters and travel vast distances. Salt Trade - the Most Precious Mineral Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Five Sugars: Glucose, Maltose, Fructose, Sucrose, Lactose Neolithic and later trade routes revolve around salt. Salt fish is a major export in ancient Egyptian trade. The Romans develop the Via Salaria, a system of roads facilitating salt transport across Italy. Salt is a primary commodity on the Amber  and Silk Roads. Roman soldiers may be fully or partially paid with salt, leading to the terms "salary" and "salting the wages". Phenols: Nature's Creations in Daily Life Baltic Amber in Folklore and Myth Gallic Wars: Caesar's Invasion of Germania Salt is one of the natural medicines used by great physician Dioscorides in the army of Nero, first century AD. It helps close and disinfect wounds. He's also a huge proponent of vinegar. Venice and Genoa fight over salt rights, among other things, culminating in 1380 with Venetians gaining control of Adriatic trade. During medieval times, cities close to salt mines have an economic advantage. Status & Rights of Women in Imperial Rome Pagan Solstice Fests: Saturnalia Renaissance Wars: Venice vs. Ottoman ceiling in Salzburg, Austria Salzburg in Austria derives its name and wealth from the salt industry. The salt trade enriches these regions and fosters cultural exchange along its routes, resulting in development of practices and cuisines. In Italy, salt is still traditionally during weddings for luck and longevity. In the 19th century, the El Paso Salt War erupts for control of immense salt lakes at the base of the Guadalupe Mountains in West Texas. Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Cosimo de' Medici & the Italian Renaissance Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides Guadalupe mountain In food, salt is a flavor enhancer. It can amplify existing flavors and even suppress bitterness as it interacts with taste receptors of the tongue. When brining meats, salt adds flavor and helps meat stay moist during cooking. This technique ensures tender and juicy results. In baking, salt enhances the flavor of breads and pastries while controlling yeast fermentation. Salt can change textures in different foods. How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health Yarrow (Achillea) Magic & Medicine Glass & Arts of Ancient Glass Making Added before baking, salt raises pH, helping create golden brown crust and depth of taste in pretzels In fresh vegetables, it draws out moisture for a firm crisp texture. This is important in recipes like cucumber salad or the traditional dish gravlax, where salt cures salmon, changing its texture and enhancing its flavor. Culinary potential of salt expands to include various infused products, such as truffle salt and smoked salt. These specialty salts are used to elevate dishes with their unique flavor profiles. Fermenting Cabbage to Make Sauerkraut Pomegranate - Food of the Ancients Mold: Cultivation & Use in Food Fermentation salmon fresh from the salty sea Regional cuisines develop salt practices based on availability and tradition. Soy sauce, which relies heavily on salt, is a primary seasoning in China and Japan. Middle Eastern dishes often call for generous amounts of salt. In traditional Korean cuisine, bamboo salt is made by roasting salt in a bamboo holder clogged on both ends with mud. Salt absorbs minerals from the bamboo and mud. It's used in doenjang, a fermented bean paste. Kimchi: Microbes, Acids & Fermentation Pasteurization: Microbial Dominance & Destruction Song of the Loreley - Lethal Attraction soy sauce , popular in Asia & throughout the world A Few Salt Variations Sea Salt: Evaporated from seawater, sea salt retains trace minerals. Different regions yield different attributes based on the mineral content of the water. Kosher Salt: Characterized by large, coarse grains, kosher salt is often used for drawing moisture out from meat. Himalayan Pink Salt: Mined from salt deposits in the Himalayan mountains, this salt owes its pink hue to trace minerals like iron. Fleur de Sel: Known as "flower of salt," this sea salt is skimmed from the surface of salt ponds and has a subtle briny flavor. Create Artisan Apple Cider Vinegar Cellulose: Plant Fibers of Structure & Strength Maillard Reaction: Science & Flavor in Browning Food salt mine worker Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top