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Photosynthesis enables plants to convert sunlight into energy in the form of glucose molecules to support plants and life on Earth. Sunlight transforms to glucose in the Calvin Cycle, a series of three phases. ATP: Nature of Energy & Vital Functions Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Metalloproteins: Biochemistry of Nature & Health green tomatoes produce sugars as they ripen into red tomatoes and store them in the fruit The Calvin Cycle is a series of reactions in plant cells to convert carbon dioxide into glucose, a type of sugar that plants use for energy. It's also called the light-independent reactions or dark reactions. The Calvin Cycle happens in the stroma of the chloroplasts, the organelles in plant cells responsible for photosynthesis. Light-dependent reactions require light energy to produce a denosine triphosphate (ATP) and NADPH. Homeostasis: Internal Balance of the Body Five Major Proteins of Nature & Human Health Glucose in Nature: Ecology & Environment chloroplast The Calvin Cycle can happen in the dark, using ATP and NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) p roduced during the light-dependent reactions to power its reactions. It's named after American scientist Melvin Calvin, who receives the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1961 for his groundbreaking work. Though the Calvin Cycle doesn't need direct light, it depends on products of light-dependent reactions. Sweet Root Vegetables: Sugar & Starch Sustainable Gardening: Compost & Old Beer Lignin: Ecology, Wood & Natural Health sunflower heads absorb 25% of the light used by the plants The main purpose of the Calvin Cycle is to produce glucose, a vital energy source not just for the plant but also for nearly all living organisms on Earth. In fact, about 80% of the energy required by life comes from glucose derived from photosynthesis. By synthesizing glucose, the Calvin Cycle effectively captures and stores solar energy in a form that can be used by various life forms. The Calvin Cycle consists of three main stages: carbon fixation, reduction phase, and regeneration of ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP), the starting molecule. Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Copper (Cu) Effects on Human & Plant Health Vermicompost: Composting with Worms click for larger size; P (red) = phosphate Carbon Fixation The first stage of the Calvin Cycle is carbon fixation. In this phase carbon dioxide is incorporated into an organic molecule. It's done with help of the enzyme rubisco (ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase). Rubisco catalyzes the reaction between carbon dioxide and ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP), a five-carbon sugar. The result of this reaction is a six-carbon intermediate. Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment It immediately splits into two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA), a three-carbon compound. This is the moment inorganic carbon from the atmosphere is brought into the organic molecule. Around 90% of carbon fixation in terrestrial ecosystems happens through the Calvin Cycle. Reduction The second stage of the Calvin Cycle is reduction. ATP and NADPH produced during light-dependent reactions are used to convert 3-PGA into a usable form. Potash: Agriculture, Plant & Garden Health Earthworms: Soil Health & Ecosystem Balance Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land In this stage, 3-PGA is first phosphorylated by ATP to form 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3-BPG). Then, NADPH reduces 1,3-BPG to form glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P), a three-carbon sugar. For every three turns of the Calvin Cycle, one molecule of G3P exits the cycle. The remaining molecules go back to regenerate RuBP, ensuring continuation of the cycle. Once G3P is formed, it can be converted into glucose and other carbohydrates. It's used immediately by the plant or stored for later use. Honey Bees (Apidae): Nature & Myth Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Transition Metals in Science and Health sprouting plants need extra energy Regeneration of the Starting Molecule The final stage of the Calvin Cycle is regeneration of RuBP. Out of the six G3P molecules produced, only one exits to contribute to glucose formation. Five are reconfigured back into three molecules of RuBP through a series of enzymatic reactions. The regeneration process needs additional ATP. It helps the cycle continue by replenishing substrate for new CO2 molecules. Seven Trace Minerals: Nature's Little Helpers Calcium (Ca): Earth Metal of Structure & Strength Compost: Heart of Sustainable Gardening The Calvin Cycle helps maintain ecological balance. By transforming CO2 into glucose, it helps regulate atmospheric carbon levels and supports respiration in animals and other organisms. The plant packs the glucose into polysaccharide chains and compounds like starches and sucrose. A mature oak tree can store 11,000 kg of glucose as starch. Veg like carrots store extra sugars in roots underground. Salt (NaCl): Science, History & Cuisine Ammonium (NH+4): Nitrogen Needs of Plants Starch: Power of Plants & Human Energy Factors Affecting the Calvin Cycle Several factors can influence the efficiency and rate of the Calvin Cycle. These include: Light Intensity : The availability of light directly affects the production of ATP and NADPH in the light-dependent reactions, which in turn fuels the Calvin Cycle. Temperature : Optimal temperatures can improve enzymatic reactions; however, extreme temperatures can reduce the cycle's efficiency. Carbon Dioxide Concentration : Higher CO2 levels can enhance photosynthesis rates, showing a direct correlation with plant growth. Under ideal conditions, the Calvin Cycle functions effectively. In stressful situations like extreme temperatures or drought, the cycle diminishes, with lower photosynthesis rates and stunted plant growth. How Solar Panels Work Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Compost: Teeming Metropolis of Life & Death healthy herbs Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Root vegetables like carrots, beets or tuberous sweet potatoes are energy reservoirs. The plants store their power underground, packed into complex polysaccharides they can unpack and turn back into glucose . Glucose in Nature: Ecology & Environment Sustainable Gardening: Compost & Old Beer Starch: Power of Plants & Human Energy Plants produce their own food as glucose through photosynthesis , using sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide. Glucose is a monosaccharide or simple sugar. It's easily absorbed by plants, microbes and other living organisms. A plant can't turn CO2 directly into glucose. It goes through three stages collectively called the Calvin cycle: carboxylation, reduction reactions, and ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) regeneration. During the second phase of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide from the atmosphere passes into the leaves through tiny openings. The chloroplasts use the stored chemical energy to transform carbon dioxide into glucose. Five Major Proteins of Nature & Human Health Fructose (Fruit Sugar): Sweetest Saccharide Metalloproteins: Biochemistry of Nature & Health photosynthesis Fructose , another monosaccharide, is also produced in this phase. Then, glucose and fructose combine to form sucrose . Plants form chains of sugars and pack them as polysaccharides or complex carbohydrates. If the plant needs to turn sucrose back into glucose and fructose, it uses the enzyme sucrase. When humans eat plants they use the enzyme amylase, present in saliva and the intestine, to break down starches. The process of energy storage in sweet root veg is closely linked to their biological structure. The parenchymal cells store starch granules. The cells usually have thin cell walls; some are lignified . Five Sugars: Glucose, Maltose, Fructose, Sucrose, Lactose Lignin: Ecology, Wood & Natural Health How & Why to Ferment Green Beans sucrose Root veg include carrots, sweet potato, beets, turnips, rutabaga, radish, ginger, onion, garlic. All store starches and sugars in their roots and other parts such as tubers, which are underground parts of the stem. Carrots Carrots store energy as sugars, specifically sucrose. When a carrot is growing, it uses the sun's energy to turn carbon dioxide and water into glucose and fructose. They're converted to sucrose and stored in the root. As carrots mature, leaves and stems produce more sugars. The sugars move down to the roots, where they're converted to starches for storage. Along the way some help nourish the plant. The root begins to enlarge. Molybdenum (Mo): Ecology & Human Health Seven Trace Minerals: Nature's Little Helpers Women Scientists of the Ancient World The crude fiber in carrot roots is about 72% cellulose , 13% hemicellulose and 15% lignin. These give strength and some flexibility to the root. Many root veg like carrots and turnips get sweeter after a frost. This happens because the conversion of starches to sugars automatically lowers the freezing point of plant cells. Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Vermicompost: Composting with Worms Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment first frost Sweet Potatoes Sweet potatoes hold up to 75% of their weight in glucose and starch. The primary components are starches, accounting for 53% of carbohydrate content. Simple sugars like glucose, fructose, sucrose and maltose make up 32% of the carbohydrate content. Sweet potatoes also store energy as fiber. There are two types of fiber in sweet potatoes. Pectin fibers absorb water, soften and swell, creating a gel-like consistency. Indigestible fibers pass into the intestine. Cellulose: Plant Fibers of Structure & Strength Five Types of Resistant Starch: Fiber & Health Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper Batata: Central / South America sweet potatoes Sweetness of sweet potatoes comes from the action of the enzyme amylase breaking down starches. In these tuberous roots the enzyme activates in cooking temperatures between 57 and 77°C (135 and 170°F). Sugar Beets Sugar beets store energy in the form of both sugars and starches. The sugar beet's root is rich in sucrose, which is extracted and refined to make table sugar. The root also contains starch, which the plant uses for energy. These energy reserves not only facilitate plant growth and development but also prepare them to coast through tough conditions like drought or cool temperatures. Fermentable & Non-Fermentable Sugars Polysaccharides: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose Whey & Whey Products: Health & Science Sugar beet botanical illustration Energy Use During Growth When conditions are good for growth, root vegetables use stored energy. Carrots convert their sugar reserves into energy quickly, allowing them to prosper even in poor soil conditions. Sweet potatoes often retain higher starch levels throughout the growing season. This strategy supports larger tuber development, with a yield of 15 to 25 tons per acre in well-maintained agricultural fields. Lactobacillus : Nature of Lactic Acid Bacteria Seven Probiotics: Human Digestive Health Chamomile - Herbology & Folklore Sweet potatoes In the dark, plants release sucrose into from their starch reserves for continued energy. The plant also taps into its energy reserves in periods of stress, such as: Overwintering:  Many root vegetables are biennials, meaning they live for two years. The stored energy helps them survive the harsh winter months, allowing them to regrow in the spring and produce flowers and seeds. Regrowth:  Damaged or stressed plants can rely on the stored energy in their roots to regenerate new shoots and leaves. Fermenting Green Beans: Salt, Brine & Bacteria Electrolytes: Vital Minerals of Human & Environmental Health Cornstarch: Cuisine, Beauty, Cleaning Uses Reproduction:  When it's time to reproduce, the plant mobilizes the stored starch and converts it back into glucose, providing the energy needed to produce flowers, fruits, and seeds. In the first season, carrots grown from seeds develop leaves, stems, and roots. They're usually harvested when the roots are young. If left in the ground for an additional season, the plants have a growth spurt. Listeria Bacteria: Health and Environment Galactose: Simple Sugar of Nature & Health Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life wild carrot ( Daucus carota ) flower head Their stems extend, flowers bloom and seeds form. Wild carrots also don't flower in the first year and young growth is often unnoticed in meadows. Deep rooting vegetables help improve soil structure and prevent erosion by stabilizing the soil. As they grow, die and decay they replenish organic matter in the earth. Their nutrients improving soil fertility and supporting growth of other plants. Sugars of the roots provide food for billions of organisms in the soil, and new plants. Broad Beans (Fava) - Bronze Age Crops Song of the Loreley - Lethal Attraction Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Robots are automations in all shapes and sizes, yet they need key factors to function and survive. These include power or energy, accurate senses, an efficient brain able to make decisions, and matching accessories. How Astronauts Breathe in Space Lithium Ion Batteries on Earth & in Space Building Robots: Elastomers, Metals & Plastics Power: The Spark of Life The basic requirement for any robot is a reliable power source. The optimal power source depends on the robot's size, complexity, and intended use. Electricity Stationary robots, such as industrial arms used in assembly lines, rely on direct electric power. This ensures an uninterrupted power supply, keeping the bots always ready for action. However, its mobility is limited. Batteries Mobile robots enjoy freedom of movement but depend on of charge cycles and battery life. Rechargeable lithium-ion and lithium-polymer batteries are often used. They're lightweight with strong energy density. Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials How Solar Panels Work An average lithium-ion battery can store about 150-200 watt-hours per kilogram. This is ideal for consumer electronics. Efficiency varies. Battery life ranges from 2 to 5 years depending on usage. Hydraulics/Pneumatics This system is used for heavy-duty work like construction or manufacturing. Hydraulic robot arms operate using pressurized hydraulic fluid. The fluid supplies the force for the arm to lift, move, and handle heavy loads with precision. Solar power Robots like the Solar-Powered Autonomous Rover use solar panels to convert sunlight into electricity. The robots can operate 24 hours a day in areas with high sunlight. Weather conditions and location are considerations. Lithium (Li): Science, Health & Uses CubeSats: Science, Technology & Risky Business Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back Sensory Input: Perceiving the World A robot's ability to understand and interact with its environment depends on its sensory perception. A suite of sensors create the robot's eyes, ears, and skin. Ultrasonic sensors can measure distances up to 4 meters, while LIDAR can create detailed maps of environments with millimeter accuracy. These sensors are used for navigation, obstacle detection, and decision-making. Vision Systems: Cameras and image processing software enable robots to identify objects, navigate obstacles, and recognize faces. Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Solar Panels & Batteries in Space Zinc (Zn): Technology, Nature & Health Proximity Sensors: Infrared, ultrasonic, and lidar sensors help robots detect nearby objects and avoid collisions. Force and Torque Sensors: These enable robots to feel the pressure they apply to objects, crucial for delicate tasks like assembling electronics or performing surgery. Environmental Sensors: Measuring temperature, humidity, and other environmental factors allows robots to adapt to changing conditions and perform tasks like monitoring air quality. Choosing the right sensors affects robot performance. Top-tier sensors, like 3D cameras, enhance capabilities but come with higher costs. Transition Metals in Science and Health Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure Drone Warfare: Unmanned Combat Vehicles Processing: the Brain Control systems are the brains of the robot. They process data collected from sensors and translate it into actions. Advanced robots often use machine learning algorithms to improve adaptability and decision-making. Some, like warehouse robots, can be programmed to refine their paths continuously to avoid obstacles. Central Processing Unit (CPU): This is the central hub for executing code, controlling movements, and managing sensor data. How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts Nickel (Ni): Metallurgy Facts & Folklore Metalloproteins: Biochemistry of Nature & Health Graphics Processing Unit (GPU): Increasingly important for robots relying on complex vision systems or simulations. Embedded Systems: Specialized processors designed for real-time control and efficient power consumption. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML): Algorithms that allow robots to learn from experience, adapt to new situations, and make autonomous decisions. Homeostasis: Internal Balance of the Body Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Actuation and Mobility: Taking Action Once a robot has processed information and made a decision, it translates the decision into physical action. It needs actuators and mechanisms for movement. Actuators are the driving force behind a robot’s movement, transforming energy into physical actions. They can be electric, hydraulic, or pneumatic. Each type has its advantages. Electric actuators are efficient for precise tasks, while hydraulic ones can handle larger loads. Cell Communication in Living Organisms Difference Between Oxidation & Fermentation Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Motors: power wheels, arms, and other moving parts. Servomotors: precise control over position and speed, as in complex movements and fine manipulation. Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators: high force and speed for heavy-duty applications. Locomotion Systems: wheels, tracks, legs, or even wings, depending on robot's intended environment and task. The choice of actuator affects robot strength, speed, and precision. For example, automation in packaging often uses electric actuators for efficiency and smooth movement. Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities Antimony (Stibnite, Kohl) Ancient Metal of Science & Beauty Russo-Ukrainian War: Motives, Propaganda & Technology Software and Programming: A Purpose in Life Programming provides robots with instructions, defining their behavior and capabilities. Robot Operating System (ROS): A widely used framework for developing robotic software, providing tools and libraries for tasks like perception, motion planning, and control. Programming Languages: Python, C++, and Java are common choices for writing robot code. Simulation Environments: Software that allows developers to test and refine robot programs in a virtual environment before deploying them in the real world. Networking & Interaction with Others Many robots depend on network connectivity for data exchange and overall control. CoBot, a collaboration robot, can work with multiple other robots to manage assembly tasks. Reliance on connectivity has drawbacks, such as vulnerability to cyber threats. Copper (Cu) Effects on Human & Plant Health Silent Destroyers: Microbial Corrosion of Concrete Oxidation: Metabolism & Molecular Action Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Oxygen makes up 21% of the atmosphere. In the vacuum of space there is no atmosphere. Oxygen is created by electrolysis of water, solid fuel oxygen generators and recycling carbon dioxide (CO2). Lithium Ion Batteries on Earth & in Space Solar Panels & Batteries in Space How Solar Panels Work Electrolysis of Water In electrolysis an electric current is passed through water (H2O), separating it into its constituent elements: hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). The oxygen is then vented into the spacecraft's atmosphere. The hydrogen, a highly flammable gas, may be vented overboard. Sometimes it's used to generate more water through chemical reaction with waste carbon dioxide. On the International Space Station (ISS), water is stored in tanks. Through electrolysis, a kilogram of water can yield about 0.89 kilograms of oxygen. The oxygen is redirected into the cabin for astronauts to breathe. Lithium (Li): Science, Health & Uses CubeSats: Science, Technology & Risky Business Building Robots: Elastomers, Metals & Plastics Solid Fuel Oxygen Generators (SFOGs) Usually emergency backup systems, like oxygen masks on airplanes. SFOGs use a chemical reaction with a solid compound like lithium perchlorate (LiClO₄), to release oxygen upon heating. Effective for short-term needs, they are less sustainable than electrolysis as they deplete the solid fuel. Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology Space shuttle blastoff Recycling Carbon Dioxide (CO2 Reduction) This is a component of a closed-loop life support system. Astronauts exhale carbon dioxide, which can quickly build up to toxic levels inside a spacecraft. CO₂ reduction systems convert exhaled CO₂ back into usable oxygen. The Sabatier reaction, widely used on the ISS, combines hydrogen (obtained through electrolysis) with CO₂ to produce methane (CH₄) and water. Water can then be re-split into oxygen and hydrogen through electrolysis, closing the loop. Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities Calcium (Ca): Earth Metal of Structure & Strength Science of Onion Tears: Demystifying Acids Chemical Oxygen Generators (COGs) These also ensure astronauts have enough breathable air. A well-known example uses potassium superoxide (KO₂). When KO₂ reacts with carbon dioxide, it generates oxygen. When astronauts exhale, they increase CO2 levels in their environment. The COGs replenish oxygen and remove excess CO2. Such systems are necessary in confined spaces like spacecraft. How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals International Space Station (ISS) Astronauts: Breathing in a Carefully Crafted Atmosphere As the oxygen creates a breathable environment for the astronauts, composition and pressure of the atmosphere must be carefully controlled Atmospheric Composition: Spacecraft use a higher percentage of oxygen than occurs in Earth's atmosphere. A space vehicle often has lower atmospheric pressure to minimize stress on the hull. A higher oxygen percentage ensures astronauts get enough oxygen despite the lower pressure. Some spacecraft use a mix of around 30% oxygen and 70% nitrogen. Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure Drone Warfare: Unmanned Combat Vehicles How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health Atmospheric Pressure: The atmosphere inside a spacecraft is pressurized to a level lower than Earth's sea level, but sufficient to support human life. It reduces stress on the spacecraft's structure and simplifies spacewalks. The ISS maintains an atmospheric pressure close to Earth's sea level, which makes it more comfortable for long-duration stays. Recycling is essential for maintaining breathable air on the ISS. Advanced systems continuously monitor and adjust air quality to ensure optimal oxygen levels are maintained. Excess CO2 can accumulate quickly due to human respiration, so carbon dioxide scrubbers are used. Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Heavy Metals Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Chromium & Arsenic Diana's Tree: Silver Crystals of Lunar Caustic The scrubbers use various reactions to convert CO2 back to oxygen, ensuring air quality is preserved during long missions. Recycling systems reduce the need for regular resupply missions. During extravehicular activities (EVAs), spacesuits are equipped with life support systems to supply oxygen, regulate temperature and remove carbon dioxide and moisture. Each suit has a backpack with tanks delivering a steady flow of air. A fan disperses it through the suit, run by electricity generated in the backpack. In a typical EVA, astronauts need up to 3.3 liters of oxygen per hour. 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Myanmar (Burma): Beauty & Brutality Lunar Caustic AgNO3: Lapis Infernalis of Alchemy Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Lunar caustic ( lapis infernalis ), Höllenstein (hellstone) or silver nitrate ( argentinium nitrium ) is esteemed by alchemists of the ancient world. Lunar caustic is often an ingredient in alchemical experiments. Used in medicine and other purposes, it's highly corrosive. Alchemical Salt: Essential Salts of Alchemy The Alembic: Essential Alchemy Equipment Science of Alchemy: Simple Distillation Process Origins and Properties of Lunar Caustic Lunar caustic make is prized in ancient alchemy and glassmaking. Its caustic nature, derived from the Latin causticus meaning "burning," enables it to etch metals and create intricate designs on surfaces such as mirrors. Silver nitrate is a potent oxidizing agent. It reacts with organic tissue by converting silver ions into elemental silver and oxidizing the organic matter. This compound typically appears as colorless, tabular crystals, also sold as a white, crystalline powder commercially. Steam Distillation in Ancient & Medieval Alchemy Silver - Queen of Precious Metals Argyropoeia: Silver Making of Ancients silver nitrate In medical history it's been used for treating skin lesions, warts and even applied as a painful eye treatment for infants infected with gonorrhea from the mother, which could cause blindness. Of these, the wart remedy shows positive results in lab tests. Formed into sticks lunar caustic is used to cauterize wounds. Low doses are given for gonorrhea. Brief exposure can cause purple, brown or black stains on the skin. Upon constant exposure to high concentrations, side effects such as painful burns can occur. Ancient Greek Alchemy: ios and iosis Rhododendron & the Toxic Ambrosia Poison Pigments of Painters: Renaissance silver nitrate or lunar caustic sticks - dipped in water & water drops applied to wound or wart Creation of Lunar Caustic The process of creation involves mixing silver with nitric acid (HNO3) or aqua fortis , a highly corrosive liquid and the original Acid Queen. Mixing silver with nitric acid causes formation of silver nitrate crystals. This alchemical process is dangerous, requires proper safety gear and is not for children . This is a flesh-eating substance. It's most often used in chemical metallurgy and chemical reactions. Wear goggles and protective gloves, lab coat. Science of Rust Earth Pigments & Colors Panacea: Goddess of Universal Health 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine The formula: Production of Lapis infernalis in the laboratory : The chemical silver nitrate (argentum nitricum) AgNO3 is made by dissolving silver in concentrated nitric acid:3Ag + 4HNO3 -> 3AgNO3 + 2H2O + NO. Resulting nitric oxide (NO) becomes reddish-brown, toxic and sharp pungent-smelling nitrogen dioxide (NO2) on contact with air. The metal silver is associated with the moon, hence the name lunar caustic. Alchemists often refine lapis infernalis  by repeated distillation and purification. 5 Waters of Ancient Alchemy: Aqua Caustic Zodiac Alchemy - Metals & Planets How to Make Asem: Essential Alchemy Ancient Method of Making Lunar Caustic The first documented production of silver nitrate dates back to ancient methods of extraction and preparation. To produce lunar caustic, silver is first dissolved in nitric acid. Dissolution : Pieces of silver are added to a container of concentrated nitric acid. The acids react with the metals, causing formation of silver nitrate. Crystallization : As the reaction begins, brown nitrogen dioxide gas is released. Once the reaction is complete, the solution is filtered to remove unreacted materials. The resulting aqueous solution is then concentrated through evaporation. The white crystals can be collected and stored for various applications. Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy Ancient Egypt Remedies: Ebers Papyrus Natron - Ancient Embalming & Household Salts Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries power phones, laptops, electric vehicles, satellites and spacecraft. Rechargeable energy storage devices, Li-ion batteries are characterized by movement of lithium ions. Solar Panels & Batteries in Space How Solar Panels Work Lithium (Li): Science, Health & Uses The ions move between two electrodes: the anode and the cathode. The anode is usually graphite and the cathode is made of lithium metal oxides. A separator prevents short circuits. An electrolyte solution helps ions move. Discharging (Powering a Device): When a device is powered on, lithium ions travel from the anode through the electrolyte to the cathode. At the same time, electrons flow through an external circuit giving energy to the device. Zinc (Zn): Technology, Nature & Health CubeSats: Science, Technology & Risky Business Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back Charging: When the battery is charging, the reverse happens. An external power source forces lithium ions to move from the cathode back to the anode, storing energy for later use. The type of materials used for the electrodes and electrolyte affect the battery's performance, including how much energy it can store (energy density); lifespan and safety. A lithium ion battery lasts 2-3 or 300-500 charges, whichever comes first. Building Robots: Elastomers, Metals & Plastics Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials Drone Warfare: Unmanned Combat Vehicles lithium Lithium-ion batteries need careful handling due to safety concerns. One problem is thermal runaway. A battery overheats and can ignite as lithium is highly flammable. Manufacturers incorporate safety mechanisms. These include thermal fuses, temperature sensors, and specific battery management systems to monitor charge levels and temperature. Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology Pharos Lighthouse: Ancient Wonder of Alexandria Nucleic Acids: Nature, Environment & Health Li-ion Batteries in Space Extreme Temperatures: In space, temperatures can fluctuate wildly depending on exposure to sunlight or shadow. Batteries must be able to operate reliably in both extremely cold and hot conditions. Specialized thermal management systems, including heaters and radiators, are used to maintain optimal operating temperatures. Cold slows chemical reactions within the battery and high temperatures can accelerate aging. Cell Communication in Living Organisms Difference Between Oxidation & Fermentation Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Proba lithium ion aerospace battery Vacuum: The vacuum of space can cause outgassing in components of cadmium, magnesium or zinc, potentially contaminating sensitive equipment or degrading battery performance. Materials with low outgassing properties like stainless steel can be used. Radiation: Space is filled with ionizing radiation. It degrades battery materials and electronics over time. Radiation generates radicals in organic components and defects in inorganic ones. Electrum: Metal of Money & Myth Myanmar (Burma): Beauty & Brutality Nickel (Ni): Metallurgy Facts & Folklore Radiation-hardened components and shielding are used to protect batteries from radiation damage. Components include redundant circuits and error correction systems to improve reliability in environments with high radiation levels. Weight and Size: Every gram launched into space adds to the mission cost. Maximizing energy density while minimizing weight and size is paramount. Reliability: In space, r eliability is crucial. Lithium-ion batteries power spacecraft, satellites, and rovers. Missions can last years without an opportunity to recharge. Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Calcium (Ca): Earth Metal of Structure & Strength Science of Onion Tears: Demystifying Acids Mars Rover Curiosity selfie Mars Rovers like Perserverance and Curiosity use lithium-ion batteries to store energy from solar panels. The batteries endure the extreme Martian climate, where night temperatures drop to -62 °C -80°F. One reason for the popularity of lithium-ion batteries is their impressive energy density. While nickel-cadmium batteries offer around 50-150 Wh/kg, lithium-ion batteries surpass 250 Wh/kg. This means lithium-ion batteries can store more energy in a smaller space. They also have a low self-discharge rate of about 2-5% per month. They hold onto their charge longer than many battery types when not in use. How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health Russo-Ukrainian War: Motives, Propaganda & Technology Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Early prehistoric use of gold is for religious purposes, ornament or decor. In 1500 BCE, Thutmose of Egypt decrees gold to be used for commerce and financial transactions. Gold becomes a sign of wealth and suddenly everyone wants it. Myth & Metallurgy - Metals of Antiquity Chrysopoeia - Turning Lead into Gold Silver - Queen of Precious Metals Gold Currency, golden coins from various countries The earliest example of gold work and plating comes from the cemetery or Necropolis of Varna dated c. 4550 - 4450 BC. Varna is on the western shore of the Black Sea in Bulgaria. The Varna Necropolis, or city of the dead, contains 294 graves. The oldest gold treasure and jewelry in the world is discovered at Varna, dating to c. 4600 - 4200 BCE. Finds in grave sites show a detailed understanding of metallurgy through copper and gold ornaments. Chloroauric Acid: Gold Salts & Extraction Rosemary: Immortal Essence & Balm of Kings Johann Glauber: Fulminating Gold & Sodium Sulfate Gold, grave goods and skeleton of Varna Necropolis c. 4600 - 4200 BCE (credit: Mark Ahsmann) Above, the gold looks new while copper objects are covered in green verdigris . In the ancient centuries, gold is valued for its beauty and sunny gleam. Resistant to tarnish, it's considered a noble metal. Gold is as ancient as the Gods. It's produced in supernova nucleosynthesis, or the creation of new atomic nuclei, and from neutron star collisions. This alluring metal is already present in the dust which forms the solar system c. 4.5 billion years ago. The Proto-Indo-European world for gold comes from h₂é-h₂us-o-,  meaning "to glow'. It's the same root as the word for Dawn . Gold is associated with the Sun and sunlight, daytime, positive forward energy, power, wealth, warmth, honor and greatness. Electrum: Metal of Money & Myth Baltic Amber - Gold of the North What is the Philosopher's Stone? Death mask of Psusennes I (1047 - 1001 BCE) often falsely attributed to tomb of Tut In 1500 BCE, Pharaoh Thutmose of Egypt declares gold to be valuable commercially. He has a direct line through Nubia to vast quantities. Gold is among the seven Metals of Antiquity . The first minted gold coins come from Lydia c. 600 BCE in today's Turkey. Too soft for making tools or blades, 24k gold has a Mohs hardness of 2.5. Glass is about 6. Gold is malleable at room temperature. It's easy to hammer into thin flat sheets or gold leaf, used to seal or decorate other wares. Lammašaga: Sumerian Angel Goddess Metal Smelting & Metallurgy in the Ancient World Nigella Sativa: Black Seed of Healers Gold flakes or gold leaf In some cases silver is mixed with the gold, occurring in nature as electrum . Gold is normally smelted to remove silver. Advances in alchemy and metallurgy in ancient Varna include gold paint used as coating for pottery. Gold often occurs in its native state as nuggets or grains. It's also found in rocks, veins and alluvial deposits. Pyrite or fool's gold may be found nearby. Verdigris: Volatile Blue Green Pigment Orpiment - Painter's Golden Poison Elderberry Tree: Germanic Nature Lore Pyrite, or fool's gold Gold forms natural alloys with other metals like copper and palladium, and mineral inclusions such as in pyrite. On Earth, gold is found in rock ores of the Precambrian time on. In natural state gold usually has silver content of 8-10%. Electrum is more than 20% silver. Black sands like those of Iceland are famous for harboring gold. Placer deposits are often found near black sands. Black sand indicates mineral rich deposits, not always gold. Due to superheated volcanic activity gems such as sapphire, ruby and garnet sometimes form. Nature Spirits of German Mythology Copper - Ruddy Metal of Myth & Magic Sun Goddesses of World Mythology Anglo-Saxon sword hilt fitting, gold and red garnet A human being contains about 0.2 mg of gold. It's essential for joint health and conveying electric pulses. In alchemy, chrysopoeia (lit. gold-smithing ) is applied to the process of turning base metals like lead into gold. Resistant to most acids, gold dissolves in aqua regia (a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid). Nitric acid alone won't affect gold, though it destroys silver and other metals. Cassiterite - Tin Source of Ancients Lapis Lazuli: Vibrant Blue Gem of Ancients Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy Renaissance alchemist Due to rampant forgery especially in France, the Avignon Pope John XXII bans falsification of gold in 1317 AD. Henry IV of England follows in 1404 by banning multiplication of real gold, and the creation of gold from lead or anything else, including thin air. Multiplication often involves adding other metals to the gold. This comes from Alexandrian alchemy in the 1st and later centuries AD, in which a metal is considered to be "doubled" (diplosis) if the end product assumes the look and feel of the original metal. Alchemy and the Art of Gold-Making Diplosis: Gold Doubling & Multiplication in Alchemy Ancient Traders & Buyers: Art of Testing Metals In need of war funds, Henry of England's successor, Henry VI, begins to issue special licenses to alchemists. This is meant to differentiate legitimate alchemy from fraud as well as enrich the coffers. In modern times lead has been turned to gold, with use of particle accelerator. A massive amount of material is needed to gain a tiny amount of gold . 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Silver is a precious and magical metal. In common culture silver appears before 5000 BCE. One of the seven metals of antiquity , silver is known to prehistoric humans. In raw form silver is rare. It's most often created from the refining process of copper and other metals. Myth & Metallurgy - Metals of Antiquity Copper - Ruddy Metal of Myth & Magic German Folklore - Irrwurz or Mad Root Silver - Queen of Precious Metals The word silver comes from the Latin argentum based on the Proto-Indo-European h₂erǵ meaning 'shiny, white'. The Proto-Indo-Europeans occupy the steppes south of the Danube from 4500 BCE, and disperse throughout Europe. Because of its excellent abilities of transferal of heat or electricity silver is commonly used in science, engineering and medicine. Among the metals silver is the most highly reflective, used for the process of silvering for mirrors . Gold - Precious Metal of the Sun Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy Garnets - Gemstones of Blood and Life silver weights from Colchis c. 6th century BCE By c. 2000 BCE silver is being extracted from lead ores. The ore must be heated to high temperatures in an oxygen reduced atmosphere. The metals leave their base rock and form an alloy. Silver can be further refined with chemical processes. Silver is popular with for alchemists. As one of the noble metals silver is sometimes a subject of transmutation experiments. The process of silversmithing is argyropoeia , used to describe the creation of silver from base metals. Yarrow (Achillea) Magic & Medicine Chamomile - Herbology & Folklore Witches & Witchcraft: Ancient World Silver and copper vessels By the rise of the Greek and Roman Empires   silver is already in circulation as coinage. The Greeks extract silver from galena, the natural mineral form of lead, by the 7th century BCE. Silver mines at Laurium lead to the rise of Athens. Large deposits of native silver are found in Mesoamerica. The natural metal is brought to Europe in the 16th century by the Spanish and Portuguese, along with gold, vanilla, corn, tomatoes and chocolate. Women of Alchemy - Mary the Jewess Immortal - Quest for the Elixir of Life Mythical Pagan German Gods & Spirits Silver enjoys popularity as coinage As a malleable metal silver is easily worked with hand tools. Silver jewelry and ornaments are popular exports of Mesopotamia, Crete and Cyprus. The gleaming metal gains widespread popularity as money. Silver is also powerful in magic and spiritual meaning. Its reflective nature makes it an energy enhancer. In alchemy and spirituality silver relates to women and the moon. The alchemic symbol for silver is a crescent moon. Pomegranate - Food of the Ancients Erinyes - Vengeful Women of Ancient Greece Transition Metals in Science and Health Silver relates to the moon, night, harmony, intuition and mystery  A feminine metal, silver brings qualities of intuition, clear dreams, second sight, gentle virtues, inner strength, rest or passivity (as opposed to activity). Silver relates to element Water. This metal can encourage the flow of money and prosperity. It corresponds to inward seeking, peaceful solutions, harmony of opposites. Silver can be used to enhance or encourage these qualities in the self. Because of its mystic, attractive qualities, silver is lucky for romance. Silver also aids clairvoyance and spirit communication. Cleopatra the Alchemist of Alexandria Alchemy: Philosophers' Stone History & Lore Visigoths, King Alaric & the Ruin of Rome Lammasaga, Sumerian protective angel goddess Because of its antiquity, power and beauty, silver is the Queen of Precious Metals. By the Middle Ages the sources dwindle and new mines opened in Europe. A famous source of silver is the Black Forest in southwest Germany. Silver has mystical powers in folklore, such as the American concept of killing a werewolf with a silver bullet. It's the metal most beloved of the creatures of Faerie. House Spirits of Germanic Mythology Nature Spirits of German Mythology Wolpertinger - German Myths & Folklore Winter in the Black Forest Silver is about as plentiful in the Earth's crust as mercury , 0.08 parts / million. It occurs most often in sulfide rocks. Silver rings or coins are considered to carry the spiritual powers of the circle shape. The circle relates to the moon, completeness or wholeness, purity, divine awakening. Circles, like horseshoes, are containers or vessels for magical energies. Ancient Marsh Muse - Rough Horsetail Fertility Rituals - the Sacrificial God Sprites: Ethereal Creatures of Faerie Two Silver Rings - mystic magic of the moon, romance, self-awareness, prosperity The Kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor mints the first coins in c. 600 BCE. They're made of electrum, a natural alloy of silver and gold. Silver comes into common use in 1742. A cutler in Sheffield invents silver plate when spilled molten silver fuses to copper of a knife. The product is known as Sheffield silver. Copper, lead and tin are used extensively as base metals for silver and gold, making the expensive metalware available to the public. 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The earliest people in Scandinavia come up the Volga River in Russia after the last Ice Age about 25,000 years ago. They settle along the coast of the peninsular lands, later moving inland. Jump to: Mythology & Nature Noaidi - Sámi Shaman The Three Worlds Siedis & Storjunkare Sámi Gods and Goddesses Gods of Ugarit c. 1800 - 1200 BCE Sun Goddesses of World Mythology Baltic Ancient Mythology & Folklore Miracle of Northern Lights - Aurora Borealis Western Uralic languages include Sámi, Hungarian, Estonian and Finnish. With migration the spoken word travels to 3000 BCE Scandinavia. There's no one Sámi language, but a group of ten distinct Sámi languages, with six having written parallels. From the Bronze Age of 3300 - 1200 BCE, the Sámi settle the area along the coast of Finnmark, a region in north Norway; and the Kola Peninsula in the extreme northwest of Russia. Other cultures turn an eye toward south and inner Scandinavia. Warrior Queen: Kriemhild of the Burgundians Winter Tales - 4 Novellas Sacrifice of the Male: Temple at Uppsala Scandinavian Landscape - Land of Gods After the 8th century AD the Sámi have contact with Vikings for trade. Mythologies influence each other, with clear overlapping beliefs. Other nomadic cultures also roam the land and bring their lore along. Despite regional differences the basic concepts of nature-based religions prevail. Mythology & Nature Back to Top The Sámi create a complex culture of folklore, history and expression. The northern gods come from timeless beliefs. The basic form of religion is polytheism, the recognition of several deities. The earliest form of a nature religion is Sun worship or the Cult of the Sun. Pretty Poisons: Holly, Yew, Mistletoe German Myth & Folklore: Elves Ashvamedha - Sacred Horse Sacrifice Sami family, 1900 AD The brilliant sphere brings warmth and abundance to the land, and marks the passing of the seasons. With the Moon, the Sun gives light. In the far north, the sun barely peeks above the horizon in winter and never dips below it in summer. During the dark days people can only hope the sun returns and with it, life of the land. The Sámi follow the reindeer herds, migration of fish and seasonal bounty. Sámi religion shares some elements with Norse mythology, from early contacts with Vikings for trade. Stone Age Botai - First Horse People Ancient Cultures: Yamnaya Steppe People Hurrian Bronze Age Gods & Goddesses Norse rock carvings The god Thor is worshipped by the Sámi up to the 18th century. They're last existing people to honor the God of Thunder and Agriculture. Belief varies among tribes, but Sámi religion in general relates to the land, animism and the supernatural. It's characterized by the understanding of personal spirituality and its fusion with daily life, and a strong connection between natural and spiritual realms. German Myth & Folklore: Dwarfs Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper Noaidi - Sámi Shaman Back to Top The noaidi (pl. noaiddit ), or Sámi shaman, is traditional healer and protector. Shamans facilitate ritual communication with the supernatural. They might use drums; Joik, a type of song; Fadno, reed instruments used as musical pipes; chants, sacred objects and fly agaric mushroom . With a couple of exceptions, only men can be noaiddit. Noaiddit are mediators between humans and spirits, protectors of reindeer and healers. The noaidi is able to communicate with the spirit world, there to ask the sacrifice needed by a person for health or hunting. Oldest Cattle Cult 6000 BCE - Arabia Tumulus Culture - Nordic Bronze Age Pharos Lighthouse: Ancient Wonder of Alexandria Fly agaric Sacrifices designed by the noaidi are considered to achieve balance between mortal and immortal worlds. Worship is held in sacred sites such as rock formations, mountains, springs or Siedi (unusually shaped rocks). Petroglyphs and labyrinths also mark spiritual sites. Sámi traditional beliefs and practices commonly emphasize veneration of the dead and animal spirits. The people develop an intricate relationship with the herds of reindeer. Bear worship and sacrifice is also a large part of the cultural religion. Pagan Solstice Fests: Mithras & the Sun Herbology & Lore: Rowan (Mountain Ash) Chicken Soup: Chickens in German Folklore Herd of Reindeer The traditional drum is the most important symbol and tool of the Sámi noaidi. The Shaman can invoke assistance from benevolent spirits and conduct out-of-body travel via the “free soul”. Sámi philosophy distinguishes between the “free soul” and “body soul”. The body soul cannot cross the boundary of life and death or spiritual progression. Common Archetypes & Spiritual Ascension Ḫulbazizi - Ancient Exorcism Ritual Cult of the Bull: Divine Sacrifice In the early 19th century, Swedish minister Lars Levi Laestadius compiles a fragmented picture of Sámi paganism. He writes "But since these noaides through their alleged or real magic skills represented the greatest hindrance for the rapid spread of the faith among the populace, it was natural that they would be hated and persecuted by the priests who saw the noaides as the Devil's instruments." Lusatians - Nordic Bronze Age Cultures Zircon - the Primordial Gemstone Hesperus (Vesper) the Evening Star In the Middle Ages and later years the noaiddit comes under persecution, with many sentenced to death for practicing witchcraft. The Sámi guard the secrets of their religion. This practice promotes fear among the members of the dominant ideology. The shaman is seen as an obstacle to Christian domination. In Scandinavia Christianity has strong influence, spreading from c. 830 AD throughout the lands by the 11th century. Myth & Metallurgy - Metals of Antiquity Amazing Legacy of Alexander von Humboldt Butzemann, Witches & Nyx - Scare 'em Good The Three Worlds Back to Top Sámi cosmology divides the universe into three worlds. The upper world relates to South, warmth, life and the color white. It's the dwelling of the gods. The middle world is like the Norse Midgard. It's the dwelling of humans and it is associated with the color red. The third world is the underworld. It's associated with the color black. It represents the north, cold, and is inhabited by otters, loons, and seals and mythical creatures. Siedis & Storjunkare Back to Top In Northern Scandinavia, sieidis are places with unusual land forms, having strong spiritual significance. Each family or clan makes offerings to the local spirits for blessings of protection and good fortune. House Spirits of Germanic Mythology Der Türst: Dread Huntsman & the Wild Hunt A Viking Christmas Yule The Storjunkare are stones with likeness to a man or an animal. People set the stones up on a mountain top, near a river or lake, in a cave. They're honored with fresh twigs under them in winter, and grass or leaves in summer. The Storjunkare have power over all animals, fish, and birds. They grant luck to those who hunt or fish. Reindeer are offered up to them, and every clan and family has its own hill of sacrifice. Myanmar (Burma): Beauty & Brutality Herbs & Natural Remedies - Ancient Egypt Sirius the Dog Star: Stellar Mythology   Storjunkare Sámi Gods and Goddesses Back to Top Radien ( Radien-attje) rules the heavens and earth. He's known as the Good God. He created grass, leaves, greenery. With his wife Raedieahkka he gave humans their souls. Beaivi is goddess of the sun and mother of human beings. According to scholar Hans Sckanke, the Sami consider the sun "... as a divine being; but the effects and the heat, which they are sensing from the Sun, they say is the daughter of the Sun, which they call Salaneide, and they consider her to have the power to make an end to snow and coldness". Ziu - Ancient Sky God of Germania How Solar Panels Work Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Horagalles is a thunder god figure among some Sámi people. He's a god of the sky, thunder, lightning, rainbows, weather, seas and lakes. He rules over human life, wellbeing and health. He may be depicted with a hammer. Laib Olmai is protector of forests, patron of wild animals and god of the hunt. In the hunter-gatherer culture a fortunate hunt was a necessity, and some people honored him thrice a day to win his favor. Mano, Manna, or Aske - god of the moon Rana Niejta (Rana Niejte) is a Goddess of Fertility and Spring. Rana Niejta blesses the trees and herbs to grow and flourish anew every year. She made the southern mountains turn green, so the reindeer would have enough food. The symbol of Rana Niejta is sometimes the world tree or pillar. It reaches up to the North Star, finding parallels in Finnish mythology. She's often found in a trinity with Sala Niejta " daughter of the Sun ", who can end snow and cold; and Saivo Niejta " daughter of the underworld ". Raedieahkka - wife of Radien-attje. With her husband she created human souls. Agrippina & Son: Poisonous Plots of Rome Belsnickel - German Yule Ghoul Bird Woman Elwetritsch: German Folklore Complete List of Sámi Gods & Goddesses Back to Top Akka - a group of fertility goddesses, including Maderakka, Juksakka and Uksakka Beaivi - goddess of the sun, mother of human beings Bieggagallis - husband of the sun goddess, father of human beings Bieggolmai 'Man of the Winds' - god of the winds Biejjenniejte - goddess of healing and medicine, daughter of the Sun, Beaivi Horagalles - god of thunder Jahbme akka - goddess of the dead; mistress of the underworld & realm of the dead Ipmil 'God' - adopted as native name for the Christian God; also used for Radien-attje Lieaibolmmai - god of the hunt and of adult men Madder-Attje - husband of Maderakka and father of the tribe. While his wife gives newborns their bodies, he gives them their souls. Mano, Manna, or Aske - god of the moon Mubpienålmaj - the god of evil, influenced by the Christian Satan Radien-attje - Creator and high god, the creator of the world and the head divinity. In Sámi religion, he is passive or sleeping and is not often included in religious practice. He created the souls of human beings with his spouse. He was also called Waralden Olmai. Raedieahkka - wife of the high god Radien-attje. She created the souls of human beings with her spouse. Rana Niejta - spring goddess, the daughter of Radien-attje and Raedieahkka. Rana , meaning "green" or by extension "fertile", was a popular name for Sámi girls. Radien-pardne - the son of Radien-attje and Raedieahkka. He acts as the proxy of his passive father, performing his tasks and carrying out his will. Ruohtta - god of sickness and death. He was depicted riding a horse. Stallo - feared cannibal giants of the wilderness Tjaetsieålmaj - "the man of water", god of water, lakes and fishing Baltic Amber in Folklore and Myth Enuma Elish: Marduk & the Chaos Monsters Tiamat - Queen of Chaos & the Sea herring - a favorite Sami food fish Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Particularly solar panels and batteries help provide reliable power for spacecraft and satellites. Without terrestrial resources, space missions depend on the synergy of solar panels and batteries. How Solar Panels Work Lithium (Li): Science, Health & Uses Russo-Ukrainian War: Motives, Propaganda & Technology These technologies, refined over decades, are essential to human activities beyond Earth. During sunlight hours, solar panels gather energy and convert it into electricity. The electricity powers the spacecraft and charges the onboard batteries. When spacecraft lack direct sunlight, batteries take over, providing power to systems such as communications, life support and scientific instruments. This interaction allows continuous operation, even in challenging space environments. Efficient monitoring systems manage energy acquisition and storage, so the spacecraft are not susceptible to power shortages. Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities CubeSats: Science, Technology & Risky Business Building Robots: Elastomers, Metals & Plastics Solar Panels Solar panels, also known as photovoltaic (PV) panels, are the primary energy recipients in space. They use the photovoltaic effect, whereby sunlight directly generates electricity. Photons and Semiconductors: Solar panels are composed of layers of semiconductor materials, typically silicon. When light particles or photons from the sun strike the panel, they dislodge electrons from silicon atoms. Creating an Electric Field: A specially designed "PN junction" within the silicon creates an electric field. This field forces freed electrons to flow in a certain direction. Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back Drone Warfare: Unmanned Combat Vehicles Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials Generating Electricity: This directed flow of electrons constitutes an electric current. This current is then channeled through circuits and converted into usable electrical power. Space-based solar panels differ from those on Earth. Lightweight and Durable: Weight is a major factor in space travel, and the panels must withstand the harsh conditions of orbit, including extreme temperatures, radiation, and micrometeoroid impacts. Highly Efficient: Due to the cost and complexity of launching materials into space, it's important to maximize energy generation from each pane. Deployable: Many spacecraft use folded solar arrays, which expand once in orbit, maximizing surface area for sunlight capture. Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology Oxidation: Metabolism & Molecular Action How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts In space there is no atmosphere to filter sunlight. Solar panels can receive a consistent and uninterrupted source of energy. On the International Space Station (ISS) solar panels generate about 75 kilowatts of power daily. Solar panels are built to endure extreme temperatures. These range from -157°C (-250°F) at night to 121°C (250°F) in direct sunlight. Batteries While solar panels generate power best in direct sunlight, spacecraft often experience periods of darkness, whether orbiting behind a planet or crossing into shadow. Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Batteries are energy storage devices, accumulating electricity generated by solar panels, to release it when the panels are not generating power. Considerations for space batteries include: High Energy Density: Space batteries need to store a significant amount of energy relative to their weight and volume. Long Lifespan and Reliability: Space missions can last for years, even decades, and battery failure can be catastrophic. Robust design, testing and feedback are emphasized. Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Zinc (Zn): Technology, Nature & Health Seven Trace Minerals: Nature's Little Helpers Radiation Resistance: Space is a harsh environment, and batteries must be able to withstand the constant bombardment of radiation. Rechargeability: Space batteries are typically rechargeable to allow for sustained operation throughout the mission. Common battery technologies used in space include Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) Batteries: Reliable with an established track record in space applications. Nickel-Hydrogen (NiH2) Batteries: NiH2 batteries have a longer lifespan and higher energy density than NiCd batteries. Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) Batteries: Increasingly prevalent due to high energy density and lightweight nature. Thermal management and potential flammability can be problems. Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure NASA launch Solar Panels and Batteries Working Together A typical spacecraft power system works like this: Solar panels generate electricity from sunlight. A charge controller regulates the flow of electricity from the solar panels. It prevents overcharging the batteries and ensures they are charged efficiently. Batteries store excess energy. This stored energy provides power during periods of darkness or when the energy demand exceeds the panel's output. A power distribution unit (PDU) distributes the electrical power to various spacecraft subsystems, such as communication equipment, scientific instruments, and propulsion systems. The integration of solar panels and batteries brings numerous advantages to space exploration: Sustainability: Solar energy is renewable, meaning it can power missions for extended periods without fuel resupply. Ammonium (NH+4): Nitrogen Needs of Plants Pasteurization: Microbial Dominance & Destruction Song of the Loreley - Lethal Attraction Proba lithium ion batter (European Space Agency) Cost-Effectiveness: Although the initial cost of solar technology and battery systems is considerable, it greatly reduces fuel transportation costs and maintenance, leading to overall mission affordability. NASA conserves $100 million over two decades by using solar power for some satellite missions. Adaptability: Advances in solar technology continue to improve efficiency rates, which can exceed 20% for some panels. This adaptability supports the design of spacecraft that can endure the unique challenges of various celestial bodies. Environment: Solar panels and batteries have fewer environmental risks than chemical propulsion systems. Silicon (Si): Fueling the Robot Apocalypse Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) Caustic Potash Divine Water: Sulfuric Acid in Alchemy Limits and Challenges Limited Energy Output: The efficiency of solar panels can be limited by their design and orientation. Spacecraft must be engineered to maximize solar capture while accounting for the Sun's angle. Evidence shows that optimal positioning can increase solar efficiency by up to 30%. Radiation Effects: Cosmic radiation can affect both solar panels and batteries over time, leading to potential performance degradation. Ongoing research aims to develop better protective materials to reduce radiation damage. Temperature Extremes: Temperature swings can affect battery chemistry and solar panel performance. Thermal control systems are crucial in maintaining optimal performance under changing conditions. Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment 7 Primary Electrolytes: Essential Ions & Health Magnesium (Mg): Ecology & Human Health Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Apples ripen and fall to undergo earthly decomposition. Transformation from a crisp fruit to disappearance in the soil ecosystem is a process of biochemistry, microbial action, insect activity and cellular breakdown. Why Apples Turn Brown: Science & Nature Apples: Nature, Spirituality & Folklore German Nature Folklore - Fruit Trees An apple grows from a pollinated blossom. During its youth the apple receives nutrients through the tree’s roots and leaves. By the time it's fully ripe, it contains about 10-15% sugar. Before decomposition even begins, the apple undergoes transformation on the tree. The ripening process is driven by the apple's own internal chemistry and cellular processes. Ethyl Acetate: Scent of Flowers, Wine & Fruits Glycolysis: Biochemistry of Holistic Health ATP: Nature of Energy & Vital Functions It includes: Ethylene (C2H4) Production: This gaseous plant hormone triggers a cascade of changes within the apple. An unripe fruit typically contains low levels of ethylene. As the fruit develops, ethylene is generated as a signal to trigger the ripening process. Starch Conversion: Complex starches are broken down into simpler sugars like fructose , glucose , and sucrose . This is why ripe apples taste sweeter than unripe ones. Acid Reduction: The tart acidity of unripe apples diminishes as acids like malic acid are metabolized. Acetic Acid: Food, Health & Science Lactase: Nutrition & the Milk Sugar Enzyme Peracetic Acid: Origin, Reactions, Hazards sucrose, disaccharide of glucose & fructose Cell Wall Degradation: Enzymes degrade the cell walls, particularly pectin, the gelid glue holding cells together. The apple tissue becomes softer and juicier. Pigment Changes: Chlorophyll, the green pigment, breaks down to reveal underlying pigments like carotenoids (yellow, orange) and anthocyanins (red, purple), giving the apple its characteristic adult color. Carotenoids and produce the orange pigment of carrots. Anthocyanins create the deep blue of blueberries. Pheromones in Microbes, Plants & Animals Phytochemicals: Natural Chemicals of Plants Tartrate Crystals: Secrets of Tartaric Acid blueberries Aroma Development: Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are synthesized, enhancing the apple's aroma, an alluring signal to attract seed dispersers. Deer, bears, mice, turkeys, raccoons and many songbirds enjoy apples. If chewed, the seeds release amygdalin , a bitter cyanide compound. Larger consumers enjoy the sweet flesh and swallow seeds without biting, having learned from taste experience. The seeds pass undamaged through the animal's digestive tract to be deposited on fertile ground. Flavonoids: Sensory Compounds of Nature Esters: Nature's Fragrance & Flavor Makers Amygdalin: Bitter Almonds & the Cyanogenic Compound The Fall and Initial Breakdown The apple consists of many cells held together by cell walls, packed with organic compounds. When it hits ground, cells are broken and damaged. This triggers the release of enzymes and plant chemicals. The apple's physical integrity is compromised. Bruises, breaks in the skin, and exposure to elements create entry points for the elements of decomposition. Oxidation: Exposed apple flesh immediately undergoes oxidation, leading to browning . This is due to enzymes like polyphenol oxidase reacting with phenolic compounds in the apple tissue. Difference Between Pickling & Fermentation Wine God Liber: Liberty & Liberal Libation Practical Alchemy of DIY Perfumes & Aromas Insect Activity: Even before microbes arrive, insects find the fallen apple. Fruit flies ( Drosophila ) are drawn to the sugary scent. They lay their eggs within the fruit. Female fruit flies can lay around 400 eggs, typically in batches of five. Eggs hatch into larvae in only 12 hours. The larvae feast on the apple tissue, facilitating the breakdown by creating entry points for more organisms. Other insects, like ants and wasps, are also attracted to the sugary fluids. Nectar is scarce in fall, and these insects are often buzzing around or climbing on rotting fruit due to its high sugar content. Kombucha: Ancient Brew & DIY Health Tea Sugars D-Galactose & L-Galactose: Nutrition Phenols: Nature's Creations in Daily Life wasp loving a discarded apple Their feeding behaviors form new surfaces microbes can access, increasing overall decomposition speed. Their movement aerates the soil, improving interaction among various decomposer species. This creates an ideal environment for microbes like bacteria and fungi. These decomposers convert stored apple nutrients into forms other organisms can absorb and use. Escherichia coli (E. coli): The Good Bacteria Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Butter - Food of Peasants & Barbarians ants on a trail Bacteria Acetic Acid Bacteria: These bacteria break down sugars, producing acetic acid (vinegar). Pectinolytic Bacteria: These bacteria are crucial for further breaking down pectin, softening the apple tissue. Cellulolytic Bacteria: These bacteria break down cellulose, the main structural component of plant cell walls. Bacteria like Pseudomonas  and Bacillus quickly multiply in the soft tissue, consuming sugars and breaking down the fruit’s cell structure. Some bacteria can double their population in just 20 minutes. Binary Fission: Speedy Microbe Reproduction Black Tea ( Camellia sinensis ): Harvest to Cup Listeria Bacteria: Health and Environment Fungi Molds: These fungi are often the first obvious sign of decomposition, appearing as fuzzy, colored patches on the apple's surface. Common mold species include Penicillium , Aspergillus , and Botrytis . Of the Aspergillus spp. the most common are black Aspergillus , especially A. niger . Other species include A. flavus and A. fumigatus . They secrete enzymes to break down complex carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. Their mycelia infiltrate the apple, where they reduce organic matter and release enzymes to digest cellulose and lignin. German Nature Folklore - Fruit Trees Pectin: Nature's Polysaccharide Gelatin The Microscope: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Aspergillus niger spore head These processes cause visible decay within a few days. At this point the apple takes on a smell noticeable to humans. Yeasts:  These single-celled fungi can ferment sugars. Producing alcohol and carbon dioxide in anaerobic conditions, they also contribute to the apple's characteristic smell of decay. They can ferment aerobically, producing water instead of booze. The microbes work synergistically. Each breaks down different components of apple tissue to release the rich stash of nutrients. Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Fructose (Fruit Sugar): Sweetest Saccharide Cell Communication in Living Organisms Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast Chemical Transformation The deconstruction of the apple tissue includes a series of chemical reactions, driven by enzymes secreted by the microbes. The enzymes are biological catalysts to speed up the decomposition process. Hydrolysis: Many enzymes involved in decomposition are hydrolases. They break down complex molecules by adding water. For example, amylase reduces starch to glucose by adding water molecules. Oxidation and Reduction: These reactions cause the transfer of electrons, important for decomposition of many organic compounds. Difference Between Oxidation & Fermentation Oxidation: Metabolism & Molecular Action Digestive Enzymes: Amylase, Lipase & Protease one rotten apple encourages decay in another The decomposition of an apple catalyzes a response system. The sugars and acids in the apple trigger a series of biochemical reactions. As the fruit decays, fermentation can begin. Fermentation: In anaerobic conditions, some microbes can ferment sugars, producing byproducts like alcohol, lactic acid , and sometimes acetic acid . Acetic acid bacteria like Acetobacter prefer oxygenated environments. That's why artisan apple cider vinegar must be twice-fermented. Yeast works under anaerobic conditions for the first fermentation, then aerobic bacteria turn the ethanol produced by yeast into acetic acid. Enzymes: Marvels of Nature & Human Health SCOBY & Mother of Vinegar: Cultured Cuisine 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life apple cider vinegar In low-oxygen conditions gases like carbon dioxide and methane are released. About 30% of the carbon in decaying organic matter is emitted as carbon dioxide, ideally absorbed by plants and algae. As decomposition progresses, volatile compounds are released, further contributing to the smell. This scent attracts more decomposers, accelerating breakdown process and facilitating nutrient release. Tannins: Complex Astringents of Nature Rosemary: Immortal Essence & Balm of Kings Irrwurz or Mad Root: German Folklore Return to the Earth: Humification and Nutrient Cycling As decomposition progresses, the apple gradually loses its structure and becomes a dark, amorphous material. This process of humification breaks complex organic molecules into more stable substances such as humus. Humus: Humus is a mix of organic compounds contributing to soil fertility and structure. It improves water retention, provides nutrients for plants, and supports a healthy soil ecosystem. Nutrient Release: As the apple decomposes, nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are released into the surrounding soil. These nutrients become available to plants including the mother tree. Seven Trace Minerals: Nature's Little Helpers Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment Microbes transform complex organic molecules into simpler forms plants can easily absorb. This ecological activity defines healthy ecosystems, supporting local flora and sustaining the broader food web. The microbial community continues its work, decomposing the remaining material into humus. This nutrient-rich substance blends into the soil, ready to nurture new organisms and continue the cycle of life. Rot & Decay: Process of Organic Putrefaction Phosphorus: Element of Fatal Fascination ATP: Nature of Energy & Vital Functions fertile soil - one gram contains millions of microbes Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Metalloproteins are biomolecules containing metal ions. From transporting oxygen and cell signals to catalyzing chemical reactions, metalloproteins are essential in the biochemistry of nature and health. Homeostasis: Internal Balance of the Body Five Major Proteins of Nature & Human Health Transition Metals in Science and Health Found in all life forms, including plants, animals, bacteria and archaea , metalloproteins are proteins with one or more metal ions. The ion, bound in the protein's three-dimensional architecture, is an influential cofactor. It participates in chemical reactions or affects the protein's shape and activity. Metals used are countless, with iron, copper , zinc , magnesium , manganese, molybdenum , cobalt and nickel among the most common. Each metal has unique chemical properties aligned to the diverse functions of metalloproteins. Metalloproteins can be classified into categories such as hemoproteins, with heme groups, cuproproteins which contain copper. Electrolytes: Vital Minerals of Human & Environmental Health Seven Trace Minerals: Nature's Little Helpers Zinc (Zn): Technology, Nature & Health copper nugget, about 4mm wide Heme, or haem, is a ring-shaped iron-containing molecular component of hemoglobin, necessary to bind oxygen in the bloodstream. Copper helps make hemoglobin, fortifies immune system and maintains nerve cell health. Metals have many advantages in biochemistry. Their ability to readily accept or donate electrons enables oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions, fundamental for energy production and other metabolic processes. As Lewis acids or pH acids, metals catalyze reactions by coordinating with and activating substrate molecules. The metal ion's charge and coordination geometry are refined by the surrounding protein. Nickel (Ni): Metallurgy Facts & Folklore Sustainable Gardening: Compost & Old Beer Magnesium (Mg): Ecology & Human Health Redox: oxidation gives electrons, and reduction takes them Health and Disease Malfunction or imbalances in metal homeostasis cause a range of health problems. Iron: Iron deficiency anemia, caused by insufficient ferritin, an iron storage protein, is a common health problem. Iron overload, or hemochromatosis, can damage organs due to accumulation of iron-rich proteins. Copper: Wilson's disease, a genetic disorder affecting copper metabolism, causes toxic accumulation of copper in the liver, brain, and other organs. Menkes disease arises from poor copper absorption. Copper (Cu) Effects on Human & Plant Health Vermicompost: Composting with Worms Scheele's Green: History's Most Toxic Pigment Liver & surrounding organs Zinc: Zinc deficiency can impair immune function, wound healing, and cognitive development. Molybdenum: Molybdenum cofactor deficiency is a rare genetic disorder. It disrupts activity of several molybdenum-dependent enzymes, causing neurological dysfunction. Molybdenum (Mo): Ecology & Human Health Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment molybdenum fragment & cube Functions of Metalloproteins The functions of metalloprotein are countless. A few examples are: Oxygen Transport: Hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein found in red blood cells, transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. Myoglobin, a similar protein in muscle tissue, stores oxygen for energy production. Electron Transfer: Cytochromes, containing heme groups with iron, play essential roles in the electron transport chain in mitochondria of cells. They facilitate the transfer of electrons, generating energy in the form of ATP . Potash: Agriculture, Plant & Garden Health Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Calcium (Ca): Earth Metal of Structure & Strength myoglobin stores oxygen in muscles Catalysis: Enzymes known as metalloenzymes rely on metal ions to catalyze reactions. Carbonic anhydrase, containing zinc, accelerates conversion of carbon dioxide to bicarbonate, necessary for respiration and pH regulation. Nitrogenase, containing iron and molybdenum, is responsible for nitrogen fixation, converting atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia . Plants can't take up nitrogen as is, thus need this conversion to get vital nutrients. Antioxidant Defense: Superoxide dismutase (SOD), containing copper, zinc, manganese, or iron, protects cells from damaging free radicals by converting superoxide into less harmful substances. Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics The Microscope: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals foods highest in zinc are oysters and beef Signal Transduction: Some metalloproteins are signaling molecules, or regulate activity of other proteins involved in cell communication. Metalloproteins in Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is an example of metalloproteins in action. Chlorophyll-bound metalloproteins convert light energy into chemical energy. The magnesium in chlorophyll absorbs light and helps synthesize glucose. Plants produce oxygen and organic compounds necessary for most life on Earth. Sixty percent of atmospheric oxygen comes from phytoplankton , ancient organisms with similar mechanisms. Cyanobacteria: Nutrients & Bacterial Blooms Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life The Probiotic Yeast: Saccharomyces boulardii phytoplankton live here Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top