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Abundant in native form, sulfur (sulphur) is a mysterious and essential component of natural life. All living things contain sulfur. It has healing applications for skin, mentioned in ancient remedies. Sulfur is also called brimstone ( burning stone ) and is significant to alchemy . Turquoise: Precious Stone of Ancients Baltic Amber - Gold of the North Myth & Metallurgy - Metals of Antiquity The fifth most common element in the Earth, sulfur in natural deposits appears near hot springs and volcanic regions in many parts of the world, especially along the Pacific Ring of Fire. Indonesia, Chile and Japan are top commercial sulfur producers. Elemental sulfur occurs naturally in oceanic salt domes when bacteria interacts with gypsum in the salt . Sulfur also occurs in meteorites. Pyrite or fool's gold is the most abundant sulfide mineral, often found in sulfur regions along with its sister, chalcopyrite . Ancient Deities: Proto Indo European Gods Immortal - Quest for the Elixir of Life Before the Viking Age - Gods of the Sámi The element sulfur can dissolve in water or break into pieces, changing its structure and chemical makeup. Chemists, geologists and alchemists study the mineral in depth. It's used to make black powder explosives, as an insecticide and as sulfuric acid . In ancient times, sulfuric acid is produced by burning of sulfur and saltpeter in a furnace. The resulting gases are then condensed and collected as sulfuric acid. In the 3rd century, the Chinese discover sulfur can be obtained from pyrite. While Chinese Daoists are intrigued by sulfur's combustibility and interactions with specific metals, its initial applications are primarily in traditional Chinese medicine. Flowers of Sulfur (Brimstone): Creation & Uses Niter (Saltpeter): Science of Alchemy Kerotakis: Ancient Alchemical Equipment The Wujing Zongyao of 1044 AD documents different recipes for Chinese black powder, a combination of potassium nitrate (KNO3), charcoal and sulfur. In Europe this formula is discovered by Franciscan friar alchemist Roger Bacon in the 13th century. The beautiful stone lapis lazuli , beloved for jewelry and ornamentation, gets its blue color from molecular sulfur. In conceptual alchemy, sulfur is part of the prima materia or primal matter of all things. Along with mercury and salt, sulfur forms the tria prima or prime three elements of which everything is made. This concept is thought to originate in Islamic alchemy, building on Greek nature philosophy, and is a core principle of medieval and Renaissance alchemy. Lapis Lazuli: Vibrant Blue Gem of Ancients Lapis Lazuli: Creating Ultramarine Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg The alchemical symbol for sulfur is a triangle atop a cross ( 🜍 ), signifying the combustible elements. A separate symbol for brimstone is an older one for sulfur, a double crossed line atop an infinity symbol or lemniscate ( 🜏 ). Metaphysically, from Greek philosophers to Islamic alchemists, sulfur corresponds to qualities like heat, dryness and male principle. In processes, it relates to evaporation, expansion and dissolution. As it seems to rise from fires in the Earth, sulfur has deep underworld connections. Nature Spirits of German Mythology Lelwani - Hittite Underworld Goddess Bronze Age Europe - The Amber Road Because sulfur forms at vents on the Earth's surface, it's associated with the Underworld, Hades or Hell. Bright yellow crystals correspond to the Sun and fire, but also suffering and death. The Christian bible describes hell as having the smell of sulfur. Greek philosopher Pliny the Elder discusses sulfur in his Natural History , saying the best-known source is the island of Melos in the Aegean Sea. It's used in ancient Greece for fumigation, medicine, and bleaching cloth. Mythic Fire Gods - Vulkan of Germania German Myth & Folklore: Dwarfs Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files In Alexandrian alchemy, sulfur and quicksilver (mercury) are vital components. Sulfur melts red and has a blue flame. However mercury takes the central place in alchemical Alexandria , as it's prominent in the work of Mary the Jewess , based on that of early Greek philosophers. Mercury (Hg) and sulfur (S) form cinnabar (HgS), one of the most toxic rocks in the known world. It's especially notorious for the mines at Almadén , Spain during Roman times. The beautiful red pigment vermillion in ancient times is ground cinnabar. In medieval alchemy sulfur equates to the soul ( anima ) and is part of the tria prima in the 16th century. Sulfur has a twofold nature, relating to life and death, creation and destruction. White sulfur is the hidden fire, divine spark in humans, purification and the secret of the philosopher's stone . Living Metals & Genders in Ancient Alchemy Soul Perspectives: Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle As academic alchemy develops further into spiritual or esoteric cycles, sulfur comes to be equated with the Red King , as mercury is with the White Queen. Layer upon layer of meanings arise. These are as significant as you want them to be. Sulfur is popular in natural health. As ointment, sulfur is used in traditional medicine to treat skin ailments such as: scabies ringworm psoriasis eczema acne Inhaling sulfur fumes can cause severe respiratory problems, burning eyes and throat, allergic reaction. Toxic reaction due to accidental inhalation of sulfur fumes is rare outside sulfur mining environments, but beware of unusual symptoms. Alchemy: Science, Philosophy, Magic Divine Twins: Germanic & Greek Mythology Folk Magic: Fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria) Hot sulfur springs are said to be beneficial to the skin and overall well-being. Sometimes the smell is off-putting. The smell of sulfur on the breath, a rotten egg stink caused by sulfur bacteria , can signify a further health problem such as ulcerative colitis. In early times people toss coins of silver or copper into a water source to make a wish from the guardian spirit(s) of a well, pool or stream. Both metals are naturally anti-bacterial and help freshen the water and get rid of the smell. This is the origin of the wishing well. Germanic Mythology - Brook Horses Secret Lives of Sulfuric Acid-Eating Bacteria Human Methane: Meet the Microbes of Flatulence The natural chemicals of copper or silver act against the bacteria causing the rotten egg smell of sulfur. In Europe, inhabitants of the water, nixies , are said to grant wishes or give luck in exchange for an offering of copper or silver. At first the foremost sulfur production is in Sicily. The horrific conditions at the Sicilian sulfur mines influence Booker T. Washington to write in 1912: "I am not prepared just now to say to what extent I believe in a physical hell in the next world, but a sulfur mine in Sicily is about the nearest thing to hell that I expect to see in this life." Kur - Underworld of Mesopotamia Curse of the Evil Eye & Apotropaic Magic Erra - Plague Demon of Mesopotamia Today the largest quantity of sulfur is made from petroleum and natural gas, with a few mines in operation. Overall conditions may be better, but harvesting sulfur is done by hand on steep steaming slopes of venting gas. In ancient Sicily, workers climb through hot narrow tunnels which can go a mile (1.6 km) underground. Conditions are horrendous in early mines of all kinds, and child labor is often used due to narrow tunnels. Today the sulfur specimens from the Sicilian mines are most highly prized for quality by collectors. Ugarit - Trade Hub of Bronze Age Syria Arsenic: Murderous Metal & Miracle Cure Nature Spirits of German Mythology In spirituality, the yellow gemstone, sulfur relates to joy, hope, creativity, spiritual awareness, insight or enlightenment. As a chakra stone, sulfur is conducive to opening up the sacral and solar plexus chakras, which rule creativity and emotions. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Chalcopyrite (CuFeS₂) is vital to the earth's geology. A primary ore of copper, this scintillating mineral is influential to health, economy, science and industry. Here are the basics on chalcopyrite, its formation, uses, importance as a copper ore and several fascinating facts. Copper (Cu) Effects on Human & Plant Health Copper(II) Sulfate: Blue Vitriol, Chalcanthite Glycerin (Glycerol): Darling of Cosmetics, Health & Science Chalcopyrite or copper iron sulfide is a crystalline mineral recognized for its striking brass-yellow hue. While often categorized in the tetragonal crystal system, it is primarily found in massive forms. As the most important copper-bearing mineral, chalcopyrite is extensively mined. Chalcopyrite yields about 50% copper, and supplies 70% of the world's needs. The name "chalcopyrite" is derived from the Greek words chalkós , or copper, and pyrítis , stone or flint. Chalcopyrite is often found in igneous and metamorphic rocks, the product of vast heat and upheaval. Commonly associated with other copper ores, like bornite and malachite, it occurs in hydrothermal veins and is disseminated in volcanic rocks. Lye (NaOH): Caustic Soda for Soap & Glass Metal Salts: Ancient History to Modern DIY Divine Water: Sulfuric Acid in Alchemy The formation of chalcopyrite happens through a series of geological processes. From molten lava it crystallizes at temperatures high enough to combine copper and iron ions with sulfur. It's often found with other sulfides like pyrite (FeS₂), sphalerite (ZnS), and other copper ores. Chalcopyrite can also form during hydrothermal processes as copper-rich fluids migrate through rocks and deposit minerals as they cool. This lustrous creation can be found in several significant mining regions worldwide, including: The Andes Mountain Range in South America: Home to major copper mines, this region produces a significant percentage of the global copper supply. The Copperbelt Region in Central Africa: This area is also rich in minerals, contributing to the local economy through mining. The Rocky Mountains in North America: Known for its diverse geological formations, the Rocky Mountains host various chalcopyrite deposits. The presence of chalcopyrite in these regions is crucial for local economies, especially in the mining sector. Speaking for the Rockies, tourists like it too. Hair Loss: 9 Natural Cures of Physician Dioscorides Almadén Mines: Ancient Mercury Extraction Ancient Traders & Buyers: Art of Testing Metals Properties of Chalcopyrite Color and Luster: Chalcopyrite is typically bright brass-yellow, resembling the color of gold, which sometimes leads to it being mistaken for gold. Its metallic luster gives it an overall appealing appearance, possibly with some tarnish. Hardness: On the Mohs scale, chalcopyrite ranks between 3.5 and 4, making it relatively softer than many other minerals. Cleavage and Fracture : Chalcopyrite exhibits poor cleavage but shows a conchoidal fracture when broken. Density: With a density of around 4.2 g/cm³, chalcopyrite can be distinguished from lighter minerals. Crystal System: Crystallizing in the tetragonal system, it usually forms tetrahedral shapes or massive aggregates. Conductivity: Chalcopyrite is a semiconductor and is explored for its potential use in electrical applications. Chemical Behavior : Chalcopyrite is susceptible to oxidation and alterations, leading to the formation of secondary minerals like chalcocite (Cu₂S) and bornite (Cu₅FeS₴), which may further influence its importance as an ore. These unique properties not only aid in identifying chalcopyrite but also broaden its application in industries like metallurgy and electronics. Copper (Cu): Ruddy Metal of Myth & Magic Sulfur - Treasures of the Underworld Mad Hatter's Disease: Mercury Madness Health Mining impacts environmental health and upsets the natural ecology. Toxic chemicals can escape through the ground or via waste water. In personal health, chalcopyrite is made of three elements important to medicine: copper, sulfur and iron. Properly processed it can used as a nutritional supplement if these factors are lacking in a patient's diet. Primary Ore of Copper As the primary ore of copper, chalcopyrite is instrumental in meeting global copper demands. When processed, it produces both copper and sulfuric acid, which is used in industry such as electric car batteries. Chalcopyrite accounts for the majority of copper production worldwide. About 70-80% of the world’s copper is extracted from chalcopyrite. The mining process involves crushing and grinding the ore, followed by concentration through flotation techniques, which separate chalcopyrite from unwanted minerals. Roasting and smelting processes yield copper metal and sulfur dioxide, which can be turned into sulfuric acid for fertilizer production. Around 80% of the world’s sulfuric acid comes from copper smelting processes. Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Yarrow (Achillea) Magic & Medicine Vorticella: Mysterious Microscopic Pond Life Demand for copper today is high, especially with its uses in construction, electronics, and renewable energy technologies. Chalcopyrite in copper production has strong economic significance as global demand is expected to increase by over 25% in the next decade. The extracted copper is essential for applications including electrical wiring, plumbing and production of alloys. Its excellent conductivity, malleability, and resistance to corrosion make copper a highly sought-after metal in modern industries. Other Uses In addition to being a vital copper source, chalcopyrite has several other notable applications: As a Semiconductor: Its electrical properties make chalcopyrite an interesting material for research in solar cell technology, potentially contributing to more efficient photovoltaic systems. In Jewelry Making: The mineral's appealing golden hue has led to its use in artisanal jewelry-making, although its value is lower than that of genuine gold. In Educational Settings: Chalcopyrite is often used as a teaching specimen, providing geology and mineralogy students with firsthand experience to explore its properties. Pigments : The bright yellow color of chalcopyrite can be leveraged to produce pigments for paints, coatings, and plastics. Geothermic Energy : Chalcopyrite deposits can be found in geothermal energy systems, where heat from the earth can be used for energy production. Research and Education : Chalcopyrite is an important subject of study for geologists and mineralogists for understanding of mineral formation processes and geochemical cycles. Fungal Biofilms: Ecology of Biofilm-Producing Molds Science of Onion Tears: Demystifying Acids Cupriavidus metallidurans : Metal Eating Gold Making Bacterium Facts About Chalcopyrite Historical Significance: The term "chalcopyrite" is derived from Greek words for copper and stone, illustrating its long-standing importance and usage. Color Variability: Chalcopyrite can show various colors due to oxidation, ranging from bronze to green.   Common Alterations : Chalcopyrite often alters to other minerals, such as malachite and azurite, through natural weathering processes involving oxygen and carbon dioxide. Environmental Impact: Mining for chalcopyrite can cause environmental issues, such as habitat destruction and pollution. Implementing responsible mining practices is essential to mitigate these effects. Optical Properties: Studies of chalcopyrite in mineral optics have revealed unique properties, making it a subject of academic interest. Symbolism: Some cultures view chalcopyrite as a mineral with healing properties, often incorporated into crystal healing practices. Historical Use : Ancient civilizations recognized chalcopyrite's copper content, using it in the production of tools and artifacts thousands of years ago. Formation Conditions : The formation of chalcopyrite typically occurs at temperatures between 200°C and 450°C, making it indicative of high-temperature hydrothermal systems. Environmental Impact : While chalcopyrite is vital for copper production, the mining and processing of this mineral raise environmental concerns, including pollution and habitat destruction. German Myth & Folklore: Moss People Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files Natural Purple Dyes: Ancient & Medieval Chalcopyrite is a striking mineral and backbone of the copper industry, with vital implications for diverse industrial applications. The growing global demand for copper means extraction and processing of chalcopyrite is crucial for sectors like construction and technology. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Copper (Cu) is one of the original seven metals of antiquity and has been used for thousands of years. This metal is found in the ground or in placer deposits, later smelted from copper ores like chalcopyrite. Copper is widespread in history, health, folklore and sciences. Myth & Metallurgy - Metals of Antiquity Hashamili - Metal Work & Smith God Copper (Cu) Effects on Human & Plant Health Copper is found naturally within the earth's crust in various minerals, such as chalcopyrite, the main copper ore, yielding up to 50% copper; as well as bornite, azurite and malachite. Evidence of copper mining dates to c. 7200 BCE in Anatolia. Early copper ore extraction involves building fire against a rock face and throwing water on the hot surface. Copper ores are pried from the rock face with mauls and hammer stones. Ores are crushed and smelted. Copper has a relatively high melting point of 1085 °C compared to tin at 232 °C and sulfur at 115 °C, but low compared to iron at 1538 °C . As the Bronze Age dawns in Eurasia c. 3300 BCE, copper is in demand. With tin , it's carried as pre-measured ingots, named oxhide due to their shape resembling a stretched hide, on trade networks. Gold - Precious Metal of the Sun Weapons & Warfare of Bronze Age Europe 1 Bronze Age Europe - The Amber Roads Properties of Copper (Cu) Conductivity : One of the best conductors of electricity and heat, making it ideal for electrical wiring. Malleability : It can be easily shaped, allowing for intricate designs in jewelry and art. Antimicrobial : Effective in killing bacteria and viruses upon contact. Malleable and ductile, copper can be shaped into wires or thin sheets. It's a choice material for plumbing, roofing, and other aspects of construction. The formation of its greenish patina verdigris takes up to 30 years but can be hastened with acids. In ancient Rome (after 8th century BCE), the island of Cyprus is noted as a profitable region for mining this warm-toned metal. The English word copper comes from the Roman place name. Copper is one of a few metallic elements with a natural color besides gray or silver. Cassiterite - Tin Source of Ancients Chalcanthite: Crystal Blue Explosion Cyprus: Prehistoric Humans & Pygmy Hippos Metallurgists use copper and zinc make brass, a process discovered by accident. With gold, copper adds a warm reddish tinge, creating a favorite treasure of kings - ruddy gold. From metallurgy comes the art of coloring metals, one of the origins of alchemy. Copper is a favorite metal in alchemy, beginning with Mary the Jewess (Maria Prophetissa) c. 100 AD in Alexandria, Egypt. Mary uses copper in many alchemical alloys and describes the copper in terms of a certain colors progression: black, white, yellow, red. In alchemy from the early years AD to the present, copper is prized in containers, flasks, vessels and retorts. Types of metal used can affect the outcome of the experiment or process. Alchemists also use iron or lead for flasks such as those in digestion. In tradition from the ancient world, ruddy gold or other precious metals are often made into bracelets, chains, amulets or armbands of pre-determined value and worn by a ruler or noble. They're given as a reward, payment or token of friendship. Copper is created in the stars, and also found in Earth's crust. It's responsible for the beautiful blues of turquoise and the greens of malachite. Copper is deposited from hot sulfur solutions of volcanic regions. Concentration of copper is up to 1000x more than found in rocks alone. Uluburun - Bronze Age Shipwreck Saffron - Most Precious Ancient Spice Sulfur - Treasure of the Underworld How Copper is Extracted from Ore Extraction of copper from its ore typically involves two key processes: smelting and electrolysis. Smelting : Sulfide ores are heated in a furnace to separate the copper from the other elements. This process generates liquid copper (matte) and takes advantage of copper's lower melting point. Electrolysis : The crude copper produced is then purified via electrolysis, where an electric current is used to separate pure copper from impurities. Initially, the ore is crushed and ground to isolate the copper minerals from surrounding materials. The ground ore undergoes flotation, where air bubbles are introduced to help the copper minerals rise to the surface, forming a frothy layer. The froth is collected and concentrated before undergoing smelting, which separates metallic copper from other substances. The final step, electrolysis, further purifies the copper, yielding high-grade metal. Scheele's Green: History's Most Toxic Pigment Chlorine (Cl): Properties, Hazards & Uses 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Copper Folklore & Spirituality In natural health, copper is considered to conduct electric impulses or vibrations of positive energy to dispel feelings of apathy, lethargy, passive behavior, nervousness, hyperactivity, and low self-esteem. Copper calms the mind and helps focus prolific or lethargic energy. In folklore, copper is associated with supernatural beings, treasures of the Earth, origins or beginnings. It brings gifts of prosperity, health and prestige. It's a lucky metal for Libra and Taurus zodiac signs. Copper jewelry opens channels of love and realigns sexual imbalance. Ancient Egyptians use copper to sterilize wounds and purify drinking water. They choose the Ankh symbol to represent copper in hieroglyphs. Ankh is the symbol of eternal life. Copper relates to progressive rather than aggressive energy. As a product of Earth and Fire it's a chthonian element linked to linked to creativity, nature magic and passion. Copper can tone down anxiety and impulsive reactions. In ancient and modern lore, copper represents beauty, fertility, desire and sexuality. Early mirrors are made of polished copper or tin. Copper is sacred to the Roman goddess Venus, deity of love, beauty and desire, who is known to use a copper mirror. Caterina Sforza: Renaissance Alchemy Gold-Making of Maria: Tetrasomia Four Metals Electrum: Metal of Money & Myth Copper relates to the home, friends, family and domestic activity. Copper or brass bells are thought to frighten evil spirits. Copper corresponds to the dawn (Aurora) and morning star  Venus. The spiritual meaning of copper includes purification, mental cleansing, chakra balance, healing and dream enhancement. When entertaining, copper harmonizes the mood and makes guests feel welcome. Bronze Age Trade of Mesopotamia Care and Feeding of Your German Kobold Nibelung - Of Heroes & Worms The blood of some crustaceans is copper-based, making it blue. Squid, octopus and some other cephalopods also have blue blood. Humans and most other animals have red iron-based blood. Copper tarnishes on exposure to oxygen and develops a protective greenish patina or verdigris , used as blue-green pigment. Verdigris is the reason copper is considered a base metal; while in some definitions copper is noble, according to its chemical composition. Found naturally in the body, the element copper is necessary for iron uptake. It helps create red blood cells, strengthens the immune system and nerve cells, helps form collagen and has antioxidant properties. Mad Hatter's Disease: Mercury Madness Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Yarrow (Achillea) Magic & Medicine Copper carries the glow of golden  orange and pink, the light of the sun and the earth connection. Copper vessels and pots are enchanting for flowers, home cooking and feelings of friendship and happiness. Uses of Copper: From Ancient History to Modern Day Copper has been used in various forms throughout history: Ancient Tools : From spears to coins, copper laid the foundation for tools used in early societies. Construction : Its durability and resistance to corrosion made it a go-to material for roofing and plumbing. Technology : Today, copper is a critical component in electronics, renewable energy systems like solar panels, and electric vehicles. Renaissance Purgatives & Ancient Remedies Sun Goddesses of World Mythology Limonite: Ancient Earth Pigments Applications of copper evolve dramatically through history. At first copper is used mainly for crafting tools and weapons. It appears in early home decor. As societies progress, copper becomes foundational in architecture and plumbing and in electrical systems. In today’s world, copper is crucial in renewable energy technologies, especially within solar panels and wind turbines. Copper Facts Color : Pure copper has a distinctive reddish-brown color, which turns green when oxidized (as seen in the Statue of Liberty). Recycling : Copper is 100% recyclable without any loss of quality, making it highly sustainable. Recycling uses only 15% of the energy needed to obtain new copper. Biological Role : Copper is involved in forming collagen and elastin, vital for skin health. Copper ranks as the third most utilized metal globally, following iron and aluminum. Chile is the largest copper producer, contributing nearly 30% of overall global production. Thanks to its antimicrobial properties, copper effectively reduces harmful bacteria on countless surfaces. In 18th century Germany, the metal nickel gets its name from copper mines. Nickel, or little Nick, is a mischievous mine Kobold. According to miners he corrupts good copper and refuses to give any back. Germanic Mythology - Brook Horses Queen Eleanor & the Calamitous Crusade Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Copper (Cu) and its warm golden red hue is part of humanity. It's one of the most important metals of alchemy , aids plant health and is an essential element of animal life. Among the earliest metals known, copper is integral to development of civilizations worldwide. Copper: Ruddy Metal of Myth & Magic Copper Ox Hide Ingots - Bronze Age Trade Cornstarch: Cuisine, Beauty, Cleaning Uses Copper is found in the Earth’s crust, often combined with sulfur and oxygen in copper ores. It occurs as sulfides (like chalcopyrite) and oxides (like cuprite). Copper enters the environment through natural geological processes, volcanic activity and weathering of copper minerals. Its ancient applications range from tools and weapons to stunning decorative arts. In alchemy it's a favorite metal of Maria Prophetissa ( Mary the Jewess ) in ancient Alexandria, c. 100 AD. Copper is also one of the seven metals of antiquity . The Copper or Chalcolithic Age in history (c. 4000 - 3000) marks the beginning of ancient civilizations. Copper is soft enough to be hammered into shape, and hard enough to be used for tools, utensils and weapons. Use of copper dates back over 10,000 years. Cypriot Copper & Ancient Cyprus Copper(II) Sulfate: Blue Vitriol, Chalcanthite Glycerin (Glycerol): Darling of Cosmetics, Health & Science Flint objects remain in use through Copper and succeeding Bronze Ages. Copper makes the Bronze Age possible, as bronze is an alloy of copper and tin (c. 88% and 12% respectively). The alloy is harder than pure copper. The technique of smelting and combining metals propels humanity into an unprecedented era of war and progress. Bronze armor and weapons give a hefty advantage. Copper creates tools, coins, decorations, brewing vats, weapons, alloys, feed supplements and more. From ancient to Renaissance alchemy, copper is often a base for creating gold or silver metals. Alchemical equipment is often made of copper. Influence of metals like copper, iron or lead (historically) can affect the processes and results. Science of Alchemy: Simple Distillation Process Women Scientists of the Ancient World 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine Roman advances in copper metallurgy lead to methods still used today. In contemporary times, copper's versatility makes it indispensable in electronics, plumbing, and renewable energy technologies. Copper has anti-microbial properties and is instrumental in the development of the wishing well in folklore. In early tradition, wells or water sources are believed inhabited by nixies or water spirits. Copper and silver coins are tossed into the well because nixies are fond of such shiny things, and bestow luck upon the person. Copper and silver actually kill microbes, especially those causing the " rotten egg " sulfur smell, and help keep the water sweet. Iodine (I): Origin, Properties, Uses & Facts Human Methane: Meet the Microbes of Flatulence White Lead Toxic Beauty, Art, Ancient Production Copper and the Health of Plants Copper is an essential micronutrient for plant growth, important to several biochemical processes. It aids in photosynthesis, respiration, and the synthesis of lignin, a natural polymer crucial for plant structure. In plants, copper is involved in photosynthesis, respiration, and synthesis of lignin, a key structural component. When copper is deficient, plants show specific signs such as stunted growth, wilting, and discolored leaves. Copper-deficient plants can suffer a decrease of up to 50% in photosynthesis rates, leading to reduced crop yields. In adequate amounts, copper enhances enzyme function and boosts plant metabolism. It helps create chlorophyll and improves nutrient absorption. Gouache Painting: Artist Essentials & Art Tips Lactic Acid Bacteria: Nature to Modern Uses Sirius the Dog Star: Stellar Mythology Copper in Fertilizer Copper is often found in fertilizers to ensure crops have the nutrients for optimal prosperity. Copper deficiencies can lead to stunted growth, yellow leaves and poor fruit development. As a micronutrient copper promotes plant vitality and prevents diseases. Farmers use copper sulfate and chelated copper to improve soil nutrient availability. The right amount of copper can increase vegetable yields by 30% in regions with identified copper deficiency. Careful application is critical, as too much copper can spoil vegetation. Farmers evaluate soil to determine need for copper applications. This strategy enables optimal health and productivity for crops. Acknowledging copper's importance for plant health, many fertilizers use copper compounds to ensure plants get enough of this important micronutrient. Food Pathogens: Family Health & Safety Scheele's Green: History's Most Toxic Pigment Red & White Tartar: Wine Salts of Alchemy Copper and Human Health Like plants, humans require copper, albeit in smaller quantities. It's needed to metabolize iron, form connective tissue and keep the immune system healthy. Copper supports various bodily functions, including iron metabolism and the synthesis of neurotransmitters. Copper is naturally found in foods such as nuts, seeds, whole grains, shellfish, and dark leafy greens. However, deficiencies can arise, particularly among individuals with poor diets or certain health conditions. Symptoms of copper deficiency include anemia, weakened immune function, osteoporosis, and neurological problems. A well-balanced copper intake is essential to maintain individual health and vitality. 10 Ancient Spices of Trade, Health & Beauty Foodborne Fungi and Mold: Facts & Dangers Galls & Gall Nuts: Black Ink, Dye, Medicine Copper in Medicine In addition to its dietary necessity, copper has antimicrobial properties in medicine. It is used in medical applications, including sterilization of surfaces and development of medical devices. Copper-infused surfaces can reduce bacteria levels by 90%. Copper-based compounds are also being explored in treatments for certain cancers, showing its promising potential in modern medicine. Copper helps promote joint health and speeds wound healing. In natural health, copper bracelets are considered to help reduce inflammation, though it's not clear how much help they actually are. Copper has the charming ability to turn skin green. This is due to its natural production of verdigris , a protective coating or patina formed by the metal. In the 18th and 19th centuries verdigris is popular with artists as a green-blue pigment. Alchemy: How to Make Emerald from Quartz Molybdochalkos: Nigredo Black Lead of Maria Arsenic Trioxide: Paris Green Paint Pigment & Pesticide Signs of Too Much Copper While copper is vital for health, balance is crucial. Too much of a good thing can be toxic. In Plants: Leaf Discoloration or Scorching : Leaves turn dark brown or have a mottled appearance. Wilting : Wilting or drooping leaves can indicate toxicity. Reduced Growth : Stunted growth and poor yield are common symptoms. Distressed soil might take on a blue-green hue, showcasing the surplus of copper ions. In Humans: Nausea and Vomiting : High levels of copper can lead to gastrointestinal illness. Confusion: more so than usual. Liver Damage : Excessive copper can result in liver dysfunction. Neurological Symptoms : Conditions like Wilson's disease can cause copper accumulation in the body, leading to various neurological issues. In plants and humans since both deficiency and toxicity can cause health problems. Malaria: Roman Fever & Renaissance Plague Anqi Sheng & the Elixir of Immortality Parabalani: Medics & Murderous Mobs Signs of Copper Deficiency In Plants: Stunted Growth : Copper deficiency often leads to inadequate flowering or fruiting. Leaf Abnormalities : Plants may exhibit twisted or malformed leaves. Reduced Photosynthesis : A lack of copper can result in chlorosis (yellowing of leaves due to insufficient chlorophyll). In Humans: Anemia : A lack of copper can contribute to iron deficiency anemia. Fatigue : Low energy levels and fatigue are common symptoms of copper deficiency. Bone Fragility : Insufficient copper can lead to reduced bone density and increased fracture risk. Recognizing copper deficiency is critical. In plants, classic indicators such as yellowing leaves, stunted growth, and wilted tips signal trouble. Specifically, interveinal chlorosis, in which leaves have yellow patches between the veins, is due to a lack of copper. Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides Is Cherry Laurel Poisonous? In humans, deficiencies may manifest as fatigue, high cholesterol levels or heart problems. Neurological symptoms like numbness and tingling can also be present. Regular dietary evaluations can mitigate these deficiencies. Livestock Copper Needs Livestock animals require copper in their diets. It is essential for growth, reproduction, and overall health. However, the required copper levels vary by species. For instance, sheep are particularly sensitive to copper excess, while cattle and pigs may require higher amounts. Like humans, livestock and wild animals need copper for physiological processes. Copper is an essential element for body, bone and wool growth, pigmentation, healthy nerve fibers and white blood cell function. Rotifers (Rotifera): Animalcules Under the Microscope Lahar: Flock & Sheep Pastoral Goddess Rise of Pan: Fertility Goat God Péh₂usōn Livestock, particularly sheep, are especially sensitive to copper levels. Deficiencies can lead to anemia, lower growth rates, and reproductive problems. Providing livestock with a well-balanced diet is vital for health and productivity. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Verdigris is the green rust or patina on copper, created as the metal reacts with oxygen in the environment. Copper corrodes green to blue in varied hues. Verdigris is a collective term for different copper acetate shades. Read: Cult of the Fire God  - Bronze Age Quest Adventure See also: Limonite: Ancient Earth Pigments Ephedra - Oldest Medical Stimulant Herb Nature Spirits of German Mythology Today's Zazzle Specials   Smashwords Books The corrosion of copper by air is a coveted look for statues and roofs including the Canadian Parliament Buildings and American Statue of Liberty. The dome of Temppeliaukio Church in Finland is an impressive example of verdigris. Read: Cult of the Fire God  - Bronze Age Quest Adventure In a view of the Parliament Buildings, Ottawa Canada, verdigris roofs are visible on several structures. The round building at right with brown roof is the Library of Congress. Its copper roof is recently replaced and has not yet achieved the green patina of the others. See also: Spelt Wheat - Bronze Age Grain Crops Black Pigments of Ancient Artisans Queen Eleanor & the Calamitous Crusade Sylvia Rose Books  on Smashwords   Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series   Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries   Sylvia Rose Art  on Zazzle   In Europe the Berlin Cathedral Church (Berliner Dom) and Belvedere Palace, Vienna are famous examples of copper roofs with green patina. As a standardized color verdigris is a pleasant but difficult addition to the palette. Verdigris patina is never a single color. It actively grows and changes. The natural purpose of v erdigris is to create a protective layer over the metal. It prevents further copper degradation. See also: White Pigments of Ancient Artisans Terrazzo Floors & Neolithic Masons Emmer Wheat - First Domestic Crops Today's Zazzle Specials   Smashwords Books Variations of verdigris can be divided into two groups: basic verdigris and neutral or "blue" verdigris.  Difference in color is contingent on the hydration level and degrees of basicity, or how it reacts to acids. Bronze and brass also develop green-blue patinas due to high copper content. Bronze is 88 - 90% copper and 10 - 12% tin. Under natural conditions, copper takes 5 to 30 years to grow mature verdigris. Early pigment makers hasten the process by adding an acid. See also: Red Madder: Organic Ancient Colors Egyptian Blue Faience - Ceramic Glass Lammašaga: Sumerian Angel Goddess Today's Zazzle Specials   Smashwords Books Brass is about 66% copper and 34% zinc, also in various ratios of combination. Either bronze or brass might also contain arsenic or lead. One or both are historically added to copper or copper alloys to strengthen the compound or replace an ingredient such as tin. Verdigris is a toxin described as mild, with poisoning effects including nausea, anemia - and death. Immunity to low levels of verdigris was found in female workers in Montpelier, France. Copper gives rocks like turquoise and malachite their varied blue to green hues. See also: Turquoise: Precious Stone of Ancients Copper: Ruddy Metal of Myth & Magic Before the Viking Age - Gods of the Sámi Today's Zazzle Specials   Smashwords Books Early verdigris producers create copper acetate by treating copper hydroxide with acetic acid . The historical methods used for producing verdigris are recorded in artistic treaties, manuscripts on alchemy, works in natural history, and texts on medicine. Read: Cult of the Fire God  - Bronze Age Quest Adventure The most common ingredients used are copper and vinegar. Another quick way of corroding copper for the verdigris is to pour human, dog or horse urine on the copper. The acids in urine react with the chemical in copper to create the verdigris effect. See also: Mercury (Quicksilver): Miracle Metal of Alchemy Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files Steam & Style - Agrippina of the Rhine Today's Zazzle Specials   Smashwords Books In the Middle Ages (476 - 1450 CE), copper strips are attached to a wooden block with acetic acid. The block is buried in dung. In a few weeks, the block can be unearthed and verdigris scraped off. In pigments, verdigris first appears on the artists' palette c. 1306 CE. Demand for the product rises, with Montpelier, France, a center of industry in the 18th century CE. Climatic conditions support a prosperous production. Most of the verdigris industry is run by women. See also: Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Elderberry Tree: Germanic Nature Lore Pretty Poisons: Holly, Yew, Mistletoe Sylvia Rose Books  on Smashwords   Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series   Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries   Sylvia Rose Art  on Zazzle   The method developed in Montpelier evolves in household cellars. Makers put plates of copper in clay pots and fill the pots with distilled wine. The acid of the grape brings forth crystals on the copper. These develop into verdigris to be scraped off when fully grown. It's a profitable largely home-based business. At least 80% of product is exported through certified female brokers. See also: Jimson Weed, Witches & Zombies Medicine in Ancient Egypt: Ebers Papyrus Wandering Womb - Ancient Medicine Today's Zazzle Specials   Smashwords Books In the early 18th century, the French government enforces inspection systems, ostensibly to address fraudulent practices. By the 20th century, production of verdigris moves on to other centers. Used as pigment since antiquity, verdigris is found in paintings in Rome and Pompeii. As artists' pigment it's popular in the Middle Ages , Renaissance and Baroque periods. See also: Horse in Dreams - Meaning of Horses Gold-of-Pleasure: Bronze Age Crops Figs - Food of the Ancient World Today's Zazzle Specials   Smashwords Books Beloved for its transparency and brilliance, it's a favorite of artists such as Raphael and Botticelli. Its height of artistic use is in the 15th and 16th centuries. However, the color is very unstable. The artists don't know the long-term effects of verdigris in painting. Over time the pigment continues to corrode and change color. Centuries later, the bright blue-greens used by the artists decay into darker more dismal tones, as seen in the robes and angel's wings below. See also: Woad, the People's Blue: Ancient Pigments Eye of Ra Egypt - Wrath of the Woman Romanesque - Magic of Light & Stone Sylvia Rose Books  on Smashwords   Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series   Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries   Sylvia Rose Art  on Zazzle   At the time of the painting it's hard to get strong greens from the pigments available. Renaissance painters seek dynamic brilliant color. Black and yellow make natural greens, blue and yellow create more intense tones. Orpiment produces vivid yellow but as an arsenic sulfide mineral is also toxic. Prussian blue, a brilliant cyanide compound, hasn't yet been invented. It hits the shelves at the beginning of the 18th century. See also: Orpiment - Painter's Golden Poison Striped Hyena - Bronze Age Wild Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Today's Zazzle Specials   Smashwords Books Bernardinus Ramazzini, 18th century doctor from Italy, is the first to suggest illness affecting artists and workers may be lead or pigment poisoning. In his  De Morbis Artificum Diatriba  he writes,  “Of the many painters I have known, almost all I found unhealthy … If we search for the cause of the cachectic and colorless appearance of the painters, as well as the melancholy feelings that they are so often victims of, we should look no further than the harmful nature of the pigments…”   In early Italian, Netherlandish, and German paintings, verdigris yields pure green tones for landscapes and drapery.  Verdigris is also used as a glaze . When verdigris glaze is combined with lead white or lead-tin yellow , it creates a strong saturated green. See also: Ancient Egypt Remedies: Ebers Papyrus Garnets - Gemstones of Blood and Life Weld Yellow: Ancient Nature Pigments Today's Zazzle Specials   Smashwords Books It's in demand as oil-based house paint for French and Dutch country homes. Verdigris is also an ingredient in a type of imitation Chinese varnish on European lacquer ware.  Use of verdigris declines in the 19th century. New colors appear in the painterly palette, such as viridian. A chromium oxide, viridian has such side effects as respiratory inflammation, lung irritation and chronic skin ulcers. Einkorn Wheat - First Domestic Crops Herbology & Lore - Chamomile Kaolinite: White Pigment with Benefits Today's Zazzle Specials   Smashwords Books Another 19th century green embraced by artists is Emerald Green, an enchanting name with a poisonous secret. The color recipe is fiercely guarded. Among other ingredients it's packed with copper and lead. Like many poisons, toxins and venoms, verdigris is used as medicine. Copper itself appears as a treatment in an Egyptian medical text c. 2600 BCE. The text records use of copper to sterilize chest wounds and drinking water. See also: Reiker For Hire, Victorian Era & Nixies Hippomancy: Sacred Horse Divination Broad Beans (Fava) - Bronze Age Crops Sylvia Rose Books  on Smashwords   Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series   Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries   Sylvia Rose Art  on Zazzle   Copper does work to purify water is it's naturally antibacterial and antifungal. In early times, people threw coins of copper or silver into ponds, wells, or other sources of water, which are considered sacred. The person asks a favor or blessing from the spirit of the wishing well . The Ebers Papyrus of Egypt (c. 1500 BCE) prescribes copper compounds for headaches, trembling of limbs, burn wounds, itching and growths in the neck, such as infections, tumors or boils. See also: Herbs & Natural Remedies - Ancient Egypt Tooth Worms of Ancient Mesopotamia Bird Woman Elwetritsch: German Folklore Today's Zazzle Specials   Smashwords Books Greek physician Hippocrates recommends verdigris to treat leg ulcers caused by varicose veins. In the 18th century it's applied to heal canker sores on the mouth. Verdigris or copper sulfate are also used to treat eye ailments such as bloodshot or inflamed eyes, or cataracts. See also: Gula - Medicine Goddess of Mesopotamia Giant Cinnamon Birds of Arabia Lukka: Bronze Age Warrior Sea People Back to Top

Foodborne molds can endanger health, home and family. Hidden in pantry and fridge, these hardy survivors are unnoticed and dormant until conditions are right. Here are 16 foodborne molds, characteristics, health risks, practical management and some personal experience. Aspergillus Flavus Mold: Origins, Behavior, Dangers Food Pathogens: Family Health & Safety Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Mastering mold is crucial for keeping food safe. Foodborne molds are a diverse group of fungi. While some molds, like those used in cheese production, are beneficial, others can be harmful. Sometimes the same organism has dual inclinations. Alternaria Alternaria is commonly found in soil, plants and decaying leaves in nature, and can easily invade fruits, vegetables and grains. It appears as dark green or black patches and can cause significant spoilage. Up to 30% of tomatoes and carrots may be affected by this type of mold. They prosper in damp, warm conditions. like most molds, While not typically associated with severe infections in healthy individuals, Alternaria can produce mycotoxins posing health risks, particularly in immunocompromised people. Contaminated food can lead to allergic reactions, especially in sensitive persons. It can also produce harmful mycotoxins that may cause respiratory problems. To manage Alternaria, store fresh produce in a cool, dry place and regularly inspect items for any signs of spoilage. Oil-Dwelling Microbes: Bacteria, Yeast, Fungi Silent Destroyers: Microbes of Concrete Corrosion Metal Salts: Ancient History to Modern DIY Aspergillus Aspergillus is often found in nuts, grains, seeds and spices. Its most famous variety, Aspergillus flavus , produces aflatoxins, potent carcinogens. About 5% of peanuts may contain unsafe levels of aflatoxin. Several Aspergillus species are known for producing mycotoxins, particularly highly toxic aflatoxin. Proper storage and handling of foods can help prevent contamination. Consuming aflatoxin-contaminated food can cause serious liver damage and raise cancer risks over time. Source food from reputable vendors. Store nuts and grains in airtight containers away from moisture. Aspergillus Flavus Mold: Origins, Behavior, Dangers Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Fungal Biofilms: Ecology of Biofilm-Producing Molds Botrytis Botrytis cinerea , or "grey mold," primarily affects fresh fruits and vegetables. It is responsible for an estimated 25% of post-harvest losses in crops like grapes, tomatoes and strawberries, appearing as a fluffy grey growth. While it can lead to spoilage, it is also used beneficially in winemaking as " noble rot ". However, in unsafe conditions it can cause gastrointestinal problems and illness. In grocery stores berries often go moldy at the bottom of the package first, due to the moisture level. One trick of unscrupulous grocers is to remove non-moldy berries from packages containing moldy berries. The non-moldy berries are then put in a fresh box with a new "packaged on" date. They look good, but are already infected with invisible microbes. It's important to shop at a trustworthy place. Checking condition of shelves, bins, etc also gives a clue as to store cleanliness. Generally not harmful, Botrytis can carry other pathogens that may cause foodborne illnesses. Inspect produce for signs of Botrytis before purchasing, and eat or store food promptly to minimize spoilage. Colorful World of Bacteria - Color Producers Biofilm: Metropolitan Microbes of People & Planet Cupriavidus metallidurans : Metal Eating Gold Making Bacterium Cladosporium Cladosporium loves the outdoors but can also infest stored grains and baked goods. It appears as olive-green patches, and is a common contaminant. Cladosporium can lead to the spoilage of foods such as stored grains and fruits. While this mold is not commonly linked to serious health issues, it can trigger allergic reactions in sensitive people. Primarily known for causing allergic reactions, certain Cladosporium species can produce mycotoxins, creating health risks. Keep pantry items dry and cool to deter Cladosporium growth. Regularly check for visible mold. Silent Destroyers: Microbial Corrosion of Concrete Acid-Producing Bacteria in Sulfuric Acid Creation Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Fusarium Fusarium species produce mycotoxins such as fumonisins, harmful to both humans and animals. Up to 5% of corn may be contaminated. Fusarium molds affect grains, cereals, and some fruits and vegetables. This genus is infamous for mycotoxins such as fumonisins and trichothecenes, which can cause health problems ranging from gastrointestinal issues to long-term effects, including cancer. Proper agricultural practices are essential to combat Fusarium contamination. Ingesting contaminated products can lead to gastrointestinal and neurological illness. Use airtight packaging for grains and ensure they are stored in dry conditions. Amoebae: Microbial Predators on the Move Rabbit Fever Plague & Warfare: Hittites The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature Geotrichum Geotrichum is often found on dairy products and fruits, appearing as white mold. It can spoil dairy items. Geotrichum candidum is known for food spoilage and fermentation. In dairy products, fruits, and vegetables it leads to moldy taste and texture changes. Usually not harmful, it can occasionally cause infections in individuals with weakened immune systems. Ensure proper refrigeration of dairy products and always check expiration dates. When an item says "packaged on (date)" this doesn't mean it's fresh, just that it's been repackaged. Personal experience: One trick of a local bad grocer was to take unsold chicken legs several days old, coat them with spices and put them back on the shelves as packaged that day. Even eaten right away they were often spoiled. So, watch out for unscrupulous food sellers like that one. Once I found a bag of mold, which used to be oranges, under his fruit shelves. This mold was several weeks old at least. Orange peels take six month to decompose. Spores would have traveled to the fruit above and bread stored beside it. Needless to say, that grocer is no longer in business. Vorticella: Mysterious Microscopic Pond Life The Microscope: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses Monilia The genus Monilia primarily affects stone fruits, causing brown rot, which leads to fruit decay. Infection can occur pre- and post-harvest, resulting in significant economic losses. While it does not pose serious health risks, consuming rotten fruit can lead to gastrointestinal distress. Eating spoiled fruit can cause gastrointestinal discomfort and other mild reactions. Choose only fresh fruit and consume it in good time to prevent Monilia mold growth. Seven Deadly Diseases of the Renaissance Malaria: Roman Fever & Renaissance Plague Women Scientists of the Ancient World Manoscus Manoscus is lesser-known but can appear in various food items. It is characterized by a greenish color and can affect the freshness of food. While not immediately harmful, Manoscus can spoil food and provoke allergic reactions. Regularly check food packaging and storage areas for any signs of mold growth. Of the known species of this genus, the red-pigmented Monascus purpureus is among the most important. It's used in the production of certain fermented foods and beverages in East Asia, particularly China and Japan. Monascus purpureus mold has been used for over a thousand years in fermented Asian foods. These include red kōji-kin, red yeast rice or ank-kak, rice wine, kaoliang brandy, and as the coloring agent for Peking duck. Mortierella Mortierella is often found in soil and decaying materials but can invade agricultural products. It may affect up to 10% of harvested crops. Though not commonly linked to human illness, some strains can cause allergic reactions. Ensure proper food storage and check stored food regularly. Mortierella species are saprotrophs (decomposers) in soil, feeding on decaying leaves and other organic matter. Some species can be found on fecal pellets or the exoskeletons of arthropods. Penicillium, Trichoderma, Mucor , and Mortierella are part of an ecological group whose members are among the first organisms to colonize roots. Microfungi: Mysterious Web of Life & Death Radioactive Gas: Radon (Rn) Noble & Deadly Prussic Acid: Secrets of Hydrogen Cyanide Mucor Mucor loves humid conditions, appearing as white to greyish fluffy patches. Mucor species are found in soil, decaying organic matter and stored foods. They primarily affect grains, fruit and bread, causing visible spoilage. Mucor can cause a range of health issues, particularly in immunocompromised individuals, including mucormycosis, a serious infection. This mold can lead to severe respiratory problems and allergic reactions. Keep storage areas dry to deter Mucor growth. Mucormycosis is an uncommon severe fungal infection triggered by the mucormycete molds. The condition often affects people with compromised immune systems, typically manifesting in the sinuses or lungs. Mucormycosis can also develop on the skin following a cut or burn. If mucormycosis is suspected get treatment immediately. White Lead Toxic Beauty, Art, Ancient Production Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Mucor mucedo loves cheese. It's sometimes called cat hair due to its long hairlike filaments. Neurospora Neurospora commonly affects bread, baked goods and fruit, recognizable by its bright orange color. It can spoil food quickly. Check for off-flavors or unattractive appearance of food. Do not consume moldy bread, as some strains produce mycotoxins. It can lead to food spoilage and wastage. Cutting off moldy parts and eating the remainder is dangerous as the mold spores and filaments exist unseen in the body of the food. Molds also enjoy company, and in uncontrolled growths, different varieties are often present. Poison Pigments of Painters: Renaissance Glauber: Preparation of a Golden Spirit of Wine Mugwort (Wormwood) Herbal Lore Store bread in a cool, dry place and seal tightly to prevent exposure to air. Know the nature of the foods. Blueberries can be refrigerated, as their full taste emerges after a cold snap in the wild. Peaches, however, lose all flavor in the fridge. Eat promptly or, if they've been refrigerated, make them into jam or preserves to get back that delicious peachy taste. Flavor also makes a sweet and joyful return in peach sauces. Neurospora as food: Oncom is a traditional staple food of Sundanese cuisine of Indonesia. The two kinds of oncom are red and black. Both types of oncom are fermented using mold. Red oncom is made with Neurospora intermedia var. oncomensis. Iodine (I): Origin, Properties, Uses & Facts Cornstarch: Cuisine, Beauty, Cleaning Uses Scheele's Green: History's Most Toxic Pigment Oidium (Powdery Mildew) Oidium is mainly associated with wine but can also grow on bread and other baked goods. It appears as a white substance also called powdery mildew. Oidium molds contaminate fruits and vegetables and are often responsible for crop damage in agriculture. Although not usually harmful to humans, they can significantly reduce the aesthetic and nutritional quality of food. Oidium signals the deterioration of food quality. Inspect baked goods regularly. In gardens and fields, powdery mildew can be treated with fungicides including potassium bicarbonate, neem oil, sulfur or copper . Home remedies like baking soda, dish soap or milk can also work. Be sure to wash/treat all plants in the vicinity of the infected one(s). Sodium Carbonate: Natural Formation to Modern Application Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) Caustic Potash Copper(II) Sulfate: Blue Vitriol, Chalcanthite Oospora Oospora frequently affect fruits and vegetables, appearing as fluffy white patches. It can result in significant food waste. Oospora are also less commonly found on stored grains and agricultural products. They impact food quality by causing spoilage, but it aren't typically a major health concern. Store fruits and vegetables in well-ventilated, dry areas to prevent mold growth. Oospora , derived from Greek oón meaning 'egg' and spóros meaning 'seed', refers to a zygote enclosed by a dense cell wall. This structure functions as an endospore, which can sprout following a period of dormancy often due to harsh environmental circumstances. Science of Alchemy: Hydrochloric Acid Cosimo Ruggeri: Prophecies from the Dark Rotten Egg Sulfur Smell: Microbial Processes Penicillium Penicillium species are known for their uses in food production, notably in cheese making, and most famously in production of antibiotics. Specific strains can produce harmful mycotoxins, especially on grains and fruits. Certain mycotoxins can lead to allergic reactions and foodborne illnesses. Consume fruit and dairy products quickly after purchase, and be alert for signs of mold. Baltic Amber - Gold of the North 5 Syphilis Treatments of European History Bolus (Bole) of Mendes: Ancient Egyptian Medicine Rhizopus Rhizopus affects bread and fruits. Manifesting as white, fluffy growth, it darkens over time. It's estimated this mold affects around 10% of baked goods before sale.   Rhizopus stolonifer is among the most common causes of bread mold. This mold thrives on carbohydrates and can spoil diverse foods. While not typically associated with severe health issues, ingestion of Rhizopus can cause gastrointestinal illness and food poisoning. Store bread in a dry, cool place and consume before its expiration. Fermentation & Rot: Comparing Processes Metal to Rust: Unseen Organisms in Action Salt Trade - the Most Precious Mineral Thamnidium Thamnidium is a lesser-known mold affecting grains and bread, appearing as white to greyish patches. It also forms on meat. Often overlooked, it can spoil food quickly. Thamnidium is often found on decaying organic matter. While it is not associated with harmful effects on healthy individuals, it's a risk in terms of food wastage and quality. It can spoil food and trigger allergies in sensitive people. Potash: Agriculture, Plant & Garden Health Rotifers (Rotifera): Animalcules Under the Microscope Reishi or Lingzhi - Mushroom Magic Thamnidium molds are used in the maturation of dry-aged beef. By releasing protease and collagenase enzymes they help tenderize the meat naturally. These molds create light grey patches known as 'whiskers' on the fatty parts of a carcass or cut as they age. However, Thamnidium , along with other fungal groups like Acremonium , Mucor , and Rhizopus, is linked to meat spoilage in cold storage. Butter - Food of Peasants & Barbarians Mad Hatter's Disease: Mercury Madness Paracelsus: Renegade Renaissance Physician Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Iodine (I) is an essential element in biology, industry, science and health. It's known for its intense violet gas and strong odor. Commonly used on wounds, iodine has a notorious sting and leaves golden brown stains on skin and clothes. Cornstarch: Cuisine, Beauty, Cleaning Uses Scheele's Green: History's Most Toxic Pigment Chlorine (Cl): Properties, Hazards & Uses Iodine is a chemical element with symbol “I” and atomic number 53. It belongs to the halogen group in the periodic table. It exists in several forms, including solid, liquid, and gas, and can be found in compounds with other elements. Although iodine is relatively rare in the Earth’s crust, with an average concentration of only 0.45 parts per million, it is vital for health. Humans need iodine in trace amounts to function properly, particularly in supporting thyroid health. A dark, shiny nonmetal, iodine is a metallic grey solid and black/violet liquid. It's especially noted for its ability to sublime, changing directly from solid to violet gas. Iodine is unique among the halogens, exhibiting properties that make it suitable for a range of applications. Mad Hatter's Disease: Mercury Madness Arsenic Trioxide: Paris Green Paint Pigment & Pesticide Carl Wilhelm Scheele: Poisonous Chemistry Iodine is officially discovered in 1811 by French chemist Bernard Courtois. He's extracting sodium from seaweed and sees a violet vapor escaping. He identifies this substance as a new element. It's named "iodine" two years later, derived from the Greek " Ιώδης (iodes)" or violet. Iodine Characteristics Physical State : Iodine is a solid at room temperature, appearing as a black or dark gray crystalline substance. When heated, it sublimes into a violet gas. Boiling Point : It has a comparatively high boiling point of 184.3°C (363.7°F), making it less volatile than other halogens. Solubility : Iodine is poorly soluble in water but dissolves well in organic solvents such as alcohol and chloroform. Reactivity : As a halogen, iodine is reactive, forming compounds with various elements, especially metals. Compared to other halogens like chlorine or fluorine, iodine is less reactive. It can still form compounds with numerous elements. Glycerin (Glycerol): Darling of Cosmetics, Health & Science Cupriavidus metallidurans : Metal Eating Gold Making Bacterium Scientific Revolution Europe 1543-1687 Iodine Health Hazards While iodine is safe to use in regulated amounts, it can pose health risks. Toxicity : Small doses of iodine are necessary for health. Excessive exposure can lead to iodine poisoning. Symptoms include abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. About 1.0 to 2.0 grams of iodine can be toxic for an adult. Inhalation of iodine vapors can irritate the respiratory tract, and concentrated iodine solutions can cause skin burns. It’s essential to handle iodine with care. Tanning Hides - Ancient Techniques Galls & Gall Nuts: Black Ink, Dye, Medicine Red & White Tartar: Wine Salts of Alchemy Iodine in Nature Iodine does occur naturally, mainly in seawater and soil. It is predominantly found in the form of iodide salts, combining with other elements (such as sodium and potassium). Seaweed and some fish are good sources of iodine, as are plants grown in iodine-rich soil. Seawater Oceans contain the highest concentrations of iodine, often exceeding 0.05 parts per million. Seaweed and marine organisms tend to concentrate iodine, making these areas rich in this vital element. Soil and Plants The iodine content of soil varies greatly based on geological conditions. Regions with iodine-poor soil can lead to low levels in local crops, causing nutritional deficiencies. Areas in rural China and Eastern Europe show increased rates of goiters due to low dietary iodine. Animals Marine animals, with iodine-rich diets, often have higher iodine concentrations. Cod, snapper and oysters are excellent sources of dietary iodine. Vorticella: Mysterious Microscopic Pond Life Pistachio: Turpentine, Resin & Nuts Arsenic Trioxide: Paris Green Paint Pigment & Pesticide Historical and Modern Uses of Iodine Iodine is one of the most versatile elements, with an expansive range of applications throughout history: Photography : Iodine played a significant role in early photography, particularly in the formulation of silver iodide for film development. Medical : Iodine is vital for human health; it is an essential component of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism. Iodine supplements are often recommended to prevent deficiencies. By the 19th century, iodine is used as an antiseptic. Tincture of iodine is commonplace in home first aid kits. Disinfectants : Iodine solutions, such as povidone-iodine, are widely used in hospitals for surgical scrubs and sterilizing wounds. Industrial : Iodine finds applications in the production of polymers, dyes, and catalysts. Nutrition : Iodized salt is a common dietary source of iodine, helping prevent goiters and other thyroid-related ailments. Natural Purple Dyes: Ancient & Medieval The Microscope: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Cupriavidus metallidurans : Metal Eating Gold Making Bacterium Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Chlorine (Cl) is a vital element in nature, used in industry as a disinfectant. Characterized by its highly reactive habits, chlorine is a pale yellow-green gas at room temperature and has a distinct, sharp odor. A friendly element, it readily forms compounds with others. Mad Hatter's Disease: Mercury Madness Arsenic Trioxide: Paris Green Paint Pigment & Pesticide Carl Wilhelm Scheele: Poisonous Chemistry Discovery of Chlorine Chlorine is an important element in experiments carried of medieval alchemists. Experiments include heating chloride salts like ammonium chloride ( sal ammoniac ) and sodium chloride (common salt). This results in the creation of different chemical compounds containing chlorine such as hydrogen chloride, mercury(II) chloride (corrosive sublimate), and aqua regia. Around 1630 Jan Baptist van Helmont identifies free chlorine gas as a distinct substance. Elixir Vitae: Giambattista della Porta Alchemy: Science, Philosophy, Magic Eirenaeus Philalethes: Alchemy & Death in Renaissance London Chlorine is officially discovered in 1774 by Swedish-German chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele. He produces it by heating hydrochloric acid with manganese dioxide, creating a greenish-yellow gas he refers to as "dephlogisticated muriatic acid." In 1809 Sir Humphry Davy recognizes it as a distinct element and named it "chlorine," derived from the Greek word " chloros ," meaning green. As a highly reactive element, chlorine is used in creating chemical compounds, especially in water treatment. Lake Van: Fate of a Primeval Salt Lake Malaria: Roman Fever & Renaissance Plague Vorticella: Mysterious Microscopic Pond Life Properties & Characteristics of Chlorine Chlorine (Cl) is a chemical element with atomic number 17. It's part of the halogen group in the periodic table, with fluorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. Characterized by its yellow-green color and sharp odor, chlorine primarily exists in nature as chloride ions in seawater. About 55% of Earth's chlorine is found in the ocean. Ethyl Alcohol: Science of Solvents & Booze Gnomes: Earth Spirits of Renaissance Mythology Tartrate Crystals: Secrets of Tartaric Acid Chlorine is known for several distinct properties: Physical State : Chlorine exists as a diatomic gas (Cl₂) at room temperature, which has a pale yellow-green appearance. Its boiling point is -34.04 °C, and its melting point is -101.5 °C. Color and Odor : Chlorine gas has a greenish-yellow color and a strong, pungent odor that can be irritating to the eyes and respiratory system. Density : Chlorine is denser than air, which means it can accumulate in lower areas if released. Reactivity : As a highly reactive non-metal, chlorine readily reacts with alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, and organic compounds. Chlorine's reactivity comes from its high electronegativity, particularly strong compared to many other elements. Solubility : Chlorine is soluble in water but less so in organic solvents. Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Silverpoint Drawing: Art of the Renaissance Practical Alchemy of DIY Perfumes & Aromas When mixed with water, chlorine creates hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid (HClO). Over 20% of the chlorine put into water for treatment is converted into hypochlorous acid, effective in killing pathogens. Toxicity : Chlorine gas is hazardous; even small amounts can cause respiratory issues, eye irritation, and skin burns. Concentrated exposure can be lethal. Sanguine: Red Chalk of Renaissance Masters Best Mortar & Pestles for Artists, Chefs, Scientists Chemistry of Rust: Minerals & Pigment Colors Hazards of Chlorine or Its Compounds While chlorine is essential in many applications, it poses several hazards: Health Risks : Chlorine exposure can cause irritation and severe burns to the respiratory tract, eyes, and skin. Inhaling high concentrations can lead to collapse and death. Environmental Impact : Chlorine and its compounds can lead to environmental pollution. For example, chlorine is often associated with the formation of dioxins, harmful pollutants that can affect wildlife. Chlorine Gas : Being a toxic gas, chlorine can be dangerous in industrial settings. In reaction with organic materials, it can lead to hazardous compounds and explosions if not properly managed. Reactivity : Incorrect handling of chlorine can lead to dangerous situations. For example, mixing chlorine with ammonia results in toxic chloramine gases, harmful to humans and other animals. Arsenic Trioxide: Paris Green Paint Pigment & Pesticide Nitric Acid: Aqua Fortis the Acid Queen Caterina Sforza: Renaissance Alchemy Historical & Modern Uses of Chlorine & Its Compounds Water Treatment : Chlorine is commonly used to disinfect drinking water, significantly reducing the prevalence of waterborne diseases. Chlorination contributes to a more than 80% decline in deaths from cholera and typhoid. Household Products : Chlorine compounds, such as bleach (sodium hypochlorite), are widely used as disinfectants for cleaning and laundry. Industry : Chlorine is critical in the manufacture of various chemicals, including plastics (like PVC), solvents, and pharmaceuticals. In the paper industry, chlorine compounds are used to bleach wood pulp. Iron(III) Oxide: Creation, Art & Science Guar Gum: Unique Qualities for Art & Crafts Milk & Dairy: Ancient Lactose Gene   Pharmaceuticals : Chlorinated compounds are crucial in developing pharmaceuticals, contributing both antibacterial properties and improved drug effectiveness. More than 50% of modern medicines contain chlorine in their molecular structures. Pest Control : Chlorinated pesticides have transformed agriculture, enhancing crop yields. However, environmental concerns regarding their toxicity have led to stricter regulations over recent decades. Biodiesel Production : Recently, innovations in renewable energy technologies have incorporated chlorine in biodiesel production, underlining its adaptability to new fields. Khaos: Primal Goddess of Greek Myth Soap & Medicine Herb of Ancients Victorian Health: Sea Water Hydrotherapy Facts About Chlorine Chlorine is the second lightest halogen, just after fluorine. Industrially, chlorine is produced through the electrolysis of sodium chloride, yielding chlorine gas. Chlorine helps break down ozone in the stratosphere. Despite its hazards , chlorine is one of the most widely used chemicals worldwide, emphasizing its critical role in public health and sanitation. Natural Abundance : Chlorine is the second most abundant halogen on Earth, accounting for approximately 0.17% of the Earth's crust. Odor Detection : Chlorine’s sharp odor allows for detection at very low concentrations, even just parts per million, helping identify leaks and ensure workplace safety. Chlorine vs. Chlorides : While chlorine gas is toxic, many of its compounds, particularly chlorides, are safe. Sodium chloride (table salt) is essential for human health and is a staple in food preparation. Green Chemistry : The scientific community is actively working toward reducing the environmental impact of chlorine in industrial applications through advancements in green chemistry solutions. Reaction Speed : Chlorine is one of the fastest-reacting elements. Some reactions can occur in fractions of a second, especially under specific conditions. Jan Baptist van Helmont: Renaissance Medicine Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Scheele's Green is a rich, vibrant green. Its color appeal surpasses that of the copper carbonate paints of the late 18th century and it's lauded by artists. Scheele's Green is considered the most toxic pigment in history. In damp conditions its toxicity rises dramatically. Carl Wilhelm Scheele: Poisonous Chemistry Copper(II) Sulfate: Blue Vitriol, Chalcanthite Chlorine (Cl): Properties, Hazards & Uses The pigment is named after the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, who first synthesizes it in 1775. Trying to develop a color to rival the brilliance of verdigris , a pigment much in fashion in the 18th century, he produces a unique formula. Scheele's Green is a bright green pigment, copper(II) arsenite. It's known for its intense coloration and used primarily in the 18th and 19th centuries as pigment in art and decoration. Scheele's Green soon becomes a regular on artists' palettes. Compared to green pigments at the time, such as verdigris  and green earth, Scheele's Green is brighter and opaque. The pigment is relatively stable but degrades when exposed to heat or light over time. Copper: Ruddy Metal of Myth & Magic Kohl: Eye Beauty Magic of Ancients Orpiment - Painter's Golden Poison Visual allure of Scheele's Green contributes to its widespread use among artists. It's also soluble in water, rare for a pigment in the 18th century. The color is initially coveted to add freshness and life to artwork, textiles, wallpapers and ceramics. In the 18th and 19th centuries, it's commonly used in decorative arts, particularly in the homes of the upper class. Artists like J.M.W. Turner, Paul Cezanne, Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Vincent van Gogh use the pigment in their works.  I8th century doctor Bernardinus Ramazzini is first to suggest the illness of artists and workers may be pigment poisoning. He says, “Of the many painters I have known, almost all I found unhealthy … If we search for the cause of the cachectic and colorless appearance of the painters, as well as the melancholy feelings that they are so often victims of, we should look no further than the harmful nature of the pigments…” Potash: Agriculture, Plant & Garden Health Lead White & Minium Red: Colors to Die For Metal Salts: Ancient History to Modern DIY Beyond art, Scheele's Green is used as an ingredient in medicinal products, in home decor, and as a pesticide. However, this multi-media use increases its toxic nature. Arsenic builds up in the body over time, and symptoms can resemble those of other conditions. Both the pigment Scheele's Green and its dust are dangerously toxic; ingestion, inhalation, or prolonged skin contact can lead to arsenic poisoning. Symptoms include vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and neurological damage over extended exposure. The pigment is not only risky to painters also to people living in homes decorated with Scheele's Green. It becomes the most poisonous color in the history of art. While other toxic colors like vermillion can cause madness and death, Scheele's Green is far more widespread. Arsenic Trioxide: Paris Green Paint Pigment & Pesticide Vermilion - Scarlet Pigment of Death Paints of the Artist's Palette in Renaissance Europe Its most famous victim is Napoleon Bonaparte. In 2008, chemists test strands of Napoleon's hair. They contain about 100 times more arsenic than found in a control group of the same era. Similarly, Napoleon's son and his wife Josephine have elevated arsenic levels.  In 1980, a laboratory analyzes a wallpaper from the family's damp chateau, where they live during the exile of Napoleon. Bright green, a color Napoleon loves, the wallpaper contains 12 grams of arsenic per square meter. This amount far exceeds hazardous levels of arsenic in wallpapers, which range from 0.6 to 0.015 grams per square meter. Essentially, the family resides in an environment saturated with poisonous gas. Napoleon dies of stomach cancer, associated with arsenic poisoning. Black Pigments of Ancient Artisans Egyptian Blue - First Synthetic Color Colorful World of Bacteria - Color Producers In the 19th century, the harmful effects of arsenic compounds appear everywhere. Journals from the era document ailing children in rooms painted bright green, women in green dresses fainting, and newspaper workers getting sick from arsenic fumes. In one case children suffer acute poisoning at a Christmas party where colored candles are burned. While some European countries begin to prohibit arsenic-based pigments in the 1830s and 1840s, use of Scheele's green persists until the 1860s. Awareness broadens by publicity associated with the 1861 death of 19-year-old Matilda Scheueur. She works dusting artificial foliage with Scheele's green pigment. An article describes her recurring illness from arsenic poisoning and ultimate demise. Glycerin (Glycerol): Darling of Cosmetics, Health & Science Albertus Magnus: Alchemy, Arsenic, Astrology Arsenic: Murderous Metal & Miracle Cure It includes detailed autopsy findings of eyes and fingernails turned green from the pigment. After the 1860s the color is replaced by Paris Green , another arsenic-based pigment. By the 1890s the last brand of wallpaper using Scheele's Green stops production. Traditional methods of making Scheele’s Green also releases toxic arsenic fumes, adding to the overall danger of handling the pigment. Scheele's Green is made by blending copper and oxygen with arsenic. Scheele becomes a casualty of his own toxic experiments, dying of mercury poisoning at age 43. His discoveries during his lifetime are a major part of 18th century and later science. Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files Democritus: Laughing Philosopher Ahead of His Time Queen Eleanor & the Calamitous Crusade Facts About Scheele's Green Origin : Discovered by chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1775. Composition : Made from copper arsenite. Color : Known for its vibrant, brilliant green color. Historical Use : Popular among artists and in homes for decoration from the late 18th century to the 19th century. Toxicity : Highly toxic due to the arsenic content, leading to health risks for artists and consumers alike. Alternative Names : The pigment is also called "Chinese Green" prior to Scheele's discovery, as it is used in Chinese art for centuries. Fading Over Time : While Scheele's Green is generally lightfast, it can degrade when exposed to certain conditions, like acidic fumes or high humidity, leading to fading or discoloration. Historical Impact : The dangers associated with Scheele's Green contribute to the 19th-century movement to reassess the safety of various pigments, urging artists and manufacturers to seek safer alternatives. Science of Alchemy: Hydrochloric Acid Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Caput Mortuum: Dead Head Purple Pigment Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742 - 1786) is a self-taught German-Swedish chemist whose work has strong impact on chemical sciences of the day. He invents the precursor to nitroglycerin and causes the death of Napoleon. He discovers hydrogen and the power of chlorine. Copper(II) Sulfate: Blue Vitriol, Chalcanthite Zinc (Zn): Essential Metal in Alchemy & Medicine Kohl: Eye Beauty Magic of Ancients At age 14 Scheele becomes apprentice to a pharmacist, inspired by family friends who teach him how to read prescriptions and the meanings of chemical signs. During his eight-year tenure he stays up late into the night reading and conducting experiments. Carl Wilhelm Scheele's discoveries include: 1. Tartaric Acid (1770) In his research on cream of tartar, Scheele identifies tartaric acid , a compound still used in baking and winemaking. Tartaric acid, a white crystalline organic acid, is naturally found in may fruits. It's especially plentiful in grapes, as well as in tamarinds, bananas, avocados, and citrus fruits. During fermentation, its salt, potassium bitartrate, known as cream of tartar, forms naturally. Microbial Alchemy: Fermentation, Digestion, Putrefaction The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses 2. Oxygen (1772) Although Joseph Priestly is often credited with the discovery of oxygen, Scheele is considered the first to isolate the gas. Scheele describes oxygen while heating mercuric oxide. He calls it "fire air" and details its properties in his book, " Chemical Essays ." 3. Chlorine (1774) Scheele discovers chlorine gas when he treats hydrochloric acid with manganese dioxide. His notes on this discovery predate those of the chemist Humphry Davy, who later names it "chlorine." Vitriol in Alchemy: Caustic Compounds Colorful World of Bacteria - Color Producers Sodium Carbonate: Natural Formation to Modern Application Scheele notes its greenish color and potent bleaching properties. Today it's recognized as effective for water treatment, killing about 99% of bacteria. In humans, sudden high-level exposure causes shortness of breath, severe coughing, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, headaches, chest pain, stomach discomfort and corneal burns. Prolonged exposure to chlorine gas can cause chest pain, coughing, sore throat and coughing blood. 4. Manganese (1774) While investigating different ores, Scheele identifies the element manganese. He separates it from its toxic ore, pyrolusite, and describes its chemical properties and distinct behavior in reactions. Credit for first isolating manganese is also given to Johan Gottlieb Gahn. Manganese is essential for the body to create connective tissue, bones, blood clotting factors and sex hormones. It is also involved in fat and carbohydrate metabolism, calcium absorption, blood sugar regulation, normal brain and nerve function. 5. Hydrogen (1776) Although Cavendish is noted for his work with hydrogen, Scheele recognizes hydrogen gas' properties during his experiments with acids and metals. He referred to it as "inflammable air." Before this, In 1671, Irish scientist Robert Boyle discovers and describes the reaction between iron filings and dilute acids, which results in the production of hydrogen gas. The first hydrogen-filled balloon is invented by Jacques Charles in 1783. Hydrogen provides lift for the first reliable form of air-travel following the 1852 invention of the hydrogen-lifted airship by Henri Giffard. German count Ferdinand von Zeppelin promotes the idea of rigid airships lifted by hydrogen, later were called Zeppelins. Potash: Agriculture, Plant & Garden Health Alchemy: Science, Philosophy, Magic Chalcanthite: Crystal Blue Explosion 6. Barium (1774) Scheele discovers barium sulfate, a significant addition to the list of known elements. His work involves isolating barium salts, later recognized as essential components in chemical processes. This alkaline earth metal is used as fireworks and medical imaging. 7. Arsenic (1775) Although the discovery of arsenic is credited to Albertus Magnus in the 13th century, Scheele isolates arsenic and determines its properties. His work on arsenic compounds greatly contributes to understanding both its toxicological effects and its applications. Arsenic has been known for thousands of years. During the Bronze Age (c. 3300 - 1200 BCE) arsenic is often used instead of tin to make a harder bronze. The classic bronze formula is 88% copper and 12% tin. Smiths could replace all or part of the tin with arsenic. Living Metals & Genders in Ancient Alchemy Alchemical Salt: Essential Salts of Alchemy Fungal Biofilms: Ecology of Biofilm-Producing Molds 8. Lactic Acid (1780) Scheele derives lactic acid from sour milk and fermented foods. He's the first scientist to describe lactic acid in 1780. Today, lactic acid is crucial in food science, fermentation processes and production of yogurt, consumed by millions worldwide. Lactic acid bacteria are also responsible for the processes of fermentation in cheese and pickles. 9. Glycerol (1783) Scheele describes glycerol / glycerin and its properties. This eventually leads to development of nitroglycerin as an explosive substance in the following century. Glycerol is used in soap making, cosmetics and food preservation. Glycerin (Glycerol): Darling of Cosmetics, Health & Science Lactic Acid Bacteria: Nature to Modern Uses Science of Alchemy: Hydrochloric Acid 10. Molybdenum (1778) Scheele identifies molybdenum from the mineral molybdenite. Although not isolated until later, this discovery was vital in understanding this rare transition metal, which is now used in steel production to enhance strength and resistance to corrosion. 11. Lead Compounds (1779) In his exploration of lead compounds, Scheele finds a way to produce lead acetate, commonly known as "sugar of lead." It's historically used in food and beverage preservation, although toxic in larger quantities. 12. Tannic Acid and Phenols (1783) In 1783, Scheele makes progress in organic chemistry by isolating tannic acid and studying phenols. Tannins are widely used in the leather industry, often used as mordants in dyeing, and contribute to the flavor of wines. Tanning Hides - Ancient Techniques Galls & Gall Nuts: Black Ink, Dye, Medicine Red & White Tartar: Wine Salts of Alchemy Ancient Greeks and Romans use oak tannins to tan animal skins into leather. In China tanning is known through history. Different colors, textures, and durability of leathers are achieved by using different formulations of plant tannins referred to as “tanning liqueurs”. 13. Scheele's Green (1778) Scheele synthesizes Scheele's Green, a brilliant pigment made from copper arsenite. While it's widely used in art, its toxic properties later raise health concerns. By the time of the impressionists it's replaced in palettes with Paris Green ... which also contains arsenic. At the time the arsenic is less concerning to artists than the paint's tendency to darken. Other poison pigments include orpiment (arsenic) and vermillion ( mercury ). Like Paris Green, Scheele's Green is also used as an insecticide. Scheele's Green is known to contribute to the death of Napoleon. During exile Napoleon stays at a house with walls of bright green, a color he loves. He dies of stomach cancer, a disease linked to arsenic poisoning. High amounts of arsenic are later found in his hair. Pistachio: Turpentine, Resin & Nuts Natural Purple Dyes: Ancient & Medieval Arsenic Trioxide: Paris Green Paint Pigment & Pesticide Scheele's findings advance chemistry and industrial growth. Compounds he uncovers are important in pharmaceuticals, manufacturing and earth science. For instance, chlorine is necessary for making disinfectants in water treatment plants. The combined exposure to arsenic, mercury, lead, and their compounds, along with potentially hydrofluoric acid and other substances, causes the early death of Scheele. He passes away at age 43 in 1786. Medical experts attribute his death to mercury poisoning. 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Copper (II) sulfate CuSO4 yields a vivid color and widespread applications. Also known as blue vitriol in alchemy and chalcanthite in geology, copper(II) sulfate is used in diverse fields such as art and agriculture. Here are the characteristics and uses of this amazing compound. Zinc (Zn): Essential Metal in Alchemy & Medicine Vitriol in Alchemy: Caustic Compounds Glycerin (Glycerol): Darling of Cosmetics, Health & Science Copper(II) sulfate is a salt of copper and sulfate ions. It typically appears as a blue crystalline solid, leading to its common name, blue vitriol. The compound occurs in several hydrates, most commonly pentahydrate (CuSO4·5H2O), with five water molecules. When dried, it loses its water content and turns into a white anhydrous form. Iron(III) Oxide: Creation, Art & Science Guar Gum: Unique Qualities for Art & Crafts Milk & Dairy: Ancient Lactose Gene   The history of copper sulfate dates back thousands of years as this blue stone is found in nature. In the Middle Ages its properties are first systematically studied. In 1794, British chemist William Cruickshank outlines its properties in detail. The compound is widely recognized and used by early alchemists, specifically under the name blue vitriol. It's used as a pesticide and germicide due to anti-bacterial and antifungal effects of copper. As a hot concentrated CuSO solution cools down, crystals are formed. It happens because cooling causes the water molecules to move closer together. This reduces the available space for the solution to retain dissolved solid; it becomes saturated, leading to crystal formation. Alchemy: Science, Philosophy, Magic Living Metals & Genders in Ancient Alchemy Chalcanthite: Crystal Blue Explosion Properties and Characteristics Appearance : The pentahydrate form is bright blue, while the anhydrous form is a white or pale gray powder. Solubility : CuSO4 is soluble in water, forming a blue solution. Its solubility varies with temperature. At 200°C, it dissolves in water at a rate of approximately 31.6 grams per 100 milliliters. This dissolution yields a more intense blue solution Melting Point : The pentahydrate form melts at about 650°C (1202°F), releasing water and producing anhydrous CuSO4. Reactivity : Copper(II) sulfate is a strong oxidizing agent and can react with various metals and nonmetals. It can readily react with other compounds and release sulfur dioxide when heated. Chemical Formula : The structure includes one copper ion (Cu²⁺) and one sulfate ion (SO4²⁻), forming a stable ionic compound. Copper(II) sulfate has hygroscopic qualities, able to absorb moisture from the air. In humid conditions, this can lead to deliquescence, making a concentrated solution. In deliquescence a substance absorbs atmospheric moisture until it dissolves in the absorbed water. Kohl: Eye Beauty Magic of Ancients Silent Destroyers: Microbes of Concrete Corrosion Metal Salts: Ancient History to Modern DIY How is Copper(II) Sulfate Made? Copper(II) sulfate can be synthesized through several methods: Direct Synthesis : By reacting sulfuric acid with copper oxide or copper metal, chemists can produce copper(II) sulfate directly. The reaction can be represented as follows: CuO + H2SO4 → CuSO4 + H2O Cu + H2SO4 → CuSO4 + H2 Hydration of Anhydrous CuSO4 : The anhydrous form can also be hydrated by adding water, which results in the formation of the pentahydrate. Copper Mining : It can also be extracted from naturally occurring minerals that contain copper. There are several methods to synthesize copper (II) sulfate, with the most common ones being: Reaction with Copper Oxide : When copper oxide (CuO) reacts with sulfuric acid (H2SO4), it produces copper (II) sulfate and water: CuO + H2SO4 → CuSO4 + H2O Cu + 2H2SO4 → CuSO4 + 2H2O + SO2 Direct Reaction with Copper : Copper metal can also be dissolved in sulfuric acid to yield copper (II) sulfate. In industry, the leaching process is often used, treating copper ores with sulfuric acid. Alchemy: Ancient Purification of Tin How to Make Asem: Essential Alchemy Heavy Metals Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Chromium & Arsenic Occurrence in Nature In nature copper(II) sulfate occurs as the mineral chalcanthite, found in volcanic, drainage and copper-mining regions. This natural form has a blue crystalline structure and can crystallize in evaporating lakes and streams rich in copper. Crystallized from copper-rich waters it has the same brilliant blue color associated with synthetic copper (II) sulfate. Copper (II) sulfate can also appear as an efflorescence, or crystalline deposits formed on surfaces when copper salts solidify from aqueous solutions. It's often found near other copper-bearing rocks: Calcite and its polymorph , aragonite , both CaCO3 Brochantite , Cu 4( SO4 )( OH )6 Chalcopyrite , CuFeS 2 Malachite , Cu 2( CO3 )( OH )2 Silent Destroyers: Microbial Corrosion of Concrete Nitric Acid: Aqua Fortis the Acid Queen Writing in Letters of Gold: Ancient Alchemy Reactions with Other Compounds Copper(II) sulfate is known for its reactivity with a variety of compounds. Some notable reactions include: Precipitation Reactions : When mixed with sodium hydroxide (NaOH), copper(II) sulfate will precipitate copper(II) hydroxide (Cu(OH)2): CuSO4 + 2NaOH → Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4 Complex Formation : Copper(II) sulfate also forms complexes with ligands, which can modify its solubility and reactivity. Reduction Reactions : When copper(II) sulfate is treated with reducing agents such as zinc or iron, it can be reduced to elemental copper. The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature Lye (NaOH): Caustic Soda for Soap & Glass Potash: Agriculture, Plant & Garden Health Uses of Copper(II) Sulfate Agriculture : It is often used as a fungicide and herbicide, helping to control fungal infections and prevent plant diseases. For instance, use in vineyards can reduce fungal infections by up to 70%. Chemistry : Commonly used in laboratories for various reactions, especially as a reagent in double displacement reactions. The striking blue color of copper(II) sulfate can be used as a visual indicator in chemical tests. Mining : Employed in the extraction of copper from its ores, as it can selectively leach the copper from the surface. Electroplating : Used in electroplating baths to deposit copper onto metal surfaces. Animal Nutrition : It is added to animal feeds as a trace mineral supplement. Construction : Used in the manufacturing of certain types of cements and as a wood preservative to protect against fungal and insect damage. Water Treatment : In water management, copper (II) sulfate is used to control algal blooms, significantly improving water quality in treatment facilities. It can decrease the presence of harmful algae by up to 95%. Education : Its vivid color and ease of crystallization make it a popular choice in educational settings for experiments, helping students visualize chemical reactions. Crystal growing is an art and a science. Vorticella: Mysterious Microscopic Pond Life Jan Baptist van Helmont: Renaissance Medicine Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Link: Seizure by Roger Hiorns Above: In 2008 British artist Roger Hiorns floods a flat with copper(II) sulfate solution. When it's drained several weeks later, it's filled with sparkling blue crystals. 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Vorticella is a genus of single-celled water-loving organisms with specialized cilia. As an adult the microbe attaches to a substrate with a single stalk. It looks a lot like a balloon, with food vacuoles inside. Though attached, Vorticella jerk back with extreme speed if touched. Rotifers (Rotifera): Animalcules Under the Microscope Biofilm Communities: Metropolitan Microbes Amoebae: Microbial Predators on the Move Vorticella belongs to the ciliate group, named for the tiny hair-like structures or cilia on their surfaces. Shaped like a bell when feeding a Vorticella can also resemble a ball or oval on a string. It can back up with a sudden reflex action due to its remarkable stalk. Characteristic movement is rhythmic beating of cilia to create water currents. These help in movement and feeding. Vorticella gets its bell-like structure by opening its orifice wide as cilia sweep organic matter into its digestive embrace. Vorticella range from 50 to 150 micrometers in length, making them generally invisible to the eye. They're vital to the ecosystems of lakes and ponds and can be an indicator of water quality. The Microscope: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Cupriavidus metallidurans : Metal Eating Gold Making Bacterium Red & White Tartar: Wine Salts of Alchemy High populations of Vorticella correlate with healthy freshwater systems. These industrious workers also contribute to the breakdown of organic matter, helping to keep the ecosystem functioning in prime condition. A desirable filter feeder, Vorticella  primarily eats bacteria and small organic particles suspended in the water. The rhythmic motion of its cilia create currents to draw food particles toward its mouth, or cytostome. The captured food is funneled into one of several digestive vacuoles. In the vacuole, enzymes break down organic material to absorbable nutrients. After enzymatic digestion, the nutrients are absorbed into the cytoplasm for cell metabolism. Undigested material is expelled. Colorful World of Bacteria - Color Producers Biofilm: Metropolitan Microbes of People & Planet Sodium Silicate: Alchemy of Water Glass The process of Vorticella are especially amazing considering this is a single-celled organism. But wait! There's more. Vorticella can alternate between asexual and sexual reproduction. The organism can reproduce asexually by binary fission, dividing into two identical daughter cells. Each daughter cell inherits the same genetic material and continues with its life cycle. Vorticella can reproduce by binary fission every few hours, swiftly populating areas rich in Vorticella food. Glycerin (Glycerol): Darling of Cosmetics, Health & Science Oil-Dwelling Microbes: Bacteria, Yeast, Fungi Invisible World: Prokaryotes & Animalcules In adverse conditions, such as drought, Vorticella spp. may decide to reproduce sexually in the process of conjugation. They create a cyst to protect the eggs and can also form cysts to protect themselves. When favorable conditions return, the cysts break open. The Stalk During its motile form, Vorticella is a free-swimming microbe . It looks like a long cylinder moving quickly and erratically. Stalk materials are secreted in order for the cell to become sessile. The precursors of the stalk are stored in dense granules and released as a liquid. The liquid solidifies to create the adhesion pad, stalk matrix, and stalk sheath. Stalk growth is completed in a few hours. The stalk consists of the spasmoneme, a contractile organelle, surrounded by rigid rod filaments called batonnets. The twisted spasmoneme and batonnets function as a molecular spring, enabling Vorticella to contract. Jan Baptist van Helmont: Renaissance Medicine The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris This can increase Vorticella's survival rate by up to 70% in the presence of threats. The cell body can move hundreds of micrometers in milliseconds. The spasmoneme is said to have higher specific power than the engine of the average car. It has the capacity to enter a dormant state as a cyst if conditions decline. It can withstand periods of desiccation, temperature extremes, or nutrient scarcity is a testament to its resilience. One of its standout talents is the ability to retract its body into a stalk when it senses danger. This retractable structure helps it escape larger predators and adapt to changing water conditions. Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Meet the Microbes - History of Microbiology Vorticella can endure tough conditions by forming cysts. These dormant stages allow it to withstand extreme temperatures and nutrient shortages for long periods. When conditions improve, it can re-emerge and thrive once again. Facts About Vorticella Size : Vorticella typically ranges from 100 to 300 micrometers in length. Color : When viewed under a microscope, Vorticella often appears colorless and transparent but its several vacuoles may have a greenish or dark color depending on the organisms being digested within. Habitat : Vorticella is commonly found in eutrophic waters, freshwater environments like ponds, lakes, and marshes where nutrient levels are high. Ecological Role : Vorticella plays a crucial role in controlling bacterial populations and recycling nutrients within the ecosystem. Survival Mechanism : The ability to form a stalk allows it to stay anchored and avoid danger by retreating. Genetic Diversity : The capability to reproduce both sexually and asexually helps it adapt effectively to a variety of environmental changes. Research Applications : Studying Vorticella can provide valuable insights into freshwater ecosystems and help in environmental monitoring. Fungal Biofilms: Ecology of Biofilm-Producing Molds Science of Onion Tears: Demystifying Acids Galls & Gall Nuts: Black Ink, Dye, Medicine Vorticella is a remarkable and charming organism. It exemplifies the incredible diversity of life in microscopic pond ecosystems. Its unique feeding strategies, reproductive methods, and survival adaptations highlight the delicate balance of these aquatic ecologies. 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