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Stylonychia is a fascinating genus of ciliates, a diverse group of active single-celled organisms living in both freshwater and marine environments. Ciliates are named for their versatile hair-like organelles or cilia, which they use for travel and feeding. Silica (SiO2): Nature of Glass & Gems Testate Amoebae: Single Cells with Shells The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature Among the largest of the single-celled organisms, ciliates are integral to aquatic ecosystems. Predators of bacteria and algae, they're also prey for larger organisms. Ciliates are some of Earth's earliest life forms, with a sophisticated body system and ability to adapt quickly. They're among the earliest eukaryotes. Fossil evidence puts their emergence at over 1.5 billion years ago. Today, these ancient organisms are crucial for maintaining the health of ecosystems worldwide. Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Meet the Microbes - History of Microbiology Characteristics of Stylonychia Stylonychia are a genus of ciliate with an oval or ovate shape, and a distinct oral groove used to capture food, which sometimes looks like a grinning mouth due to cilia. Its body is covered in these multi-purpose cilia for rapid movement and to transport food to the mouth. Stylonychia use their cilia as legs to run along substrates with a graceful, coordinated glide, or even cling upside down to the microscope slide while munching microbes. Species are about 30 to 150 micrometers long, with a flexible pellicle or membranous skin. Heliozoa: Microscopic Sun Animalcules S. pasteurii : Calcium Eating Limestone-Making Bacteria Algae in Glass Houses: Diatomaceous Earth The organism's cilia are grouped into structures known as "cirri." These clusters of fused cilia operate collectively as a unit. Similar to other ciliates in the Oxytrichidae family, Stylonychia features a notable group of eighteen large cirri on its ventral surface. These are divided into six smaller groups: the frontal, buccal, frontoventral, postoral, pretransverse, and transverse cirri. The area surrounding the cell mouth (cytostome) is partially surrounded by a series of compound cilia called the "adoral zone of membranelles" or AZM. This skin allows for a certain amount of shape change, and Stylonychia can look blobbish especially after separating during binary fission. It can also squeeze through tight spaces, as Stylonchia are fairly flat compared to many other ciliates. This is easily seen if there's a generous amount of water on the slide, as these microcosms will arc up and twirl around. They are aggressive feeders and actively seek out food, diving into swarms of bacteria, and gobbling up bits of organic matter. Oil-Dwelling Microbes: Bacteria, Yeast, Fungi Metal Salts: Ancient History to Modern DIY Cupriavidus metallidurans : Metal Eating Gold Making Bacterium See the video clip here . Feeding and Waste Management Stylonychia feed through phagocytosis. They use their cilia to create powerful water currents to bring food particles like bacteria and small algae into their oral groove. When the ciliate feeds, a digestive vacuole opens up in the cell. Once food reaches the ciliate's mouth, it's funneled to the vacuole. There, enzymes break it down, extracting nutrients for the cell. After digestion, waste in the form of nutrients for other species is excreted through a cytoproct or temporary opening in the membrane. One Stylonychia can process millions of bacteria per day. The Microscope: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Sodium Silicate: Alchemy of Water Glass Acid-Producing Bacteria in Sulfuric Acid Creation Respiration Process Ciliates, including Stylonychia, don't breathe in the traditional sense since they lack specialized respiratory organs. Instead, they rely on diffusion to take up oxygen and expel carbon dioxide directly across their cell membranes. Oxygen from the surrounding water passes directly through their cell membrane into the cytoplasm. This process is particular to the aquatic environments they inhabit, and effective gas exchange. Lactic Acid Bacteria: Nature to Modern Uses Microfungi: Mysterious Web of Life & Death Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Reproduction Stylonychia primarily reproduce asexually through binary fission. One organism divides into two cells. The first sign of impending binary fission is the development of a second mouth about halfway down the organism. The second cell starts to form its own shape. The mouth begins to take in food aided by the action of the parent cell's cilia. The process of binary fission takes about half an hour, with the cells forming a rough figure eight. The bond between them becomes narrower until they're just touching cilia. At this point the new cell might roll back and forth a couple of times along the cilia of the parent cell. It's now bigger than the first cell and a little misshapen. There may be some jerking around, then success as the cells move apart and become independent. Human Methane: Meet the Microbes of Flatulence Seven Deadly Diseases of the Renaissance Rotten Egg Sulfur Smell: Microbial Processes See the full process here . When the two cells split, they go their own ways and get down to the business of eating. It's not long before the new cell gains its typical sleek streamlined look. Stylonychia can also look roundish and fat (but still flat) due to shape flexibility, even resembling different species. Under certain conditions, Stylonychia can also partake in a form of sexual reproduction known as conjugation. During this process, two ciliates align side by side. They each absorb genetic material from the other, and then they part. Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld Kerotakis: Ancient Alchemical Equipment Glauber: Preparation of a Golden Spirit of Wine Locomotion Stylonychia are known for their impressive motility, primarily by movement of cilia. These tiny hair-like structures beat in a coordinated fashion, propelling the organism through its aquatic environment with agile speed. The ability to change direction and velocity allows Stylonychia to navigate effectively, avoid predators, and find food sources. They bump into things a lot, though. Lifespan The lifespan of Stylonychia is quite variable and ranges from a few days to several weeks, depending on environmental conditions such as temperature, food availability and population density. Like most cells including bacteria they multiply readily in times of abundance and can die off when food sources are depleted. Ethyl Alcohol: Science of Solvents & Booze B. Linens Bacterium: Big Cheese of B.O. Nitric Acid: Aqua Fortis the Acid Queen Gender in Stylonychia Ciliates, including Stylonychia, do not exhibit sexual dimorphism in the same way that many multicellular organisms do. While they reproduce sexually, they don't have distinct male or female sexes. All individuals can exchange genetic material. Ecological Importance of Stylonychia Stylonychia are important microbial grazers. Breaking down organic matter releases waste as nutrition, and contributes to the overall health of habitats. A robust Stylonychia population can enhance nutrient availability for other aquatic life. As prey for larger organisms, such as insects, small crustaceans and baby fish, they occupy an essential niche in the food web. Their presence can signal the health of aquatic ecosystems, making them critical indicators in environmental research. Uric Acid: Inner Works of the Human Body Alchemical Salt: Essential Salts of Alchemy Fungal Biofilms: Ecology of Biofilm-Producing Molds Facts about Stylonychia Shape-shifters : Stylonychia can alter their shape in response to environmental stimuli. Memory : Some studies suggest ciliated protozoans exhibit simple learning and memory. Global presence : Stylonychia can be found in a variety of environments, including ponds, lakes, ditches and damp soils. Stylonychia can reach speeds of up to 0.5 millimeters per second. While this doesn't seem much, it's impressive mobility considering their microscopic size. They are among the fastest microbes in the pond. Certain Stylonychia species can regenerate lost cilia. Scientists examine the potential of Stylonychia for applications in biotechnology, especially wastewater treatment due to their proficiency in breaking down organic materials. Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides The Anxious Victorian - Mental Health Galls & Gall Nuts: Black Ink, Dye, Medicine Stylonychia and other ciliates represent a fascinating group of unicellular organisms essential to ecosystems around the world. Their complex behaviors, varied reproductive strategies, and ecological significance make them an enduring force of the microcosmos. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Natural glass gemstones are caused by extraordinary geological events, such as intense heat and cataclysmic impacts. Natural glass gemstones include tektites, fulgurites and other stunning formations. It occurs in colors like black, bronze, green and sunny yellow. Karaca Dağ Volcano: Mountain of Life Silica (SiO2): Nature of Glass & Gems Glass & Arts of Ancient Glass Making Natural Glass Natural glass is a non-crystalline solid formed primarily through rapid cooling of molten rock. Unlike traditional crystalline rocks, which have a well-defined internal structure, natural glass lacks a definite crystal lattice, leading to unique textures and appearances. It can contain various impurities responsible for a colorful spectrum of hues. Natural glass is a favorite among gem enthusiasts and collectors. Volcanic eruptions can create vast areas of glass within hours. Mt Nemrut Volcano: Nature & Lore Volcanic Wipeout - 1600 BCE Eruption of Thera Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future Tektites - Meteor Impact Tektites are a form of natural glass rich in silicon, created by the intense heat generated when a meteorite hits Earth. When the energy from the collision vaporizes terrestrial materials, these substances cool rapidly as they are ejected into the atmosphere. They return to Earth eventually as small glass blobs. Tektites are usually found in strewn fields surrounding the impact site. Their characteristics vary based on the environmental and geological conditions during formation. Tektites vary in size, shape, and color. Some are small pebble-like objects, while others are elongated and aerodynamic. The Australasian tektite strewn field covers over 1.7 million square kilometers across Southeast Asia. Tektites give insight into cosmic events. Fulminating Gold: Blowing It Up in Alchemy Sodium Silicate: Alchemy of Water Glass Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure Fulgurites - Lightning Strike Fulgurites are natural glass structures formed when lightning strikes sand or soil. The intense heat instantly melts the silica in the sand. The energy from lightning melts the surrounding particles, fusing into distinct tubular structures that can measure several inches in length. These glass tubes are often hollow and showcase a unique texture reminiscent of tree roots. Fulgurites typically occur in sandy regions, such as deserts and beaches. They appear in earthy tones, influenced by the impurities in the original materials. Fulgurites are relatively rare since the precise conditions for their formation must align perfectly. They can be hard to find, often hidden under the surface. They can vary in shape and size depending on intensity and duration of the lightning strike. Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Goethite: The Other Iron-Rich Mineral Almadén Mines: Ancient Mercury Extraction Nuclear Explosion The sudden intense heat of a nuclear explosion, as at the Trinity site in the United States, causes silica in sand to fuse. It creates scattered glass throughout the explosion site. Nuclear glass is not specifically natural glass, as it's created by a human-made weapon. However, just as a substance like lechatelierite can be created by a lightning strike or high voltage power lines zapping sand, trinitite falls into the category of natural glass. It is a desirable item for collectors and researchers. Testate Amoebae: Single Cells with Shells Algae in Glass Houses: Diatomaceous Earth Etch Carnelian Beads Like It's Indus Valley 2500 BCE Types of Natural Glass 1. Obsidian Formation: Obsidian is volcanic glass formed when lava cools rapidly, preventing crystals from forming. Composition: Mostly silica (SiO2) with minor amounts of iron, magnesium, and other minerals. Location: Commonly found in regions with recent volcanic activity such as the United States, Japan, and Iceland. Unique Features: Shiny and usually black, although it can appear in other colors due to impurities; exhibits conchoidal fractures. Uses: Traditionally used by indigenous cultures for tools and weapons; now popular in jewelry and decorative items. Value and Rarity: Generally low cost but high-quality specimens can command higher prices. Obsidian: Ancient Volcanic Black Glass Lapis Lazuli: Vibrant Blue Gem of Ancients Chalcanthite: Crystal Blue Explosion Obsidian is perhaps the most well-known type of natural glass. This volcanic glass forms when lava cools rapidly, typically during explosive eruptions. Composed mainly of silica, obsidian features a smooth, glassy texture and striking black color. Above, magma has extruded as lava and cooled quickly due to temperature change. Sudden cooling can also happen when lava flows into the sea. Snowflake obsidian is a volcanic glass formed as an igneous rock, when felsic lava cools down with very minimum crystal growth. Zinc (Zn): Essential Metal in Alchemy & Medicine Faust: Fact & Fiction German Renaissance Famous Women of Renaissance Alchemy Impurities can create green, brown, or even rainbow hues. Found in volcanic regions worldwide, obsidian has been used since Neolithic times to craft tools, weapons, and ornaments. Its sharp edges make it ideal for cutting and carving. High-quality obsidian can be rare, depending on color and patterns, and is highly valued among collectors. For example, a piece of blue obsidian can fetch over $1000 in the market. Care and Feeding of Your German Kobold Ge Hong: Teachings Alchemy Medicine Alchemy: How to Make Rosaceum Oil 2. Impactite or Impact Glass Formation: Created during meteorite impacts when rocks and sediments are subjected to intense heat and pressure. Composition: Highly variable, can include silica, metals, and various minerals depending on local geology. Location: Commonly found near large impact craters, such as the Barringer Crater in Arizona. Unique Features: Typically features a glassy texture and can be found in shapes related to the impact event. Uses: Used in jewelry and as collector's items; research interest in planetary science. Value and Rarity: Rare and sought after, especially specimens associated with significant impact sites. Turquoise: Precious Stone of Ancients Nickel (Ni): Metallurgy Facts & Folklore Antimony (Stibnite, Kohl) Ancient Metal of Science & Beauty Impactite, also known as impact glass, forms when a meteorite strike vaporizes and melts surrounding materials under extreme heat and pressure. Impactite features unusual textures and may contain bubbles or shock features, clues about its violent creation. Found near impact craters, impactites can vary in appearance, often resembling a blend of glass and rock. These rare stones are valuable for both scientific research and as collectibles for enthusiasts intrigued by space and geology. Impact glass from the Chicxulub crater, related to the dinosaur extinction, offers unique research opportunities. The Chicxulub is an impact crater buried underneath the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico. Its center is offshore. Cobalt (Co): The Little Goblin Who Could Calcium (Ca): Earth Metal of Structure & Strength Gnomes: Earth Spirits of Renaissance Mythology 3. Libyan Desert Glass Formation: This tektite is the result of high-energy events, possibly caused by a meteorite impact. Composition: Silica-rich glass, often referred to as Libyan Gold Glass. Location: Primarily found in the vast stretches of the Libyan Desert in North Africa. Unique Features: Translucent golden color; forms irregular shapes and has been revered since ancient times. Uses: Used in jewelry, decorative carvings, and ancient artifacts. Value and Rarity: Highly prized due to its beauty and historical significance. Flowers of Antimony: Pure Medieval Purgative Alchemical Salt: Essential Salts of Alchemy Ammonium Carbonate: Sal Volatile Smelling Salts Libyan Desert Glass, also called Great Sand Sea Glass, is a rare natural glass from the Libyan desert. Formed by intense heat, possibly from an ancient meteorite impact or solar radiation, this glass has a distinct yellow or golden hue, attributed to its high silica content. Libyan Desert Glass has a smooth surface and sometimes, bubble-like inclusions. Valued for beauty and historical significance, this translucent gemstone is used in ancient Egyptian jewelry. Its rarity and connection to bygone cultures make it a coveted piece among collectors. Rhinestones: Sparkling Treasures of the Rhine Sapphire Gemstones: Colors, Myths, Origins & Gemology Corycian Caves, Bee Nymphs & Greek Gods 4. Moldavite Formation: Formed from a meteorite impact approximately 15 million years ago, resulting in a unique green glass. Composition: Silica, with traces of aluminum and other elements. Location: Exclusively found in the Czech Republic, particularly near the Moldau River. Unique Features: Green color, unique surface texture; often includes bubbles and inclusions. Uses: Popular among collectors and used in healing practices; incorporated into jewelry. Value and Rarity: Rare and considered valuable due to its distinct color and limited geographic availability. Jade - Jadeite, Nephrite & Jade Roads Amethyst - Divine Purple Quartz Gemstone Heimchen - House Crickets of Folklore Moldavite is a unique green tektite formed from a meteorite collision in the Czech Republic about 15 million years ago. The impact melts local silicates, creating a glass ranging in color from deep forest green to light olive. Moldavite is highly sought after among collectors and jewelry enthusiasts due to its striking appearance and unique origins. Some believe it is one of many gems with metaphysical properties associated with personal transformation and spiritual growth. This popularity, further fueled by sellers just as in ancient times, leads to high demand. Since moldavite is found only in a specific region, it can be relatively rare, further enhancing its value. Buyers beware - this glass is often faked. Making Sapphire & other Precious Gemstones Caterina Sforza: Renaissance Alchemy Black Pigments of Ancient Artisans 5. Lechatelierite Formation: Formed by the fusion of silica-rich material due to extreme heat from lightning or volcanic activity. Composition: Pure silica (SiO2). Location: Found in specific locations where lightning has struck sandy soil, often disappears into the landscape. Unique Features: Often appears as elongated tubes or glassy nodules. Uses: Mainly of interest in scientific research; not commonly used in jewelry. Value and Rarity: Relatively rare due to specific formation processes. Lechatelierite is a type of natural glass primarily formed through high-temperature silicate fusion from meteorite impacts. Distinct from other glass types, lechatelierite usually forms when quartz sand melts alongside other materials. These glass formations are typically translucent and often colorless, although they can be opaque as the one below. They occur near impact sites and as volcanic glass. Lechatelierite can be hard to find and is less common compared to other natural glass types. Carbuncle: Red Stone of Magic & Medicine Magnetite: Ubiquitous Iron Ore with Soul Rhinestones: Sparkling Treasures of the Rhine 6. Trinitite Formation: Created from the first atomic bomb test at the Trinity Site in New Mexico in 1945. Composition: Comprised of melted sand and other materials from the explosion, primarily silica. Location: Found at the Trinity Site, the location of the first nuclear explosion. Unique Features: Greenish glassy material; often contains minerals like feldspar and quartz. Uses: Considered a collector's item and a historical artifact. Value and Rarity: Varied, but authentic specimens from the Trinity Site can hold significant value. Trinitite, also known as Alamogordo glass, is a human-made glass as it's formed during nuclear testing. The intense heat from the explosion melts desert sand, resulting in a glassy substance with greenish hue and a granular texture. This glass holds significant historical value, representing advancement of nuclear weaponry. While not rare in its location, trinitite is both a collector's item and a scientific curiosity, with prices reaching hundreds of dollars at auctions. 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Acetic Acid: Vinegar 🜊 in Ancient Alchemy Ullikummi - Rock Monster of Legend 7. Edeowie Glass Formation: This natural glass is created by ancient volcanic activity in Australia. Composition: Comprised primarily of silica with possible inclusions of other minerals. Location: Found in the Edeowie area of South Australia, near the Flinders Ranges. Unique Features: Often brown or greenish in color with interesting surface patterns. Uses: Interest among geologists; can be fashioned into jewelry. Value and Rarity: Less commonly found, thus can be valuable but is not as widely recognized. Edeowie glass is found in the Edeowie area of South Australia. This glass originates from intense weathering and alteration of volcanic rock, leading to a unique glassy texture and appearance. Composed of silica and various minerals, Edeowie glass varies in color and transparency. Though not as recognized as other glass types, it is cherished by collectors for its distinctiveness and localized occurrence. Earth of Chios: Ancient Alchemy, Cosmetics, & Medicine Kohl: Eye Beauty Magic of Ancients Argyropoeia: Silver Making of Ancients Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Silica, or silicon dioxide (SiO2), occurs in the Earth’s crust, the microcosm and daily life. Silica makes ancient glass such as obsidian, and beautiful gemstones. It's essential for environmental health. Here are the facts about silica. Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future Sodium Silicate: Alchemy of Water Glass Glass & Arts of Ancient Glass Making Silica, or silicon dioxide (SiO2), is a naturally occurring compound of silicon and oxygen. It manifests in countless forms, from micro-crystalline silica to quartz or rock crystal. Silica is widely recognized for durability. Forms such as-crystalline, amorphous, and granular make this compound a key building block in many geological processes. It's essential in products from glass and ceramics to food additives. Silica is in over 80% of modern glass formulas. Smelting Metals: Metalwork & Alchemy Carbuncle: Red Stone of Magic & Medicine Magnetite: Ubiquitous Iron Ore with Soul Properties of Silica Chemical Stability : It is highly resistant to chemical weathering. Silica sand is used in landscaping and construction for this reason. Hardness : Silica ranks 7 on the Mohs hardness scale, making it one of the hardest substances. High Melting Point : It has a melting point around 1,600 degrees Celsius (2,912 degrees Fahrenheit), which allows it to withstand extreme temperatures. Transparency : In its crystalline form, quartz can be transparent to translucent, making it valuable in optics. The crystalline form of silica can be transparent and has the ability to refract light, important in lenses. Hardness : Silica ranks 7 on the Mohs hardness scale, making it one of the hardest natural materials. This quality makes it desirable for abrasive products. Absorbent : Amorphous silica has excellent absorbent properties, making it useful in products ranging from cat litter to food preservation. Algae in Glass Houses: Diatomaceous Earth Testate Amoebae: Single Cells with Shells Rhinestones: Treasures of the Rhine Silica in Nature Silica is ubiquitous in nature, found in formation of rocks, soils and living organisms. It forms the primary component of sand. It's integral to the creation of many plants by silicification, in which silica is deposited in cell walls, enhancing structure and resistance to pests. It appears in familiar forms such as quartz, sand and opal. It creates the famous rhinestones  of Germany and Austria. Silica is essential to natural systems. In geology, silica contributes to formation of rocks and supports soil health, fundamental in agriculture. For plants, silica helps strengthen cell walls, reducing susceptibility to pests and droughts. It's a natural abrasive in erosion. Diatoms are known for their fantastic shells of silica. These microscopic algae can appear in tapered form as below, rectangular form. Several diatomaceous algae can also create intricate patterns by linking together. 5 Waters of Ancient Alchemy: Aqua Caustic Literature: Great Literary Patrons in History Corundum: Secrets of Valuable Gemstones Ancient Use of Silica It's a main component of natural glass like obsidian, moldavite and Libyan desert glass. The latter two are thought formed millions of years ago from intense heat of a meteorite impact. These are treasured in jewelry and ornament. Libyan desert glass appears in Egyptian tombs. Structures of fused silica are also created by lightning strikes, or as below by a power line arcing over rocky soil. Lechatelierite is the mother of lightning glass stones, in that all lightning glass is a type of this formation. Egyptian faience is a type of frit glass highly popular on trade routes. Frit is a mixture of quartz (silica), alkali such as natron or plant ash , and lime with a copper or cobalt colorant to give a coveted blue color. Faience is created by crushing quartz or sand crystals. Artisans mix them with varying quantities of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and copper oxide. This mixture is then shaped into the desired form, such as an amulet, beads, a brooch, or a figurine. It's then given a high heat treatment. Glaze colors range from translucent earth brown tones to green, aqua and brilliant blue. Deep blue faience resembles the color of desirable gemstone lapis lazuli . Egyptian Blue Faience - Ceramic Glass Zaffre: Vintage Cobalt Blue Glass & Artists' Pigment Lye (NaOH): Caustic Soda for Soap & Glass Earliest evidence of faience production comes from a workshop c. 5200 BCE, located near the temple of the god Khentiamentiu in Abydos. Examination of plant ash identifies the time period. Quartz or rock crystal is known to ancient Greeks as krystallos , meaning crystal. The natural historian Pliny the Elder in 1st century Rome posits clear quartz is water frozen so long it's become stone. Amethyst, a type of quartz, is highly prized in Rome. Amethyst - Divine Purple Quartz Gemstone Ancient Traders & Buyers: Art of Testing Metals Alchemy & Renaissance Glass: Antonio Neri Early humans use microcrystalline silica in the form of flint to create tools and weapons. It's prized for hardness and ability to produce sharp edges. Accurate knapping techniques can craft effective weapons, hunting and cutting tools. The natural volcanic glass obsidian is up to 80% silica. Neolithic trade routes are set up around the raw and processed forms of this desirable product. Silica-rich clay is used for pottery, providing a durable, fire-resistant medium. As well, ancient Egyptians use silica in sand to create mortar for statues and buildings. Ancient Egyptians are responsible for many progressive ideas in science, before the official existence of science. Ancient Greek Discovery & Use of Mercury Khet, the Body: Death Rites of Ancient Egypt Taweret - Hippopotamus Goddess of Egypt Gemstones: Silica and Chalcedony Silica acts as a parent compound to various gemstones, including the many types of chalcedony. Chalcedony is a microcrystalline type of silica forming in layered deposits with unique color variations and patterns, as in the many types of agate. As a gemstone, chalcedony is valued for ornamental properties and is frequently used in jewelry. Types of chalcedony include carnelian , chrysoprase and onyx. Both silica and chalcedony are composed of silicon dioxide, but they differ in structure. Carnelian - Sunny Gems of the Ancient World Etch Carnelian Beads Like It's Indus Valley 2500 BCE Chalcedony Gems: Secrets of Silicon Dioxide Silica Modern Discovery Advances in the study of silica occur during the 18th century when scientists began to isolate and analyze its purity and crystalline structure. At this time in history chemists are trying to distance themselves from alchemists, who have gained an unsavory reputation. Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1779 - 1848), a Swedish chemist, is one of the first to isolate silica in its purified form. His findings help clarify the occurrence of silica in nature and its significance in chemistry. Johann Glauber: Fulminating Gold & Sodium Sulfate Silicon (Si): Fueling the Robot Apocalypse Diatoms: Glass-Making Algae Crucial to Life Silica in Industry Silica has extensive industrial applications, including: Construction : Silica is a primary ingredient in concrete and cements. Approximately 70% of concrete's composition is silica. Glass Manufacturing : It's the main component in glass production. Electronics : High-purity silica is crucial in the manufacture of semiconductors. Ceramics : Silica is used to provide strength and heat resistance to ceramic products. Food : Silica is used as a flow agent in powdered foods and supplements, and to clarify beverages. Cosmetics : Micronized silica improves the texture of cosmetics, creating a smoother finish and enhancing aesthetic appeal in skincare products. Isabella Cortese: Renaissance Writer, Alchemist, Entrepreneur Equipment Alchemists Need: Essential Tools of the Trade Natural Purple Dyes: Ancient & Medieval Edibility of Silica Silica itself is not considered toxic and occurs naturally in many foods. However, the ingestion of silica in large, pure forms (like raw sand) can pose health risks. Food-grade silica, often used as an additive, is deemed safe for consumption in moderate amounts. Silica Dust Inhalation of silica dust can cause lung cancer, silicosis (a permanent scarring and hardening of the lungs), kidney disease, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Annually, about 230 people develop lung cancer due to previous occupational exposure to silica dust. Zaffre: Vintage Cobalt Blue Glass & Artists' Pigment Flowers of Antimony: Pure Medieval Purgative Venice Italy: Jewel of the Renaissance Modern Uses of Silica In contemporary society, the applications of silica continue to expand. Its use in advanced technologies such as nanotechnology, solar cells, and high-performance materials is on the rise. Silica nanoparticles are also being explored for use in drug delivery and as antimicrobial agents. Nanotechnology : Silica nanoparticles are increasingly important in drug delivery and medical imaging, offering innovative solutions in healthcare. Solar Panels : Silicon derived from silica is essential in solar panel manufacturing, with about one-third of the world’s energy now generated from solar technology. Water Filtration : Silica is frequently used in water treatment systems, helping to ensure access to clean drinking water, affecting billions globally. Panacea: Goddess of Universal Health Naples Renaissance: Holy Alchemy Medieval France: Peasants, Knights & Urbanites Facts About Silica Abundance : Silica is the most abundant mineral in the Earth's crust, comprising about 59% of its weight. Silica is the second most abundant mineral in the universe. Health Risks : While silicon itself is not hazardous, inhaling fine silica dust (crystalline silica) can lead to respiratory issues, including silicosis. Natural Habitat : It is naturally present in soils, an essential component of agriculture and plant ecology. Silica can form naturally occurring structures like siliceous sinter, an opaline deposit of geyserite, typically found in geothermal areas. Calcium (Ca): Earth Metal of Structure & Strength Alchemy: Dyeing Stones to Look Like Gems Herbal Remedies in Medieval Alchemy Silica (SiO2) is an integral compound and has shaped nature and society from ancient tools to advanced industrial applications. Whether in its natural form or as part of a manufactured product, silica continues to spark innovation and drive industries forward. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Alchemy begins with several elements coming together at a crucial time in Alexandria, Egypt. As an international glass center, the city is renowned for medical schools and philosophy. Alchemy rises into a Golden Age. This is some equipment alchemists use even today. Glass & Arts of Ancient Glass Making Alchemists of Ancient Alexandria The Great Library of Alexandria Sylvia Rose Books 1. Alembic One of the most iconic pieces of alchemical equipment is the alembic, a type of distillation apparatus. Typically made of glass or metal (copper or iron), it is used for separating mixtures based on differences in boiling points. The alembic can be heated from the bottom, with vapors condensing and dripping down the narrow spout into (ideally) another vessel. Cleopatra the Alchemist of Alexandria is credited with inventing the alembic. Cleopatra the Alchemist of Alexandria Colors of Alchemy: Black Nigredo Putrefaction Soul Perspectives: Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato Sylvia Rose Books 2. Retort Similar to the alembic, the retort features a spherical body, long curved neck and collection vessel. In contrast to the retort where body and neck are a single piece, the alembic consists of two separate parts. The neck of the alembic extends from a cap on top of the still's body. A retort is another distillation apparatus but with a different design. Distillation is a favorite process of alchemists. It also has a bulbous body with long neck. Alchemists favor retorts for their ability to heat substances directly, ideal for understanding the essence of materials. Natural Purple Dyes: Ancient & Medieval Sublime Vision of Hermes Trismegistus Zosimos: First Golden Age of Alchemy Sylvia Rose Books 3. Mortar and Pestle The mortar and pestle serve as the alchemist's basic grinding tools. Used to crush and grind various substances - herbs, minerals, and metals - these tools are fundamental for preparing materials for further processing. Alchemist experiment with different materials and sizes. The use of mortar and pestle begins about 35,000 years ago, making this tool one of the first used by early humans. People grind roots, herbs, bones, rocks, pigments, dye products, medicines to release the power of the plant or substance. Alchemy: How to Make Emerald from Quartz Wine God Liber: Liberty & Liberal Libation Vitriol in Alchemy: Caustic Compounds Sylvia Rose Books 4. Crucible A crucible is a heat-resistant container used for melting and fusing materials at high temperatures. Alchemists use crucibles to experiments with metals and other substances. Crucibles are often used for smelting or separating metals. Generally a crucible is a small bowl or cup made of ceramic or metal. In the crucible the metal can be heated and purified. In the process below the crucible is used to separate oxides, or impurities, from the metal, by stirring and working the molten metal. Amazons - Warrior Women History & Myth Yahweh: Warrior Origins, Name & Lore Women Scientists of the Ancient World Sylvia Rose Books 5. Flasks and Beakers Glass flasks and beakers are essential for holding liquids and conducting reactions. Alchemists relied on different types of vessels for various processes—some for fermentation, others for heating. Each type had its significance, representing the alchemist's intention behind each experiment. Alexandria's position as a primary glass center by the 1st century AD contributes to the rise of alchemy. Alchemists can see their experiments at work, and even have vessels custom made. Glass & Arts of Ancient Glass Making Knowing the Three Primary Oxides of Iron Alchemy, Demons & the Roman Inquisition Sylvia Rose Books 6. Spirit Lamp or Bunsen Burner Heat is a crucial component in alchemical transformation. Alchemists often used spirit lamps or early versions of Bunsen burners for controlled heating of substances. Using flame for alteration and synthesis is a key to process, emphasizing the transformative nature of fire. Flame temperatures: Orange flames range from around 1100 °C to 1200 °C (2012 °F to 2192 °F) White flames are hotter, measuring 1300 °C to 1500 °C (2372 °F to 2732 °F). The brighter white, the higher the temperature. Blue flames, or flames with a blue base, are up to twice at hot, with temperature approximately 2500°C to 3000°C (4532 °F to 5432 °F) Violet flames burn hotter than 3000 °C (5432 °F) Calcination Process: Alchemy at High Heat How Sulfuric Acid is Made (*Corrosive*) Jungian Numerology & Number Meanings Sylvia Rose Books 7. Heating Mantle or Hot Plate In modern alchemy, heating mantles or hot plates are often used to provide a uniform heat source. Although not part of classical alchemy, these tools can facilitate experiments in a more controlled manner, bridging ancient techniques with modern scientific processes. In the past the alchemist has a hearth or forge for working with metals, herbs or medicines. Alchemy is an expensive hobby if one needs to rent a lab and buy a list of equipment from here to Toledo. As the Renaissance blossoms, patrons and practitioners form bonds of alliance. Edward Kelley: Alchemy & the Angels Women of Alchemy - Mary the Jewess Aether: Born of Darkness, God of Light Sylvia Rose Books 8. Scales Precision is vital in any form of chemistry. Scales are essential for measuring materials accurately. Today's scales are more precise than those used by ancients, due to digital and decimals. Measurements are crucial especially in medicines. Alchemists need to weigh ingredients carefully to ensure proper ratios between such ingredients as alum and purple plant dye . Due to the rise in counterfeiting, gold weight and silver weight are also among the indicators of purity. Alum: Tanning, Dye & Beauty Salts Alchemy and the Art of Gold-Making Difference Between Astrology & Astronomy in the Ancient World Sylvia Rose Books 9. Glass Rods, Measuring Cylinders and Stirring Tools Stirring rods made of glass or ceramic are best to mix corrosive solutions and ensure uniformity in reactions. Some solutions will eat metal rods. Measuring cylinders, beakers, test tubes and more fill the alchemical shelves. From strange storage jars to blacksmith tongs, suppliers get rich while alchemists seek patrons. These tools signify the alchemist’s role as both scientist and magician. The alchemist follows the mystic path of creation, crafting elixirs, dyeing and working metals with careful attention. Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Natural Health: Paracelsus & Hermetic Principles Alkahest: Panacea & Solvent Alchemy Sylvia Rose Books 10. Notebook, Drawing Pad and/or Photo Device Recording experiments is important, and many a time someone gets carried away and forgets to note down the critical steps of a process. Alchemists often write in code, through metaphor or symbolism. For example, old writings refer to iron as Mars and copper as Venus due to the association of planetary signs and metals pervading the alchemical corpus. Mars red is another term for a deep red iron oxide painters' pigment. Question of Alchemy in Ancient Rome Famous Women of Ancient Rome Asphodel: Ancient Dye & Medicine Plants Sylvia Rose Books This is only a fraction of the equipment used by alchemists. Workspace is also important, with proper ventilation and lots of elbow room. Other items on the list are safety goggles and gloves, lab coat in case of spills, rubber-soled shoes and of course the alchemical pantry. Every alchemist builds up a stock of materials she uses regularly. As time goes by, the pantry shelves begin to fill. Ptolemy: Earth, Almagest & Ancient Astronomy Alchemy: Mercurius & the Dragon Wolfsbane (Aconitum) Ancient Poisons Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Amoebae or amoebas are single-celled microorganisms of phylum Amoebozoa . Testate amoebae build unique shells of silica and other organic materials. An amoeba is a favorite of microbe seekers as it flows into diverse shapes created by its pseudopodia or false feet. The Microscope: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Sodium Silicate: Alchemy of Water Glass Acid-Producing Bacteria in Sulfuric Acid Creation Above: Some testate amoebae (A, B, C - Heleopera sphagni ; D, E - Hyalosphenia papilio ; F, G - Centropyxis aculeata ; H, I - Arcella discoides ; J, K - Difflugia pyriformis ) showing the shells (1) enclosing the cytoplasm (2) and the pseudopodia (3) protruding through the aperture. Adapted from Leidy (1879). Source ResearchGate . About Amoebae Amoebae or amoebas are a varied group of one-celled organisms within the kingdom Protista. They're characterized by their shape-shifting capabilities, allowing them to extend portions of their cell membrane to form pseudopodia for movement and capture of food. Amoebas are often found in water bodies and moist terrestrial environments. Primarily freshwater organisms of lakes and ponds, they can also be found in saltwater and soil. They can differ widely in their habits. Some species live independently, while others are parasitic. Despite these differences, they all share key features, such as fluid-like cytoplasm and a nucleus containing genetic material. Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Silent Destroyers: Microbial Corrosion of Concrete Biofilm Communities: Metropolitan Microbes Testate or Shelled Amoebae Free flowing amoebae are called naked amoebae. Testate amoebae are different. They form an external shell, or test, made of organic or inorganic materials. Silica is a favorite building material and some testate amoeba shells are made entirely of diatom silica skeletons. This protective casing with its masterful structure integrity helps these vital organisms maintain a stable internal environment. They are protected from predators and changes in the environment, such as pollution or low oxygen levels. Algae in Glass Houses: Diatomaceous Earth Rotifers (Rotifera): Animalcules Under the Microscope Oil-Dwelling Microbes: Bacteria, Yeast, Fungi Now this is truly amazing. The shells of testate amoebae are not just thrown together like a bunch of stuff. They're intricately designed with pores for the amoeba's pseudopodia to extend through. In this way the amoeba easily moves and captures food. Testate amoebas include: Arcella : Known for its dome-shaped shells. Euglypha : Features complex, elongated tests made of organic materials. Centropyxis : Characterized by its unique, rounded tests. Difflugia : Recognized for its ornate, often mineral-based shells. Each of these genera showcases different shell shapes and textures, adapted for their particular lifestyles and environments. Metal to Rust: Unseen Organisms in Action Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses Seven Deadly Diseases of the Renaissance Materials Used for Their Shells Testate amoebae construct their shells using found materials such as silica, organic debris, or fine particles in the environment. The choice of materials can vary greatly among different species and even within a species, depending on local conditions. Composition includes: Silica : Testate amoebae such as Difflugia  produce siliceous shells from soluble silica found in water. Amoebas extract soluble silica from the water and precipitate it to form solid structures.    Organic materials : Species like Euglypha  build intricate tests from organic debris. They secrete sticky substances to bind debris and minerals, solidifying to form the protective shells. Mineral particles : Some testate amoebas actively collect sand grains and other particles, using adhesion mechanisms to make them into cohesive shells. This also helps camouflage them from predators and other microbe seekers. Lactic Acid Bacteria: Nature to Modern Uses Microfungi: Mysterious Web of Life & Death Mosaic Gold: Alchemy of a Forgotten Art Environments of Testate Amoebae Testate amoebae are water lovers. They live in a variety of environments, often freshwater bodies, such as streams, ponds, and marshes, as well as damp soils or decaying organic matter. They comprise up to half of all microbial biomass in peatlands. The presence of testate amoebae is a sign of a healthy ecosystem, as they are important to nutrient cycling and decomposition of matter. Like the amoebae, many microbes are decomposers and without them we would have a horrific world. Testate amoebae help maintain the microbial food web as both predators and prey. They feed on bacteria and decaying organic materials, ensuring bacterial populations remain in check. Recycling of nutrients fosters plant growth and benefits other microorganisms. Amoebae: Microbial Predators on the Move Cupriavidus metallidurans: Metal Eating Gold Making Bacterium Heliozoa: Microscopic Sun Animalcules Feeding, Breathing, Reproducing Testate amoebas are heterotrophs, meaning they cannot produce their own food. Omnivorous microbes, they primarily consume bacteria, algae and organic detritus. They use their pseudopodia to engulf food particles through a process called phagocytosis. In phagocytosis the amoeba surrounds its food with pseudopodia to create a food vacuole. The vacuole fills with digestive enzymes to quickly break down the food. The amoeba can absorb resulting nutrients. One testate amoeba can eat thousands of bacterial cells per day. After digestion, any excess or undigested materials are expelled from the amoeba through exocytosis. The waste is moved to the edge of the cell, which opens up to release it into the surrounding environment. This provides nutrients for other life forms. Microbial Alchemy: Fermentation, Digestion, Putrefaction S. pasteurii: Calcium Eating Limestone-Making Bacteria Calcium (Ca): Earth Metal of Structure & Strength To breathe, testate amoebae rely on diffusion to exchange gases across their cell membrane. They absorb oxygen from water and release carbon dioxide, vital to plant health. Testate amoebae contribute up to 13 % of total carbon and nitrogen mineralization in upland forest soils. Reproduction is most often asexual through binary fission, where one amoeba splits into two identical daughter cells. Under favorable conditions, a single testate amoeba can rapidly multiply, leading to significant population growth. Talc (Magnesium Silicate): Beauty, Art & Industry Etch Carnelian Beads Like It's Indus Valley 2500 BCE Catalase: Unseen Enzymes Essential to Life Historical Existence on Earth Testate amoebas have an evolutionary history of hundreds of millions of years. The fossil record indicates the presence of testate amoebas has been consistent throughout various geological periods, showing their resilience and adaptability to changing conditions. In environmental microbiology, testate amoebae are valuable research subjects. Their presence can act as bioindicators, shedding light on water quality and overall ecosystem health. Testate amoebae are harmless to humans. Arsenic Trioxide: Paris Green Paint Pigment & Pesticide Metal Salts: Ancient History to Modern DIY Rotten Egg Sulfur Smell: Microbial Processes Facts About Testate Amoeba Diversity : There are numerous species within the testate amoeba group, each adapted to specific environmental niches. Environmental Indicators : Due to their sensitivity to environmental changes, testate amoebas are often used as bioindicators for assessing water quality and sediment health. Intricate Shells : Many testate amoebas have beautifully crafted shells that can be observed under microscopes, showcasing patterns and designs unique to each species. Their shells have been found preserved in sedimentary rocks. Some testate amoebas demonstrate remarkable morphological diversity, which helps them adapt to various habitats. They can endure harsh conditions, such as drying out and temperature fluctuations. Research on testate amoebas can reveal insights into prehistoric ecosystems and ancient climates. Flowers of Antimony: Pure Medieval Purgative Faust: Fact & Fiction German Renaissance Famous Women of Renaissance Alchemy Testate amoeba are vital components of their ecosystems. They contribute to the decomposition of organic matter and nutrient cycling while exhibiting the unique adaptation of shell formation. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Heliozoa, or sun animalcules, are remarkable protozoa with bodies of spheres and radiating arms or axopodia. Found in freshwater and marine habitats, Heliozoa are vital to ecosystems and aquasystems, but rarely noticed except under a microscope. Calcite: Metal-Eating Bacteria to Coral Reefs Calcium (Ca): Earth Metal of Structure & Strength Metal to Rust: Unseen Organisms in Action The term animalcule comes from Antonie van Leeuwenhoek , arguably the first to observe tiny creatures under a home-made microscope, in the early17th century. He makes an incredible amount of observations, although the sun animalcule is not discovered until the 19th century. Heliozoa are microbial single-celled eukaryotes in of the kingdom Protista. A protist is any eukaryote not an animal, land plant or fungus. Numbered among the amoebae, Heliozoa are microscopic but can grow up to 1 mm in diameter, barely visible to the unaided eye. Around their spherical bodies the axopodia or arms are extensions of their own cytoplasm, supported by a system of microtubules. Purposes of axopodia include capturing food, sensation, movement, and attachment to surfaces. S. pasteurii : Calcium Eating Limestone-Making Bacteria The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature Algae in Glass Houses: Diatomaceous Earth Geological History and Emergence Heliozoa first emerge in Earth's geological history over 1.5 billion years ago, during the Proterozoic Eon, a time marked by diversification of eukaryotic life. The organisms exist alongside other microbial life forms, contributing to dynamics of ancient ecosystems. Fossil evidence shows they evolve significantly over geological time to become foundational elements in aquatic food webs. Adaptability enables Heliozoa to survive drastic changes. During the Permian extinction, up to 96% of marine species perish, but Heliozoa persists. Oil-Dwelling Microbes: Bacteria, Yeast, Fungi Metal Salts: Ancient History to Modern DIY Cupriavidus metallidurans : Metal Eating Gold Making Bacterium Discovery and Initial Observations Heliozoa are first observed in the 19th century. The German zoologist Ernst Haeckel is credited with their discovery in 1862. Haeckel’s studies convey much of what the modern world knows about protozoa, giving valuable insights into their morphology and classification. Haeckel extensively documents these unique life forms using microscopy, sharing his findings in his famous work, " Kunstformen der Natur " (Art Forms in Nature). Since Haeckel's pioneering work, researchers have studied the intriguing properties of this little organism. Lactic Acid Bacteria: Nature to Modern Uses Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Sanguine: Red Chalk of Renaissance Masters Types of Heliozoa: (A) Clathrulina elegans; (B) Actinophrys sol; (C) Actinosphaerium eichhorni; (D) Heterophrys myriopoda; (E) Ciliophrys infusionum; (F) Acanthocystis turfacea; (G) Lithocolla globosa; (H) Raphidiophrys elegans . Habitat Conditions Heliozoa thrive in aquatic environments, both freshwater and marine. They are often found in nutrient-rich waters, where sunlight penetrates, creating an abundance of other microscopic organisms. They depend on the availability of prey and suitable substrates for attachment. Typically, they prefer warm water, with a temperature range of 20 to 30 °C and a pH level close to neutral (around 6.5 to 7.5). This delicate balance in nutrient availability and environmental conditions makes Heliozoa an important bioindicator in aquatic ecosystems. Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses Seven Deadly Diseases of the Renaissance Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Ecological Function Heliozoa are both predators and prey. Primarily heterotrophic, they feed on smaller microorganisms such as bacteria and algal cells. When Heliozoa capture food, vacuoles for digestion are formed, a prey engulfing system known as phagocytosis (below). This involves the pseudopodia or axopodia of the cell enveloping the food, allowing it to be digested inside. This is also how amoebae eat. Through digestion, Heliozoa contribute to nutrient cycling, breaking down organic materials to enrich their environments. The waste they produce mainly consists of undigested food and metabolic byproducts. These compounds break down into simpler forms, returning valuable nutrients to the ecosystem thus sustaining other organisms. Alchemy & Heat: Decomposition of Horse Manure Meet the Microbes - History of Microbiology Bacteria: Unseen Driving Force Behind All Life The axopodia can extend several times the length of the cell body. Granules, or extrusomes on the arms, capture flagellates, ciliates and small metazoa coming in contact with the arms of the heliozoan. When a particle is caught, the axopodia engulf the prey, forming a food vacuole. Within the vacuole enzymes digest or break down the prey so the heliozoan can absorb nutrients directly into its cytoplasm. Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight:  Xanthomonas Campestris Scheele's Green: History's Most Toxic Pigment Chlorine (Cl): Properties, Hazards & Uses This beautiful sun animalcule is from Microbehunter . The spherical shape is easy to see. Reproduction Heliozoa primarily reproduce asexually through binary fission, where one organism divides into two identical daughter cells. This method enables swift population growth, especially in resource-rich environments. Less often, they reproduce sexually, involving fusion of gametes. This introduces genetic diversity. However, animals like rotifers show genetic diversity can also be achieved without sexual reproduction. A female takes foreign matter into her body and applies it to the egg. Rotifers (Rotifera): Animalcules Under the Microscope B. Linens Bacterium: Big Cheese of B.O. Microbial Alchemy: Fermentation, Digestion, Putrefaction Potential Hazards Generally, heliozoa are safe for humans and larger animals. They lack stinging cells found in some other protozoans and are not known to carry diseases harmful to people. Their interactions remain within their microscopic communities, enhancing ecosystem health. While they have no interest in humans, their presence or absence can indicate water quality. A high population of heliozoa shows a a nutrient-rich environment, while their decline might signal pollution or other ecological issues. Fungal Biofilms: Ecology of Biofilm-Producing Molds Colorful World of Bacteria - Color Producers Silent Destroyers: Microbes of Concrete Corrosion Facts About Heliozoa Diversity: There are many different species of Heliozoa, each adapted to their specific environments. Size: Heliozoa can range in size from about 10 micrometers to over 200 micrometers in diameter. Research Value: Their unique structures and functions make them a subject of interest in studies related to cell biology, ecology, and evolution. Habitat Indicators: The presence of Heliozoa in freshwater or marine habitats can indicate certain ecological conditions, making them useful in environmental monitoring. Their axopodia can extend many times their body length, enhancing their ability to capture prey. They can adapt their reproductive methods based on conditions, switching between asexual and sexual reproduction as needed. Heliozoa help regulate bacterial populations in aquatic ecosystems, maintaining balance and supporting diverse life forms. Silent Destroyers: Microbes of Concrete Corrosion Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter Catalase: Unseen Enzymes Essential to Life These fascinating microeukaryotes, with unique spherical shapes and radiating axopodia, provide valuable insights into the complexities of microbial life. For nutrient cycling, food web dynamics, and environment, Heliozoa are crucial elements in aquatic ecosystems. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Glass production is known before the Bronze Age. Early glassmakers in Egypt and the ancient Near East produce colored beads and later utensils. Alchemical Alexandria is a glassmaking site c. 1st century AD. Later Italian Renaissance glassmaking takes the art to new heights. The Great Library of Alexandria Alchemists of Ancient Alexandria Zaffre: Vintage Cobalt Blue Glass & Artists' Pigment Natural glass forms in quickly cooled conditions such as volcanic lava pouring into the sea or extruding through the slope. The first plentiful natural glass is obsidian, found in volcanic zones. East of the Black Sea, a Neolithic obsidian processing center operates c. 9000 BCE. Other types of natural glass include moldavite, thought to come from the impact of meteorites; and Libyan desert glass created by a bolt of lightning fusing sand with sudden intense heat. Obsidian: Ancient Volcanic Black Glass Baltic Amber - Gold of the North Casting the Bones - Astragalomancy The art of glassmaking goes back to c. 3800 BCE. Based on archaeological finds, the first genuine synthetic glass is crafted in regions like Lebanon, coastal north Syria, Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt. Glass is a heat interaction of sand, lime and soda ash. The earliest glass artifacts are primarily beads, potentially originating as accidental by-products of metalworking (slags) or during the production of Egyptian faience, a glass-like material created through a process similar to glazing. Egyptian Blue Faience - Ceramic Glass Aristotle: Intellect & Psyche the Soul Slaves Unchained: Freedmen of Ancient Rome Early glass is often non-transparent, containing impurities and flaws. Red-orange glass beads are uncovered from the Indus Valley Civilization, a culture known for carnelian  beadwork, dating pre-1700 BCE. The first glass production relies on methods borrowed from stone working. The maker grinds and carves glass while it's cold, just as in carving clear quartz or rock crystal. The jug below is from Renaissance Italy, a time when ancient art and wisdom is re-discovered in Europe. Renaissance Apocalypse: End is Nigh Alkahest: Panacea & Solvent Alchemy Spagyria: Botanical Science of Alchemy An early glass-forming method involves working molten glass around a clay or sand core. The mold is heated and the molten glass fuses around it, leaving a hollow. This creates a container for everyday use. Glass items from molds are all made a similar way. The mold can be graphite, silicone or metal. Molten glass is poured into the mold and left to harden. Once hardened, it's removed from the mold. Extra glass in the middle is scooped out and remelted later. Continuous glass production starts c. 1600 BCE in Mesopotamia and 1500 BCE in Egypt. In the Late Bronze Age, major advances in glassmaking occur. Discoveries from this era include colored glass ingots, vessels, and beads. Rhinestones: Treasures of the Rhine Garnets - Gemstones of Blood and Life Amethyst - Divine Purple Quartz Gemstone By the 15th century BCE, significant glass production happens in Western Asia, Crete, and Egypt. The Mycenaean Greek term ku-wa-no-wo-ko-i , translating to "workers of lapis lazuli and glass" is documented. The knowledge and techniques needed for initial glass fusion from raw materials are a closely guarded secret. Consequently, glassworkers in other regions have to rely on imported pre-formed glass. Panacea: Goddess of Universal Health Alchemy, Demons & the Roman Inquisition Hermeticism & Alchemy in Alexandria The Bronze Age collapse of c. 1200 BCE halts glass production. It starts again in Syria and Cyprus, c. 9th century BCE, with discovery of techniques for producing colorless glass. The oldest known glassmaking "manual", cuneiform inscriptions, dates to c. 650 BCE. Diving bells, described by Aristotle in the 4th century BCE, are major advances in underwater exploration and engineering. Aristotle's student Alexander the Great has a glass diving bell made. It's said he descends to scope out enemy positions in the Siege of Tyre 332 BCE. Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Emerald Tablet - Sacred Alchemy Text Stephanus of Alexandria: the Last Intellectual Glass-making is reintroduced in Ptolemaic Alexandria, Egypt (323 - 30 BCE). While core-formed vessels and beads remain popular, new techniques emerge due to experimentation and technological advancements. Glassblowing is invented by Syrian craftsmen around Sidon and Aleppo in the 1st century BCE. Blown vessels are created for everyday and luxury use. Produced commercially, they're exported to all parts of the Roman Empire. It looks easy but takes time to master the art of glassblowing. An artisan inserts molten glass onto a hollow metal tube and blows through the tube to create a glass bubble. After the bubble is made, workers use tools and flat surfaces to shape and design the glass. Verdigris: Volatile Blue Green Pigment The Anxious Victorian - Mental Health   Sodium Silicate: Alchemy of Water Glass Throughout the Hellenistic era, various innovative glass production methods are introduced, leading to creation of larger items such as tableware. Techniques such as 'slumping' involve shaping viscous glass over a mold to create dishes or specialized alchemical apparatuses. Alexandria is known for its medical schools in the Ptolemaic period as well. Physicians such as Hippocrates study in Egypt. Glass is perfect for medical experiments. Alchemy and medicine are closely linked and many doctors are also alchemists even into the Victorian Era. Natural Health: Paracelsus & Hermetic Principles Democritus - Atomic Theory 400 BCE Alexandria: Jewel of Ancient History In the 1st century AD, the industry experiences swift technological advancement with the innovation of glass-blowing and the prevalence of clear or 'aqua' glasses. The production of raw glass and the crafting of finished vessels were carried out in different geographic areas. By the end of the 1st century AD, extensive production, mainly in Alexandria, leads to the widespread availability of glass as a common material in the Roman Empire. 1st century alchemist Mary the Jewess  enthuses over the glass vessels and invents a few too. Women of Alchemy - Mary the Jewess Four Humors & Medical Stagnation Alchemy: Processes Used by Alchemists The term "glass" originates in the late Roman Empire (284 - 641 AD), from a Roman glassmaking hub in Trier, Germany. The substance is known as " glesum, " referring to a clear, shiny material. Roman glass artifacts are found throughout the Roman Empire in homes, burial sites and areas of industry. Like faience, glass is a desirable item of trade. Roman glass appears in such diverse places as China, the Baltics, the Middle East and India. Olympiodorus of Thebes & His Parrot Alkanet: Ancient Dye Magic & Medicine Status & Rights of Women in Imperial Rome According to Pliny the Elder, Phoenician traders are the first to stumble upon glass manufacturing techniques at the site of the Belus River. Georgius Agricola, in De re metallica , reported a traditional serendipitous "discovery" tale of familiar type: "The tradition is that a merchant ship laden with nitrum [niter] being moored at this place, the merchants were preparing their meal on the beach, and not having stones to prop up their pots, they used lumps of nitrum from the ship, which fused and mixed with the sands of the shore, and there flowed streams of a new translucent liquid, and thus was the origin of glass." History says glass arrives on the scene before Phoenicians, but it's a good story. Pliny also believes rock crystal is ice frozen so long it's become stone. However he's the first to discover amber is a resin. With Pliny it's kind of hit and miss. Catherine de' Medici & the Occult   Rise of the Phoenicians - Early Years Sublime Vision of Hermes Trismegistus To keep glass malleable enough to work with, hardened glass is heated in a furnace. Glass melts at 1,400 - 1,600 °C (2,552 - 2,912 °F). Artisans heat the glass until it's pliable; then the maker manipulates and crafts the material to desired form. Once the glass has been shaped and designed, it is removed from the furnace and left to cool slowly at room temperature. This cooling process is crucial to ensure that the glass retains its structural integrity and does not crack or shatter due to sudden changes in temperature. Naples Renaissance: Holy Alchemy Roger Bacon: Medieval Science & Alchemy Natural Magic of the Renaissance The Romans excel in creating cameo glass, a technique of etching and carving through layers of fused colors to create raised designs on glass objects. Glass is used extensively in Europe during the Middle Ages. From the 10th century on glass is used in stained glass windows of churches and cathedrals. By the 14th century, architects design buildings with walls of stained glass. During the Renaissance, glass making is dominated by powerful families in Italy. The most famous glass comes from Murano, an island in a chain off Venice. By the 13th century it's dominated by a podesta  or magistrate from Venice. Alkahest: Panacea & Solvent Alchemy Spagyria: Botanical Science of Alchemy Collective Unconscious: Seeking the Whole By 1291, all glassmakers in Venice are told to relocate to Murano. Over the next century, exports start, leading to the island's renown, particularly for glass beads and mirrors. Again, the formula for glass making is kept a secret, forcing dependence of pre-made products. Murano's glassmakers are soon among the island's most prominent citizens. By the fourteenth century, glassmakers are permitted to wear swords. They are immune from prosecution by the Venetian state, and their daughters marry into Venice's most affluent families. Aventurine glass is first created on Murano. A translucent glass with sparkling inclusions of gold, copper, or chromic oxide is first made in Venice in the 15th century. This establishes Venice as Europe's primary glass producer for several centuries. Romanesque - Magic of Light & Stone Allegory of the Cave: Vision and Truth White Lead Toxic Beauty, Art, Ancient Production Subsequently, the island gains recognition for exquisite glass chandeliers. Despite a decline in the 18h century, glassmaking remains the primary industry of Murano. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Zaffre (zaffer) is a vibrant deep blue pigment developed by alchemists, major pigment creators, by c. 1550 AD. Characterized by brilliant hues and unique composition, zaffre is beloved in the Renaissance, Baroque and Victorian Era in paint, glazes and glassmaking . Verdigris: Coveted Blue Green Copper Pigment White Pigments of Ancient Artisans Lead White & Minium Red: Colors to Die For Zaffre gets its rich blue tones from metallic cobalt ores. The name is thought to originate from Italian zaffra , meaning the toxic metal cobalt. " Zaffer " is first recorded in English in the 1550s. Zaffre is a primary ingredient for producing smalt, beautiful cobalt blue glass. Cobalt blue glass is known from ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. This color in glass production grinds to a halt c. 1250 BCE at the advent of the Bronze Age collapse. For web colors, zaffre or zaffer is hex triplet #0014A8. Easter Bunny, Prussian Blue & Penguins Colorful World of Bacteria - Color Producers German Peasants' War: Rebellion of Despair About Cobalt Cobalt is a transition metal essential for creating this distinctive blue pigment. It's obtained from mineral ores cobaltite and smaltite (cobalt arsenide). Despite its quantitative hazards cobalt is essential for health in animals in minute amounts as a component of vitamin B12. A chemical element, cobalt has symbol Co and atomic number 27. As with nickel, cobalt is found in the Earth's crust only in a chemically combined form, save for small deposits found in alloys of natural meteoric iron. How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health 10 Ancient Spices of Trade, Health & Beauty Copper (Cu) Effects on Human & Plant Health A deficiency of cobalt is very rare and potentially lethal, as it causes pernicious anemia. In this case not enough blood cells are produced due to lack of B12, and the person initially feels weak and lethargic, followed by nausea, chest pain, numbness and confusion. Cobalt is named after a German mine spirit, the Kobold . Kobolds are also found in homes and on ships at sea , where they can be helpful unless insulted. The mine kobold is more malevolent or mischievous, corrupting good metal and giving nothing back. In 18th century German copper mines he's called Nickel (Little Nick), after whom that metal is named. House Spirits of Germanic Mythology Belsnickel - German Yule Ghoul German Myth - Harvest Spirits How is Zaffre Made? Production of zaffre involves roasting cobalt ore, resulting in either an impure form of cobalt oxide (CoO) or impure cobalt arsenate (CoAsO4). The complexity of its creation lies in the extraction and purification processes of cobalt. Roasting Cobalt Ore The ore is heated to high temperatures in a furnace, to convert the cobalt within it to cobalt oxide. This is a volatile form, separated from other minerals and impurities. Alchemy: Processes Used by Alchemists Women Scientists of the Ancient World   Honey Mead: Most Ancient Ambrosia The temperature to roast cobalt ore usually exceeds 1200 °C (2192 °F). Maintaining this temperature ensures a uniform product. Obtaining the Pigment The resulting product is then cooled and ground to form a powder yielding the vibrant blue hue characteristic to zaffre. It contains cobalt and impurities can affect both color and quality. Methods of producing zaffre evolve over time. Copper(II) Sulfate: Blue Vitriol, Chalcanthite Heavy Metals Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Chromium & Arsenic Nitric Acid: Aqua Fortis the Acid Queen What is Cobalt Oxide? Cobalt oxide, a compound of cobalt, exists in two main forms: CoO (cobalt(II) oxide) and Co3O4 (cobalt(II,III) oxide). The simpler CoO is essential for making blue pigments. Besides vivid color, cobalt oxides are durable and heat resistant for use in ceramics and glass. The stability and chemical properties of cobalt oxide are ideal for artists seeking a reliable blue pigment. Cobalt blue is often preferred over other shades due to its vibrant saturation. It will fade over time but with newly developed pigments lightfastness is hard to judge. Lye (NaOH): Caustic Soda for Soap & Glass Writing in Letters of Gold: Ancient Alchemy Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris What is Cobalt Arsenate? Cobalt arsenate comes from combination of cobalt oxide and arsenic acid. Characterized by a greenish-blue color, cobalt arsenate is historically used to manufacture diverse dyes and pigments including zaffre, and is highly toxic. Historically, cobalt arsenate is used to create various blue shades for glass and ceramics. Although arsenic compounds produce some of the most vibrant colors, including King's Yellow ( orpiment ) and Scheele's green , exposure to arsenic leads to serious health issues. “Of the many painters I have known, almost all I found unhealthy … If we search for the cause of the cachectic and colorless appearance of the painters, as well as the melancholy feelings that they are so often victims of, we should look no further than the harmful nature of the pigments…” ~ I8th century doctor Bernardinus Ramazzini Flowers of Antimony: Pure Medieval Purgative Alchemical Salt: Essential Salts of Alchemy Calcite: Metal-Eating Bacteria to Coral Reefs Smalt: The Allure of Cobalt Blue Glass Smalt is a cobalt blue glass first produced in the late 15th century. The earliest known methods involve mixing finely powdered cobalt oxide with glass particles and melting them together in a furnace. Potassium carbonate is incorporated into the glass as a flux to enhance its flow. Potassium also helps bolster the blue. After being thoroughly mixed, the heated glass is introduced to water, where the sudden temperature shock causes it to shatter into small fragments. Woad, the People's Blue: Ancient Pigments Prussian Blue - Delight of Artists & Poisoners Faust: Fact & Fiction German Renaissance These are ground into coarse pigment. The color must be carefully ground and only for a short time. The smaller the granules, the weaker the hue. Artists find it a cost-effective substitute to ultramarine , a pricey pigment made of the coveted blue stone lapis lazuli . Smalt has widespread applications in decorative arts, pottery and stained glass windows. It continues to be appreciated today for its luminescent qualities without the harmful toxins. Liver of Sulfur: Alchemy, Metal & Medicine Famous Women of Renaissance Alchemy Fulminating Gold: Blowing It Up in Alchemy Historical Uses of Zaffre Zaffre enjoys widespread popularity throughout the centuries, culminating in a zaffer boom in the Victorian Era. Artists use its vibrant blue hue in everything from paintings to stained glass windows and ceramics. Its versatility makes zaffre desirable in artistry. This pigment was especially favored for its ability to retain its hue when mixed with different mediums such as oils and watercolors. Throughout history, zaffre has found its way into various applications: Art and Paints : Artists utilized zaffre in oil paints and watercolor for its richness and lightfastness. Stained Glass : Zaffre was a crucial ingredient in the production of stained glass, allowing for intricate designs that captured light and color in cathedrals and churches. Ceramics : Potters used zaffre for glazing ceramics, enhancing both durability and aesthetic appeal. Textiles : It produces vibrant blue dyes for textiles, contributing to the toxicity of historical fashion. Garments dyed with zaffre have been found in period pieces displayed in museums. Vitriol in Alchemy: Caustic Compounds Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files Agrippina & Son: Poisonous Plots of Rome Hazards of Zaffre and Its Components While zaffre and its components can create exquisite colors, both cobalt and arsenic are toxic materials. Prolonged exposure to cobalt can lead to health issues such as lung disease or skin ailments. Arsenic is a common poison associated with potentially lethal effects. Facts about Zaffre Historical Period : Zaffre gains prominence particularly from the late Renaissance to the Victorian Era. Color Composition : The vibrant blue color of zaffre can be attributed to the properties of cobalt, which absorbs red light and reflects blue wavelengths. Modern Applications : Even today, cobalt compounds continue to be used in glass, paint, and ceramics, albeit with more stringent safety regulations. Cultural Impact : The alluring blue pigment of zaffre has fascinated artists, decorators, and historians alike, leaving an indelible mark on numerous artistic traditions. Alchemy: Processes Used by Alchemists Feast of Fools - A Lora Ley Adventure Egyptian Blue Faience - Ceramic Glass Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Cobalt is a silvery grey metal used across various fields, including science, medicine, and industry. It receives its name from the German Kobold , a goblin-like spirit. Cobalt is necessary for health. Its colors are prized in glass, ceramics, dye and painters' pigment. Care and Feeding of Your German Kobold Zaffre: Vintage Cobalt Blue Glass & Artists' Pigment House Spirits of Germanic Mythology What is Cobalt? Cobalt is a transition metal belonging to Group 9 of the periodic table. Characterized by its hard texture and metallic sheen, cobalt has an atomic number of 27. It exhibits properties similar to its neighboring elements, nickel and iron. Transition metals are known for excellent ability to conduct heat and electricity. The metal is primarily extracted from ores with nickel and copper, elements also associated with mine Kobolds. Nature Spirits of German Mythology Calcium (Ca): Earth Metal of Structure & Strength Gum Arabic (Acacia Gum) Art, Food & Medicine Nickel is a corrupting force of copper. In the 18th century German miners complain about the Kobold Nickel (Little Nick) who steals or destroys good copper. Likewise, the undesirable metal cobalt, which has no clear use at the time, is considered the product of a Kobold. Cobalt is acquired as a byproduct of silver smelting. Silver melts at 962°C while the melting point of cobalt is 1495°C (2723°F). The silver can be liquified and smelted out of the metals. Liver of Sulfur: Alchemy, Metal & Medicine Pyrometallurgy: Ancient Processes of Modern Alchemy German Peasants' War: Rebellion of Despair Cobalt can occur with nickel and/or iron as above, the former tricky to separate due its 1455°C melting point. But, what else can you expect when these two mischievous goblins get together? Electrolyte smelting with high heat is often used today. At first the metal cobalt is thought to be bismuth, a byproduct of copper. Cobalt blue glass is popular in Egypt and the Near East until c. 1250 BCE, the advent of the Bronze Age Collapse, when it disappears as a pigment in history. White Pigments of Ancient Artisans Egyptian Blue - First Synthetic Color Egyptian Blue Faience - Ceramic Glass The hue reappears in ancient Rome, and goes on to give its beauty to Venetian and other specialty glass of the Renaissance. Cobalt is first isolated 1735 by Swedish chemist Georg Brandt, who details its distinction from bismuth and nickel. He identifies cobalt as the originator of beautiful blue hues in glass and ceramics. Until then, the blue tones are thought to derive from copper, which produces blue and green. This discovery changes how cobalt is viewed and leads to widespread use in various applications. Zinc (Zn): Essential Metal in Alchemy & Medicine Finding the Philosophers' Egg Prussian Blue - Delight of Artists & Poisoners Properties of Cobalt Physical : It is a hard, lustrous metal that can withstand high temperatures, with a melting point of 1,495 °C (2,723 °F). Chemical : Cobalt is primarily found in oxidation states of +2 and +3 and readily forms complex compounds with various anions. Magnetic : Cobalt is one of the few metals that are ferromagnetic at room temperature, making it useful in electronics and magnetic applications. Alloys:  One of cobalt’s notable features is its ability to form strong alloys. It's thus used to strengthen other metals. Lead White & Minium Red: Colors to Die For Lapis Lazuli: Vibrant Blue Gem of Ancients Bronze Age Europe - The Amber Roads Occurrence in Nature The element is historically extracted as a byproduct of silver and copper mining, often occurring with nickel. Cobalt is not found in its pure form due to its reactive nature. The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Russia, and Australia have significant cobalt ore deposits. Cobaltite, smaltite, skutterudite and erythrite are some of the primary cobalt ores. Faust: Fact & Fiction German Renaissance Witches' Night - Hexennacht Ammonium Carbonate: Sal Volatile Smelling Salts Colors or Pigments Derived from Cobalt Cobalt Blue : A deep blue, brilliant and stable pigment used in painting, ceramics, and glassmaking . Today's cobalt blue is made by mixing cobalt oxide with alumina. Cobalt Green:  Created by mixing cobalt oxide and zinc oxide, this pigment offers a rich green, making it popular with artists and artisans. Cobalt Violet:  Produced by combining cobalt oxide and aluminum oxide, cobalt violet is commonly used in painter’s palettes and cosmetics. Cobalt can also yield light blue, pink, brown and yellow. Antimony (Stibnite, Kohl) Ancient Metal of Science & Beauty Scheele's Green: History's Most Toxic Pigment Copper(II) Sulfate: Blue Vitriol, Chalcanthite Functions of Cobalt in the Human Body In biological systems, cobalt is an essential trace element for humans. It plays a critical role in the formation of vitamin B12 (cobalamin). This vitamin is critical for several bodily functions, including: Red blood cell formation:  Vitamin B12 helps produce red blood cells, which transport oxygen throughout the body. Neurological function:  It supports nerve health and function. DNA synthesis:  Cobalt is vital for the production of DNA, the body's genetic material. Cobalt is essential for maintaining good health. Foods like meat, fish, dairy products, and whole grains are rich sources of this trace element. Glass of Antimony: Renaissance Purgatives Einkorn Wheat - First Domestic Crops Copper (Cu) Effects on Human & Plant Health Cobalt Poisoning Symptoms Cobalt poisoning is a rare but significant condition associated with high cobalt levels in the body. This can occur through occupational exposure, or from metal implants, such as artificial hip joints. Symptoms of cobalt poisoning include: Cardiomyopathy : Cobalt can affect the heart, leading to heart conditions such as cardiomyopathy, which inhibits the heart's ability to pump blood. Neurological Disorders : Prolonged exposure may result in problems like vision impairment, tinnitus, dizziness and confusion. Thyroid Dysfunction : High levels of cobalt can disrupt the thyroid gland's normal functioning. Respiratory Issues:  Inhalation of cobalt dust can lead to problems such as coughing and shortness of breath. Chlorine (Cl): Properties, Hazards & Uses Arsenic Trioxide: Paris Green Paint Pigment & Pesticide Red & White Tartar: Wine Salts of Alchemy Cobalt Deficiency Symptoms Cobalt deficiency, also rare, can have pronounced effects on health primarily due to its role in vitamin B12 synthesis. Symptoms include: Anemia : Deficiency can lead to a decrease in red blood cell production, causing fatigue and weakness. Neurological Issues : Cognitive impairment, memory loss, numbness and other neurological symptoms can be caused by lack of vitamin B12. Growth Disturbances : In severe cases, cobalt deficiency can affect growth and development in children. Pale Skin:  A noticeable pallor may indicate anemia due to a cobalt deficiency. Antimony (Stibnite, Kohl) Ancient Metal of Science & Beauty Heavy Metals Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Chromium & Arsenic Ethyl Alcohol: Science of Solvents & Booze Historical and Modern Uses of Cobalt Historically, cobalt was valued for its pigmentation properties in art and ceramics. However, its versatility has led to a diverse range of modern applications, including: Batteries : Cobalt is a key component of lithium-ion batteries used in electric vehicles and portable electronics. Manufacturing Alloys:  Cobalt is used in making durable cutting tools, high-temperature alloys and turbine blades due to its exceptional resistance to wear and corrosion. Catalysts : In chemical industries, cobalt compounds function as catalysts for some reactions, for instance in converting natural gas into liquid fuels. Gnomes: Earth Spirits of Renaissance Mythology Silverpoint Drawing: Art of the Renaissance Chemistry of Rust: Minerals & Pigment Colors Quick Cobalt Facts Cobalt is named for the German Kobold, a spirit of varying functions and temperaments. In German the end "d" is pronounced like "t". English speakers call it a goblin but the term has broader use. Kobolds live in homes, sailing ships and mines. It is one of the few metals that exhibits both ferromagnetism and piezoelectricity when in specific forms. It's easily magnetized even at room temperature. Cobalt-60, an isotope of cobalt, is widely used in cancer radiation therapy and as a radioactive tracer in medical applications. The colors of cobalt are still popular today. Cobalt blue glass experiences revival in the Renaissance and prevails through the following centuries. Production booms during the Victoria Era with steam power, the mechanization of factories and development of trains. Alchemy: Processes Used by Alchemists Women Scientists of the Ancient World   Honey Mead: Most Ancient Ambrosia Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Johann Georg Faust or Doctor Faustus is an alchemist, physician and magician, a cryptic figure of the German Renaissance. Perceived by some as a scam artist and by others as a brilliant scholar, Faust inspires tales of dark magic and the limits of human knowledge. German Peasants' War: Rebellion of Despair Liver of Sulfur: Alchemy, Metal & Medicine Cosimo Ruggeri: Prophecies from the Dark Faust transcends his historical origins to become legend, an enduring symbol of ambition, temptation and the quest for knowledge. Faust is described as an itinerant alchemist, astrologer, and magician. He's a captivating persona in literature and lore. Dr. Faust is a real person. In medieval Germany he emerges in an atmosphere of burgeoning scientific revolution and the clutch of medieval superstition. His life is shrouded in myth and speculation, with little biographical information. However some facts exist. Edward Kelley: Alchemy & the Angels Smelting Metals: Metalwork & Alchemy Scheele's Green: History's Most Toxic Pigment Historians generally agree he comes from southwest Germany. Faust is a man of diverse talents. An alchemist, he practices astrology and presents himself as a physician. This is not unusual. Medieval doctors must know astrology, and alchemy is a science of the times. There are two possible birth dates for Faust, 1466 and 1480, and two recorded first names, Georg and Johann. It's thought Georg is active in the early 1500s and Johann about 1530. Adding to the confusion, each has a different place of origin. Natural Health: Paracelsus & Hermetic Principles Renaissance Purgatives & Ancient Remedies Isabella Cortese: Renaissance Writer, Alchemist, Entrepreneur Faust is a contemporary of Swiss physician Paracelsus ( 1493 - 1541) , a well known character of the European Renaissance. In fact, the death date for Faust (Georg or Johann) is also 1541. Also an alchemist, Paracelsus sums it up: “... Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines.” Paracelsus: Renegade Renaissance Physician Women of Alchemy: Anna Maria Zieglerin Literature: Great Literary Patrons in History Faust's personal life is not well documented. History suggests his pursuits are solely devoted to knowledge and adventure. He's unmarried, though later fiction gives him a love interest. His fame in medieval Europe is built on rumors of his dealings with diabolical forces. In 1506, records indicate Faust performs magic tricks and casts horoscopes in Gelnhausen. Horoscopes are used throughout Europe and especially popular in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. Over the next 30 years, Faust accounts appear through southern Germany. In 1517, Martin Luther catalyzes the Reformation, challenging the authority of the Catholic Church. Germany is in chaos as religious clashes break out, spreading through Europe. Society is divided and uncertain, as the Inquisition furiously roots out heretics. Catholic Inquisitions: Chronology & Overview Protestant Reformation of Renaissance Europe Renaissance Apocalypse: End is Nigh In Feb 1520, Faust is in Bamberg, Bavaria casting horoscopes for the bishop and town. He's paid 10 gulden. The German Peasants' War against feudalism in 1524-5 further disrupts the workings of society in Germany. Class structures struggle on the verge of collapse, then return with a vengeance as the serfs meet a tragic defeat. An atmosphere of aristocratic suspicion prevails. In 1528, Faust visits Ingolstadt and is banished shortly after. In 1532 he tries to enter Nürnberg, according to a note made by the junior mayor of the city to "deny free passage to the great nigromancer and sodomite Doctor Faustus." Alkahest: Alchemy Panacea & Solvent Famous Women of Renaissance Alchemy Herbal Remedies in Medieval Alchemy Abbot Johannes Trithemius sends a letter to noted astrologer Johannes Virdung on 20 August 1507. He warns Virdung of a certain Georgius Sabellicus, a trickster and fraud styling himself Georgius Sabellicus, Faustus junior, fons necromanticorum, astrologus, magus secundus etc . Trithemius says Sabellicus blasphemously boasts of his powers, asserting he can replicate the miracles of Christ. According to Trithemius, in 1507 Sabellicus secures a teaching role in Sickingen, which he misuses by engaging in sodomy with male students From this record, the act of sodomy is associated with the character of Faust and has been much debated by philosophers and scholars. Faust’s reputation as a con man, however, comes from promises of miraculous cures he cannot deliver. Michael Sendivogius: Adventures in Alchemy Pope vs Alchemy 1317 AD: Falsification Rudolf II Renaissance Prague: Alchemy, Eros & Occult Faust travels through Europe, moving in diverse circles of scholars and curious citizens. This reinforces the solitary seeker archetype, driven by insatiable thirst for wisdom and power. The last direct record of Faust is 25 June 1535. He's in Münster during the Anabaptist rebellion. Some reports are more positive. In 1536 Tübingen professor Joachim Camerarius recognizes Faust as a respectable astrologer. In 1539 physician Philipp Begardi of Worms praises his medical knowledge. After his death in 1541, his life becomes legend. Stories circulate in chapbooks, portraying him as a arcane figure who deals with the Devil. These tales grip the public's imagination. Faust is sometimes presented as a tragic character, consumed by his desires. Medici & Alchemy: Italian Renaissance Bernard Trevisan: Legends of Alchemy Nicolas Flamel: Creation of an Alchemy Legend The Legend of Faust The mythos surrounding Faust centers on his pact with the Devil. According to legend, he sells his soul in exchange for knowledge and worldly pleasures. The theme encompasses the tension between human aspiration and moral boundaries. Folk tales suggest he practices necromancy, seeking knowledge and power from dark forces. Specifically, he does not sell his soul to the Devil personally but cuts the deal with Mephistopheles, a high-ranking demon. As the scientific revolution and colonialism speed through medieval Europe, they bring new awareness and philosophies. The theme of Faust, or the Faustian bargain, ie making a deal with the devil, appears in historical literature and modern media. Jabir ibn Hayyan: Alchemy of Islam Urine in Medieval Alchemy & Medicine Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files The legacy of Faust is immortalized through the works of influential playwrights and authors. Christopher Marlowe's "Doctor Faustus" (1604) In this early dramatization, Marlowe presents Faust as a brilliant scholar who, dissatisfied with the limits of human knowledge, turns to necromancy. He enters into a contract with Mephistopheles, a demon, trading his soul for 24 years of unlimited knowledge and indulgence. Marlowe's Faust is a complex character, torn between his desires and the impending doom of his bargain. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's "Faust" (Part I published in 1808, Part II in 1832) Goethe reinterprets the Faust legend, emphasizing the themes of striving and the eternal quest for meaning. His Faust is a deeply philosophical character who grapples with existential questions and ultimately seeks redemption. Goethe's work elevates the story from a mere cautionary tale to an exploration of the human condition. Musical works are also dedicated to the tales of Faust. Notable examples include Hector Berlioz's musical composition La damnation de Faust (1846), and Franz Liszt's Faust Symphony of 1857. Wiedergänger - the German Undead Aufhöcker - Cursed Undead of German Myth Witches' Night - Hexennacht After the death of Dr. Faust, not only do rumors burgeon but a number of tracts and mystic writings appear, attributed to him. Some of these are falsely dated to his lifetime, and even earlier dating c. 1405 and 1469. The prints originate in the late 16th century, around 1580, coinciding with the emergence of the Volksbuch (peoples' book or chapbook) tradition. These books are published as light reading with often romanticized themes. Great Persecution Rome vs. Christianity Butzemann, Witches & Nyx - Scare 'em Good 3 Great German Artists for Art Lovers Facts About Faust The Faust Book : The first known written account of the Faust legend is a chapbook published in 1587, titled " Historia von D. Johann Fausten ." This work helps solidify the character's notoriety and contributes to the depth of folklore surrounding him. The town of Bad Kreuznach in the Rhineland-Palatinate has a " Faust Haus " restaurant reportedly built in 1492 on the site of "the home of the legendary Magister Johann Georg Sabellicus Faust." Symbolism : Faust embodies the archetype of the tragic hero, or someone who seeks greatness at the cost of morality, often leading to downfall. Cultural Impact : The Faustian theme has inspired countless adaptations in literature, music, and art, echoing the struggles between ambition, morality, and the pursuit of knowledge across cultures and eras. Sparse Historical Records : Most insights about Faust come from chapbooks published after his death. These materials often lack accuracy, complicating our understanding of his life. Roots in Folklore : Stories of Faust began as oral folklore in the 1580s, later transforming into written forms that deeply influenced literature. The Faustian Bargain : Faust's pact with the Devil has become a cultural reference, representing the broader discussion of ambition and ethics throughout history. Allegory of Human Struggle : The story of Faust symbolizes the ongoing conflict between knowledge and ethics, reminding us of the often unforeseen consequences of human desires. Care and Feeding of Your German Kobold Ge Hong: Teachings Alchemy Medicine Alchemy: How to Make Rosaceum Oil Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Flowers of antimony are a purified form of antimony trioxide (Sb2O3). Created through sublimation, they have chemical and medical applications in the alchemy of medieval Europe and beyond. Glass of Antimony: Renaissance Purgatives Alchemical Salt: Essential Salts of Alchemy Calcite: Metal-Eating Bacteria to Coral Reefs Flowers of antimony refer to the crystalline form of antimony trioxide, derived through the process of sublimation. Antimony trioxide is heated in a controlled environment. The volatile compounds transition directly from solid to gas and then to solid again as they cool. The result appears as delicate white crystals. While flowers of antimony have the same formula as antimony trioxide, in medieval Europe they're valued as the purified form in a time people strive to purge impurities from the body through forceful expulsion. Ammonium Carbonate: Sal Volatile Smelling Salts Renaissance Purgatives & Ancient Remedies Powder of Algaroth: Antimony Oxychloride Purgative Antimony trioxide is a potent emetic and laxative. Doctors believe illness is caused by an imbalance of humors , or bodily fluids, the accepted science for almost two thousand years, starting with Hippocrates (c. 460 - 375 BCE) and later purveyed by Galen (130 - 210 AD). Renaissance renegade Paracelsus is one of the few who challenges this system to the point of publicly denouncing the theory and burning Galen's books. Paracelsus insists the symptoms of antimony poisoning are from an outside source, and the illness does not originate in the body. Corundum: Secrets of Valuable Gemstones Fulminating Gold: Blowing It Up in Alchemy Vitriol in Alchemy: Caustic Compounds What Is Antimony? Antimony is a metalloid with the chemical symbol Sb, derived from the Latin stibium . Stibnite (Sb2S3) is the ore of antimony. It's been known for millennia, often used in cosmetics, medicine, and as an alloy with lead or tin. Antimony is a poor conductor of heat and electricity, exhibits high melting and boiling points, and can exist in several allotropes, which are different structural forms. Alchemist(s) Basil Valentine is especially known for exploring antimony. The stone valentinite is named for him. Symptoms of antimony poisoning include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, insomnia and dizziness. Inhalation of antimony or its compounds can cause a hole in the septum of the nose, as well as respiratory effects such as wheezing. Faust: Fact & Fiction German Renaissance Liver of Sulfur: Alchemy, Metal & Medicine Famous Women of Renaissance Alchemy Antimony Trioxide Antimony is stable in air at room temperature. If heated, it oxidizes or reacts with oxygen to produce antimony trioxide, Sb2O3. Antimony trioxide (Sb2O3) is an inorganic compound of antimony, widely used in various industrial applications. It occurs as a white, odorless powder produced through oxidation of antimony metal. Process of Sublimation Sublimation is a physical process through which a solid transitions directly into a vapor without passing through a liquid phase. This phase change occurs under specific conditions of temperature and pressure. The process of sublimation is used since ancient times. Early alchemists, such as the Alexandrians , use sublimation to purify and isolate elements. They experiment with heat control and different techniques. Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files Anqi Sheng & the Elixir of Immortality Agrippina & Son: Poisonous Plots of Rome Use of Flowers of Antimony Historically, flowers of antimony are prized for medicinal properties. They're known for purgative, laxative, and emetic effects. This of course is mild poisoning, much like intoxication from wine is alcohol poisoning. Our friend Paracelsus introduces the concept of healing disease with a small dose of toxin. Along those lines he prescribes small doses of mercury to treat syphilis , a rampant disease in the Renaissance. Sweet Wormwood: Malaria Miracle Cure Natural Health: Paracelsus & Hermetic Principles Valerian: Natural Health & Essential Oils In this case, not only does the treatment not work, but people begin smearing mercury all over their bodies and taking mercury baths, even though the toxic effects of mercury are well known in the Middle Ages. Can't win 'em all. Likewise, while flowers of antimony may be considered to have therapeutic applications, they can also be highly toxic. Symptoms are those of antimony poisoning. Modern Uses In modern contexts, flowers of antimony and antimony trioxide have various applications: Flame Retardants : Used in textiles and plastics to enhance fire resistance. Pigments : Employed in the production of white pigments for paints and coatings. Glass Manufacturing : Helps to clarify glass by removing bubbles and defects. German Peasants' War: Rebellion of Despair Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Poison Pigments of Painters: Renaissance Facts About Antimony, Antimony Trioxide, and Flowers of Antimony Chemical Properties : Antimony trioxide has a relatively low solubility in water and exhibits amphoteric behavior, reacting with both acids and bases. Antimony also demonstrates semiconducting capabilities, making it useful in electronics and other technologies. Toxicity : While antimony is essential in some biological processes, excessive exposure can be toxic. The antimony ore stibnite is ground to make the eyeliner kohl by 1600 BCE. Eye disease is especially prevalent in ancient Egypt, where kohl is a desirable cosmetic. Historical Significance : Antimony has been used for medicinal purposes for over 1,000 years, with texts from ancient China and Europe documenting its applications. Uses include treatment for parasitic worms. Other Compounds : Aside from antimony trioxide, other notable compounds include antimony pentoxide (Sb2O5) and glass of antimony , each with its unique uses. Jan Baptist van Helmont: Renaissance Medicine Roman Inquisition: Power, Prayer & Politics Wiedergänger - the German Undead Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Flowers of sulfur, often termed flowers of brimstone, are crumbly pale yellow powders popular with chemists, botanists, and artisans. Historically significant in alchemy, flowers of sulfur have unique medicinal and scientific properties. Sulfur - Treasures of the Underworld Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) Caustic Potash Metal to Rust: Unseen Organisms in Action Unlike conventional sulfur in its more solid forms, flowers of sulfur (Brit. flowers of sulphur) have a delicate texture, like fine powder or dust. Apothecaries know it by the Latin flores sulphuris. It includes up to 30% of the amorphous form of sulfur, or sulfur's non-crystalline structure. In the past, natural sulfur is called brimstone, hence the alternative flowers of brimstone, and the "fire and brimstone" of dogmatic orators. Nitric Acid: Aqua Fortis the Acid Queen Divine Water: Sulfuric Acid in Alchemy Sulfur-Mercury Theory: Alchemical Philosophy The powdery flowers have a distinctive odor and wide range of uses. Historically, sulfur and flowers of sulfur are used in the treatment of skin ailments and gout . Sulfur is one of the three primary alchemical substances, or the tria prima . Along with mercury and salt, sulfur is considered to exist in all things. It has a start in ancient Greek and medieval Islamic alchemy . Renaissance physician Paracelsus popularizes the tria prima in Europe. In antiquity and the Middle Ages, flowers of sulfur are particularly important in alchemy. The substance is also an ingredient in the making of gunpowder, along with niter or saltpeter. In the 18th and 19th centuries, use of sulfur as a pesticide and fungicide extends into agriculture. Vitriol in Alchemy: Caustic Compounds Alchemy, Demons & the Roman Inquisition Lunar Caustic AgNO3: Lapis Infernalis  of Alchemy Sublimation is a physical change in which a substance transitions directly from a solid to a gas when heated, without ever becoming a liquid. This process occurs under specific conditions, generally involving lower pressures and higher temperatures. The production of flowers of sulfur predominantly occurs through the processes of sublimation and deposition. The transformation begins with solid sulfur heated to a temperature where it vaporizes, bypassing the liquid phase entirely. This is around 115 ºC (239 ºF). This gas cools rapidly, and in the process of deposition, it deposits itself on a surface above in fine particles. The result is the characteristic yellow powder known as flowers of sulfur. The practitioner must remember to provide a deposition surface, or be left with flowers of nothing. The Alembic: Essential Alchemy Equipment Alchemy and the Art of Gold-Making Obsidian: Ancient Volcanic Black Glass Properties of Flowers of Sulfur: How is it Different from Sulfur? Flowers of sulfur are a purified form of sulfur, with purification a goal of sublimation. While both flowers and elemental sulfur are the same chemical element (sulfur), they differ in physical forms and properties. Texture and Appearance : Flowers of sulfur are light and powdery, like a soft-toned yellow dust, solid sulfur can take on a variety of forms, including crystalline and chunk-like structures. Solubility : Unlike solid sulfur, which has limited solubility, flowers of sulfur are more reactive and can dissolve in certain organic solvents, making them more versatile in various applications. Molybdochalkos: Nigredo Black Lead of Maria Women of Alchemy - Mary the Jewess Fermentation & Rot: Comparing Processes Sulfur does not dissolve in water, but it can be dissolved in carbon disulfide and, to a lesser degree, in other nonpolar organic solvents like benzene and toluene. Surface Area : Due to their fine, powdered form, flowers of sulfur have an increased surface area compared to solid sulfur. This property enhances their reactivity, which can be particularly beneficial in agricultural and industrial applications. Applications : While both forms are applicable, flowers of sulfur are often more desirable for specific uses, particularly in pharmaceuticals and agricultural products, due to their finer texture and enhanced reactivity. Tycho Brahe: Golden Renaissance Astronomer Knowing the Three Primary Oxides of Iron Black Hellebore: Toxins, Health & Lore This powder is also known for its pungent smell. Flowers of Sulfur in Nature While the sublimation of sulfur can occur in controlled environments, naturally occurring Flowers of Sulfur are relatively rare. They can be found in volcanic regions where sulfur gases escape through fumaroles. They then condense upon cooling, forming deposits of flowers of sulfur. Natural deposits form the delicate, powdery substance seen in areas of volcanic activity. Hildegard von Bingen: Nature, Music & Beer Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Ge Hong: Teachings Alchemy Medicine This compound is usually synthesized through controlled chemical processes to ensure its purity and consistency. Its unique properties and composition make it a valuable substance in various industries. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top