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Silver is a lustrous versatile transition metal used from Neolithic times to create ornaments. It's known for antibacterial powers, and its reflective light in space. In electronics silver has the best conductivity of all metals. Gold - Precious Metal of the Sun Silver - Queen of Precious Metals Copper (Cu) Effects on Human & Plant Health About Silver With formula Ag (Latin argentum ), silver is a soft, white, transition metal with an atomic number of 47. It's partly defined by its electron configuration. This enables it to conduct electricity and heat better than any other element. The exceptional conductivity is due to the ease with which electrons move through its crystalline structure. Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Melting point of silver is 961.8°C or 1763°F. Its boiling point is 2212°C (4014°F). Tarnish on pure silver is the compound silver sulfide. It forms when silver reacts with sulfur-containing gases in the air. The most common sulfur-containing gas is hydrogen sulfide (H2S), also emitted by hard-boiled eggs. 10 Alchemical Metals - Ancient Metals of Alchemy Transition Metals in Science and Health Heavy Metals Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Chromium & Arsenic Eggs tarnishing silver in closed container - left, fresh; center, after 40 min; right, after 1 hr 22 min Tarnish color on silver alters as time goes by due to thin film interference. As light hits the thin film of tarnish on the silver, it splits; some reflects off the top surface, and some off the silver beneath, with different color plays. In pure form, silver is both malleable and ductile. Like gold it can be shaped or stretched without breaking. It's made into various forms from intricate jewelry to industrial components. Geologically silver forms through volcanic activity and hydrothermal processes. Hot, aqueous solutions dissolve silver compounds and redeposit them in veins and fractures in rocks. Seven Metals of Antiquity - Metallurgy Metal & Gemstone Dyeing in Alchemy Smelting Metals: Metalwork & Alchemy In nature, silver can occur as native silver, existing in its pure, uncombined state. More often it's found in ores of other metals like gold, copper, lead, and zinc. Gold and silver form electrum to make the first ancient coins. Ores like argentite (Ag2S) and horn silver (AgCl), are mined to extract the silver. Most silver is found on Earth, though it's overall scarce with average concentration of 0.08 parts per million in the Earth's crust. It's also formed through cosmic events like supernova explosions, which produce heavy elements. Though silver is a heavy metal it's considered nontoxic in general. Trace amounts in meteorites are detected in space by spectroscopic analysis. Mercury: Miracle Metal of Madness Building Robots: Elastomers, Metals & Plastics Arsenic: Murderous Metal & Miracle Cure NASA Hubble photo History of Silver Archaeological evidence finds humans using silver by 5000 BCE in regions like Anatolia (modern-day Turkey). Prized for aesthetic appeal, it's made into jewelry, ornaments, and spiritual artifacts. By 3000 BCE, mining and smelting of silver begins. Societies prosper through trade. In 550 BCE King Croesus mints the world's first coins with natural electrum (AuAg). Silver coins emerge as a standard currency, greatly influencing global economic systems. During the 16th century, Spanish colonization of the Americas leads to massive increase in silver extraction from legendary mines like Cerro Rico in Potosí, Bolivia. Liver of Sulfur: Alchemy, Metal & Medicine Pyrometallurgy: Ancient Processes of Modern Alchemy Ancient Traders & Buyers: Art of Testing Metals Cerro Rico, Potosi Cerro Rico is famous for providing over 45,000 tons of silver for the Spanish Empire, most of which is shipped to metropolitan Spain. 85% percent of silver produced in the central Andes during this time is from Cerro Rico. Early silver mining and processing methods include hand-picking surface deposits and refining them with basic furnaces. Over time, techniques like hydraulic mining, amalgamation processes and cyanide leaching develop. Today, silver is actively traded on global commodity markets. Price fluctuates based on supply and demand, geopolitical events, and investor sentiment. It's often considered a safe investment during economic downturns. Over 1.5 billion oz of silver are traded annually. World's leading silver producers are Mexico, Peru, China, Chile, Australia, Bolivia, Poland and Russia. Diana's Tree: Silver Crystals of Lunar Caustic Lunar Caustic AgNO3: Lapis Infernalis of Alchemy Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy Silver Alloys In pure form silver, in its pure form is often too soft for many applications. It alloys well with other metals to increase its hardness, durability, and resistance to tarnish. Sterling Silver: Contains 92.5% silver and 7.5% copper, providing a balance of beauty and strength commonly used for jewelry, silverware, and decorative objects. Coin Silver: Historically used for coinage, this alloy contains 90% silver and 10% copper. Silver Solder: Used for joining metal components, silver solder is alloyed with metals like copper, zinc, and tin to create a low-melting-point material. Argentium silver is recognized for tarnish-resistant qualities due to inclusion of germanium. Silver’s conductivity is superior in electrical applications. It efficiently transfers electrical current and is preferred for contacts, conductors, and circuit boards. Tin - Essential Metal of Antiquity Metal Smelting & Metallurgy in the Ancient World Cassiterite - Tin Source of Ancients silver is used in circuit boards Its conductivity surpasses that of copper by about 63%. It's often used in high-performance contexts. Silver improves the energy conversion abilities of solar panels , where it's applied as a paste over and under silicon cells. Silver is used in contacts, switches, printed circuit boards, and conductive inks. Silver-oxide batteries are known for high energy density and long life in watches, calculators and hearing aids. Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Artificial Intelligence: Power of Prediction Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health Silver oxide batteries have a more stable voltage output than alkaline batteries do. In medicine, silver is long known for antimicrobial properties. Silver Nitrate or Lunar Caustic : topical antiseptic and disinfectant. Silver Sulfadiazine: topical treatment for burns, preventing infection. Nanoparticles: Silver nanoparticles are incorporated into wound dressings, catheters, and other medical devices to inhibit bacterial growth. In folklore, silver and copper coins tossed in a well or water source delight the faerie spirit who inhabits the well. The result is clean fresh water, in fact caused by the antimicrobial properties of the metals. The spirit might also grant a wish. How to Make Asem: Essential Alchemy Glass & Arts of Ancient Glass Making Plutonium (Pu): Nuclear Weapons & Space In space exploration, silver appears in many applications including mirrors. It's part of the reflective coatings of telescopes and solar concentrators. Its conductive abilities are incorporated into spacecraft design and satellite technology. Silver-zinc batteries are also used in spacecraft due to a high energy-to-weight ratio. In robotics, silver works in sensors and actuators needing precise conductivity. Silver is used in some cloud seeding experiments to promote rainfall. Goethite: The Other Iron-Rich Mineral Almadén Mines: Ancient Mercury Extraction Earthy & Mineral Hematite: Differences Facts About Silver Silver is non-toxic in its elemental form. Silver is a demi-god in Mesopotamian mythology Silver has the highest thermal conductivity of all metals, making it an exceptional choice for heat sinks in various applications. Silverpoint is an influential art form in the Renaissance In ancient cultures, silver is linked to the moon and its protective influence, and to water. Mercury (Hg) is originally known as hydrargyrum from the Greek words hydor 'water' and argyros 'silver'. History of China: Ancient Days to Space Race Nine Countries with Nuclear Weapons Women Scientists of the Ancient World Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

The Yellow River is known as the cradle of Chinese civilization. The ancient cultures, tradition and innovation gives a captivating look into the evolution of human societies in early China. History of China: Ancient Days to Space Race Nüwa: Chinese Primordial Snake Goddess Anqi Sheng & the Elixir of Immortality Yellow River Breaches Its Course - Ma Yun, Song Dynasty The Yellow River, or Huang he, is China's second-longest river and sixth-longest river system globally, about 5,464 km (3,395 mi) long. Its watershed is over 795,000 km² (307,000 sq mi) . The Yellow River civilization is one of the world's earliest, originating in the Yellow River basin of North China. Characteristics of this culture include distinctive pottery, early agriculture and development of complex societies. The civilization takes root around 7000 BCE, in the Neolithic. Early people are drawn to the riverbanks by the fertile floodplains, where generous harvests can be cultivated. By 6000 BCE the Yangshao Culture settles in the middle and upper Yellow River basin. The Yangshao people are sedentary. They come to practice ancestor worship, and believe in a variety of spirits and gods. The people live in village communities and raise mainly millet.  Domestic animals such as pigs, dogs and poultry are common. As farming techniques improve, millet becomes a major crop and basic food. Women Scientists of the Ancient World Mulberry Tree (Morus): Uses, Folklore & Myth Soy Sauce: A Cultural Culinary Odyssey millet By 5000 BCE, millet is cultivated on a massive scale, creating a population boom. The rich waters of the Yellow River allow agriculture to thrive, fueling growth and development in neighboring societies. The climate and environment of the Yellow River basin influence development of the culture. The river provides a source of water for irrigation, necessary for agriculture, but it's also prone to heavy floods. Floods cause destruction of villages and displacement of populations. Societies grow in complexity as people seek systems to manage the risks. Engineers build innovative dikes and irrigation systems. Villages are made up of houses created from mud, reeds or wood. They're often fortified for protection from elements and enemies. The layout of a villages is usually planned, with streets and alleys in grid patterns. Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Myanmar (Burma): Beauty & Brutality Flood waters Communal spaces are used for gatherings. Designated areas for crop storage and livestock define an organized social structure. Everyday life is influenced by kinship, age, and gender. Art is an important aspect of the Yellow River Culture. The Yangshao are known for their painted pottery, which often features geometric patterns and images of animals and humans. Around 2000 BCE, the Yangshao Culture is replaced by the Longshan Culture. The Longshan bring more complex social structures, ceramics with finer, harder and thinner walls, and the pottery wheel. They also develop agricultural practices such as use of plows, and the cultivation of a wider variety of crops. Agricultural progress during this time turns the Yellow River region into a center of innovation. Ancient Traders & Buyers: Art of Testing Metals Artificial Intelligence: Power of Prediction Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Dawenkou culture (c. 4300 - 2400 BCE) pottery The introduction of crops like wheat and barley decreases reliance on one type of grain, enabling farmers to optimize growth regions and seasons. Domestication of pigs, cattle, and chickens increases. By 2000 BCE, pig farming is widespread. Pigs provide not just food but raw materials for textiles (pigskin), bags (bladders), ropes (sinews) and tools (bones). These advancements make life easier and sustainable. With the growth of agricultural production, trade flourishes in the Yellow River civilization. The surplus of goods enables exchange with neighboring cultures, and economic prosperity. Vermicompost: Composting with Worms Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Ancient Cultures: Yamnaya Steppe People Yellow River in Zoigê County, Sichuan The Yellow River civilization is diversified into a variety of different cultures and societies. The Longshan people import jade from the south and export pottery and other goods. Commerce is important to the Yellow River civilization. The Longshan develop sophisticated systems for trade and transactions, including standardized weights and measures, and development of markets. Silk, ceramics, and metals become significant exports, imports include spices and timber. Extension of trade routes promote contact with distant societies. The people interact with cultures to the west and further inland. This is seen in bronze and other imported items in archaeological sites. Before the Viking Age - Gods of the Sámi Jade - Jadeite, Nephrite & Jade Roads Mulberry Tree (Morus): Uses, Folklore & Myth silk Cultural exchange influences art, philosophy and social structures. Arts reach remarkable heights, with advanced techniques in pottery, weaving, and bronze casting. Markets are central to commerce. Local merchants gather to exchange goods. The centers of activity foster social interactions, cultivating a vibrant atmosphere of ideas and trends. Spirituality continues to have significant influence. The Longshan people develop more complex religious systems, including use of oracle bones for divination. Beliefs like animism are expressed through rituals and art. Chinese Alchemy: Mind Body Spirit Shennong Primordial Farmer & Healer Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future Many shrines and burial sites are found along the riverbanks. Spirituality guides personal conduct and helps structure the community, reinforcing social order and cultural identity. There is evidence of warfare and conflict, but also periods of peace and cooperation. T he fertile lands and abundant resources of the Yellow River attract competition from others, causing territorial disputes. Legendary figures arise. The Yellow Emperor (Huangdi) and Yan Emperor are both leaders of a tribe or coalition of two tribes near the Yellow River. The Yan Emperor comes from a different region by the Jiang River. Above inscription reads:   "The Yellow Emperor created and changed a great many things; he invented weapons and the wells and fields system; he devised upper and lower garments, and established palaces and houses". Both emperors live during a period of conflict. When the Yan Emperor is unable to manage chaos within his territory, the Yellow Emperor resorts to military action to assert his control over the various warring factions. The Yellow Emperor is thought to reign for a hundred years from c. 2698 to 2798 BCE. A Chinese cultural hero, he's a great inventor and benefactor of the people. Chun Yuyan & Death of Empress Xu Artificial Intelligence: Technology & Society Silver (Ag): Ancient Trade to Modern Tech The role of women in the Yellow River Culture varies. In some societies, women have significant power and influence; in others less so. Generally they manage crops, create textiles and ensure nourishment of the family. Decline of the civilization is influenced by climate change, environmental degradation, invasions and conflicts. The rapid alterations in climate lead to crop failures, causing widespread hunger. As people migrate to seek better opportunities, diminishing populations cause gradual crumbling of the culture. By c. 1000 BCE the civilization is replaced by others, including Shang and Zhou dynasties. Pyrometallurgy: Ancient Processes of Modern Alchemy Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Wheat, barley, millet and rice are four of the ancient grains, going back to the Neolithic agrarian revolution c. 10,000 BCE. Ancient grains are those which have minimally changed since the days of early agriculture. Potrimpo - Baltic Sea God of Grain Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Flavors of Coffee: From Harvest to Homestead Barley and wheat are two of the seven ancient foods of the Hebrew bible. The others are dates, figs , grapes, pomegranates  and olives. These foods will sustain a person through the year. The ancient Israelites depend on bread, wine and oil as basic dietary staples. Ancient grains include varieties of wheat: spelt , Khorasan wheat (Kamut),   einkorn and emmer wheat . They also encompass the grains millet, barley, teff, oats, and sorghum as well as pseudo-cereals quinoa, amaranth, buckwheat, and chia. Whey & Whey Products: Health & Science Yeast: Microbiology of Bread & Food Making Milk & Dairy: Ancient Lactose Gene Chia with berries A pseudocereal or pseudograin is one of any non-grasses used in much the same way as cereals. Pseudocereals are gluten-free. They can be used and prepared like cereals. Seeds of pseudo-cereals can be ground into flour. Some include bulgur and freekeh in the ancient grains category. Modern wheat is a hybrid descendant of three wheat species considered to be ancient grains, emmer, einkorn and spelt. Emmer Wheat - First Domestic Crops Einkorn Wheat - First Domestic Crops Spelt Wheat - Bronze Age Grain Crops Emmer wheat Around 10,000 BCE prehistoric humans move from hunter-gatherer nomadic lifestyles to settled agrarian economies. They may have begun by seasonally cultivating food crops as part of the nomadic cycle. Modern grains develop over time through mutation, selective cropping and breeding. People gather together to exchange ideas. Animals such as sheep and pigs go through a period of partial domestication, including wild foraging, before being brought into farms and herds. Pomegranate - Food of the Ancients Figs - Food of the Ancient World Stone Age Botai - First Horse People Baby Boars Ancient grains are almost unchanged from first domestic varieties. Evidence comes from research of carbonized and semi-carbonized grains, coprolites (fossilized feces), imprints of grains, husks or spikelets on potsherds found during excavations of Neolithic sites. The grains are part of the spiritual life of ancient civilizations such as the Aztecs, Egyptians and Greeks. Quinoa, called the "mother of all grains", is considered sacred by the Inca people. Ka - Life Essence in Ancient Egypt Mythic Fire Gods: Hephaestus of the Greek Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files Quinoa seeds Amaranth is likewise perceived by the Aztecs. It's used as part of a religious ceremony thus banned by Spanish colonialists. Mention of farro grains appears in the Old Testament. In the Neolithic, farming may be supplemented by hunting. Around this time early salt processing sites spring up at Solnitsata near the Black Sea and in Romania. Salt creates some of the earliest trade routes, because people no longer get enough salt from meat. Wheat Wheat is a grass ( Poaceae or Gramineae ) cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain and staple food throughout the world. Archaeology suggests wheat is first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent c. 9600 BCE. The wheat kernel is a caryopsis, a type of fruit. Mugwort (Wormwood) Herbal Lore Chamomile - Herbology & Folklore Lammašaga: Sumerian Angel Goddess Einkorn wheat Wheat in its whole form is a source of dietary fiber. It's also a good source of magnesium, a mineral with several benefits to the body including heart health. Three species of wheat exist in the Neolithic world: Triticum sphaerococcum Triticum vulgare Triticum compactum Gold-of-Pleasure: Bronze Age Crops Broad Beans (Fava) - Bronze Age Crops Nature Spirits of German Mythology Loaves of Bread The first two (bread wheat) are still cultivated, mostly in Northern India. Einkorn and emmer are early wheat species. Evidence of these goes back to c. 7500 - 6500 BCE in today's Iran. The grain Triticum durum (durum wheat) is cultivated in Ancient Egypt. Grains found in India include: Triticum sphaerococcum - also called "Indian Short Wheat", this is the earliest known cultivated wheat from India with evidence from Harappa Triticum vulgare - also called "bread wheat" evidence at Chanhudaro, Mohenjodaro and Navdatolo Triticum compactum - found at Harappa, Mundigak and Mohenjodaro Triticum Sp. - Navdaroli, Inamgaon, Atranjikhera and Kayatha Triticum Sp. Contd. - found at Songaon, Rohtak, Nevasa and Bhokardan Chicken Soup: Chickens in German Folklore Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Woad, the People's Blue: Ancient Pigments Amazing Indian henna tattoo The first reference to ancient grains as a health food is in Daily News (New York) in 1996. Since then the popularity of ancient grains as a food has increased. In 2011 the gluten-free food market is valued at $1.6 bn. In 2019 it has catapulted to US $3,564 million or $3.5 bn. Barley Barley is a good source of the antioxidant selenium. It also contains healthy amounts of phosphorus , copper , and manganese needed by the body for maintenance and defense against disease. Cherish the Chocolate: Sweet Fermentation Killer Yeast: Assassins of the Microworld Five Sugars: Glucose, Maltose, Fructose, Sucrose, Lactose Barley ( Hordeum vulgare ) belongs to the grass family. A major cereal grain, it grows in temperate climates world-wide and is among the first cultivated crops. Domesticated in the Fertile Crescent c. 9000 BCE, barley spreads through Eurasia by c. 2000 BCE. In hulled form it's grown abundantly in the Near East and Southern Europe. The domesticated "two row" species are thought to originate at Beidha (Jordan), Jarmo ( Zagros Mountains , Iraq), or Ali Kosh (Zagros Mountains, w. Iran). Çatalhöyük (Catalhoyuk) Neolithic Anatolia Zagros Mountains - the Way to Kur Oldest Cult Megaliths - Gobekli Tepe Catalhoyuk (Çatalhöyük) Neolithic City in Anatolia (Turkey) Hordeum spontaneum (wild barley) is found at Çatalhöyük (c. 5850 - 5600 BCE) and Hordeum distichum (common or two-rowed barley) at Ali Kosh (c. 6750 - 6000 BCE). In India barley is largely cultivated in north and central regions, about as far south as Inamgaon and Nevasa (Newasa) both in east central India. Baal Cycle - Myths of Ba'al Hadad Soap & Medicine Herb of Ancients Yarrow (Achillea) Magic & Medicine Big Scoop of Barley Millet Millet is thought to originate in Africa (Abyssinia), or India. Charred grains of cultivated and wild ragi are found at the Neolithic site Hallur in southern India. In China millet is known by 10,000 BCE. Millet's rapid growth allows cultivation tests and trials in the Stone Age. In German folklore, demonic or mischievous magical entities such as Drak or a finicky Kobold may be placated with millet gruel. In some African communities, millets are considered to have magical properties. They're used in rituals for good luck and prosperity Wild Yeast: Microbes Acting Naturally Ornithomancy - Prophecy by the Birds Victorian Health: Sea Water Hydrotherapy Millet - treat for birds Millet doesn't contain Prussic acid found in sorghum, and it's also gluten free. Prussic acid is a cyanide compound and can poison animals who ingest it. Animals given millet are healthier with better weight gain than those fed sorghum. Wild ragi ( eleusine indica Gaertn ) is known only from Songaon and Bhokardan, while the cultivated form has a wider range. Cultivation of pearl millet is found in semi-arid climate such as Hallur, Rangpur and Nevasa. Prussian Blue - Delight of Artists & Poisoners House Spirits of Germanic Mythology Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg grinding millet Cultivation of pearl millet in modern India (where it is also called bajra ) is mostly limited to the country's semi-arid regions. In Africa evidence has been found dating to the Naghez phase, but it is not known whether these were cultivated. Charred grains of Paspalum scrobiculatum (Kodo millet), at Nevasa date to the Satavahana period. Sorghum vulgare is known from semi-arid regions. Great Women Artists - Käthe Kollwitz How Yeast Transforms Sugars to Booze Science of Onion Tears: Demystifying Acids translucent grains of rice Rice Rice is cultivated at Non Nok Tha in northeast Thailand since c. 3500 BCE. Impressions of rice grains appear on potsherds. Other cultivation areas include Neolithic sites of Yangshao (Yellow River, China), Liu Tzuchen, Anhui (East China) Kionsi, Zhejiang and Hubei. About 20 years ago, researchers studying Neolithic jars from Jiahu, China find traces of a fermented beverage. It's made of rice, honey and hawthorn fruti/and or grape, around 7000 – 6600 BCE, making it the oldest proven alcoholic beverage in the world.  Wild rice The Anishinaabe are thought to have harvested wild rice in prehistoric North America, according to archaeologists studying the clay linings of thermal features and jigging pits associated with parching and threshing of the plant. Ninkasi: Beer Goddess Mesopotamia Yeast: Microbiology of Bread & Food Making Wine God Liber: Liberty & Liberal Libation Ancient grains - rolled oats. Canada is the largest producer of oats today. Ancient grains are high in protein, micronutrients and fiber. Overall they're not considered healthier than modern grains. Ancient and modern grains have similar nutritional content as whole grains. Gluten-free versions include amaranth, quinoa, buckwheat, millet, and teff. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Silicon (Si) is the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust, next to oxygen. A ductile metalloid, it's integral to industry and natural existence. Silicon is in devices, the environment and the human body. Here are some properties, facts and uses of silicon. Sodium Silicate: Alchemy of Water Glass Pyrometallurgy: Ancient Processes of Modern Alchemy Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Diatom fossil - originating in the Jurassic period, these one-celled algae still make their dramatic silica shells today Silicon is first isolated by Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius in 1824. Its importance emerges in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with the advent of electrical engineering and the development of the semiconductor industry. Silica & Silicon While silicon and silica are closely related, they are not identical. Silicon (Si) is a pure element, while silica (SiO2) is a compound made of silicon and oxygen. Silica is commonly found in nature as quartz. It has industrial purposes especially in glass-making and ceramics. Silica is the basis for many geological formations. Silicon, as a pure element, has distinct properties exploited in technology. Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back Glauber: Preparation of a Golden Spirit of Wine Purified silicon metalloid Silicone & Silicon While silicon and silicone are often used interchangeably, again the meaning is not the same. Silicon is a natural chemical element, while silicone is a human-made (or robot made) product. An inert synthetic compound, silicone comes in a variety of forms such as oil, rubber and resin. Typically, heat-resistant and rubber-like, silicones are used in adhesives, cookware, sealants, lubricants, medical applications and insulation. Silicon is used in transistors invented in in the 1940s, leading to the widespread adoption of silicon in electronics. This is the beginning of the silicon age. Faust: Fact & Fiction German Renaissance Liver of Sulfur: Alchemy, Metal & Medicine Glass & Arts of Ancient Glass Making As in many cases, humans have used the element far earlier than its official discovery and/or isolation. Ancient glassmaking  uses silica (SiO2, or silicon dioxide) and it's applied to pottery by 3000 BCE. It's used in ancient Egyptian faience . Faience is a vitreous frit either self-glazing or glazed. The term "faience" covers finely glazed ceramic beads, figures, and other items discovered in Egypt as early as 4000 BC, as well as in the Ancient Near East, the Indus Valley civilization, and Europe. Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology Vermilion - Scarlet Pigment of Death Ammonium Carbonate: Sal Volatile Smelling Salts Statuette or amulet of Egyptian protector god Bes, blue faience. Bes is thought to originate in ancient Nubia. It's generally found in the form of silicates or silicon dioxide (silica). Silica is an essential material in macrocosmic and microcosmic worlds. It forms the shells of diatoms , types of algae which construct silica shells. These shells are used today in diatomaceous earth . In contemporary technology and industry, silicon is used in production of semiconductors, essential for the operation of computers, smartphones, and various electronic devices. It's increasingly used in robotics . Silicon (Si): Fueling the Robot Apocalypse Nickel (Ni): Metallurgy Facts & Folklore Zaffre: Vintage Cobalt Blue Glass & Artists' Pigment Silicon based life form It's vital in creating integrated circuits and transistors, which are the core components of all electronic devices. Silicon is important in building materials such as concrete and glass, as well as in solar panels. Silicon forms the foundation for renewable energy technologies. Its characteristics are crucial across different industries. Silicon is also used in construction materials, glass production, and the silicones found in everyday items. Gnomes: Earth Spirits of Renaissance Mythology Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics How Solar Panels Work solar panels Scientific & Chemical Properties Silicon is highly valuable due to its scientific properties. As a semiconductor at room temperature, it shows electrical conductivity that falls between metals and insulators. Its atomic structure allows it to form covalent bonds, resulting in a variety of silicon compounds. Silicon's melting point is approximately 1,414 °C (2,577 °F), and its boiling point is 2,355 °C (4,271 °F). It has a crystalline structure similar to diamond. Lithium (Li): Science, Health & Uses Garnets - Gemstones of Blood and Life Alchemy: How to Make Emerald from Quartz Silicon is a friendly element and easily forms bonds Silicon in Gemstones Silicon dioxide is commonly found in nature as quartz. It's the most abundant mineral found at Earth's surface, and its properties make it one of the most useful natural substances. In ancient alchemy (by c. 250 AD), one skill of the alchemist is to color quartz to resemble gemstones. Silicon (Silica) Gemstones & Minerals Amethyst : Amethyst of vibrant to soft purple is a coveted stone in the quartz group. Bloodstone: Bloodstone is a member of the  chalcedony  group. Agate Chalcedony: Agate chalcedony differs from other chalcedony in that it often has distinct banding. Chalcedony's standard chemical structure (based on the chemical structure of quartz) is SiO2 or silicon dioxide. Chalcedony has a waxy luster, and may be semitransparent or translucent. It's the basis for many beautiful gemstones. Chalcedony Gems: Secrets of Silicon Dioxide Silver - Queen of Precious Metals Electrum: Metal of Money & Myth crystal quartz (rock crystal, silicon dioxide) Medical Uses The human body contains approximately 7 grams of silicon, which is found in tissues and fluids. In tissues, silicon is typically bonded to glycoproteins like cartilage. In human blood, silicon is primarily present as either free orthosilicic acid or attached to small compounds. Silicon's biocompatibility facilitates use in various medical applications, especially implants and prosthetics. Silicones give a rubber-like elasticity and stability, found in medical devices, wound dressings and internal drug delivery systems. Silicone is used in breast implants. Ethyl Alcohol: Science of Solvents & Booze B. Linens Bacterium: Big Cheese of B.O. Nitric Acid: Aqua Fortis the Acid Queen In medicine silicon is known through bioactive glass, which contains silica and is used in bone repair and regeneration. This material not only encourages tissue growth but also bonds well with bone, making it a vital component in orthopedic surgery. Research on silicon-based drugs and materials is ongoing for potential drug delivery systems. Incorporating silicon into therapeutic applications significantly enhances treatment efficacy. Ammonia: Formation, Hazards & Reactions Spirit of Wine of the Wise: Alchemy Recipe Johann Glauber: Fulminating Gold & Sodium Sulfate Obtaining Silicon Silicon is obtained first by mining silica-rich materials like quartz. Processing includes several methods, the most prevalent being carbothermic reduction. Silicon is primarily extracted through the reduction of silica (SiO2) in electric arc furnaces using carbon as a reducing agent. In this process silica is heated with carbon at high temperatures (1900 °C or 3452 °F). Smelting Metals: Metalwork & Alchemy Metal Smelting & Metallurgy in the Ancient World Chloroauric Acid: Gold Salts & Extraction In this process, quartz is combined with carbon in an electric arc furnace. The extreme heat causes silicon dioxide to separate from oxygen, resulting in pure silicon. Globally, approximately 7.5 million metric tons of silicon are produced annually, with China accounting for over 60% of the total production. Modern extraction and refining methods produce ultrapure silicon suitable for specialized uses, particularly in electronics. Make an AI for Stock Market Analysis & Prediction Science of Onion Tears: Demystifying Acids Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Alloys Formed by Silicon Silicon alloys with metals such as aluminum, copper and magnesium, commonly used to enhance mechanical properties of these. The alloys improve properties such as corrosion resistance and flexibility, making them useful in numerous industrial applications. Silicon in iron and steel production can improve the material’s tensile strength and is commonly used in the manufacturing of high-temperature components. Silicon alloys are used in the automotive sector, contributing to strength and lightness in vehicles. According to industry data, the use of aluminum-silicon alloys can reduce vehicle weight by up to 10%, significantly improving fuel efficiency. In aerospace, silicon alloys enhance material performance. Prussic Acid: Secrets of Hydrogen Cyanide Microfungi: Mysterious Web of Life & Death Bioremediation: Organic Cleanup of Toxins Facts about Silicon Abundance : Silicon is the second most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen. Silicon comprises about 27.7% of the Earth's crust, making it the second most abundant element in the crust, after oxygen. Silicon Valley : The term "Silicon Valley" refers to the global hub for high-tech innovation and development, named for the silicon-based semiconductor industry. Silicon in Crystals : Silicon can form a crystalline lattice that gives rise to the structure of various gemstones. Wide Applications : Silicon is used in semiconductors and integrated circuits, powering the digital age, and its derivatives support advancements in everything from smartphones to solar panels. German Peasants' War: Rebellion of Despair Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure Night Raven (Nachtkrapp) Germania Silicon finds its way into specialized functions, as in lab equipment Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Solar panels or photovoltaic (PV) panels are designed to convert sunlight directly into electricity. They're composed of multiple smaller units, photovoltaic cells, made of semiconductor materials like silicon. Lithium (Li): Science, Health & Uses CubeSats: Science, Technology & Risky Business Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back The cells are interconnected and encapsulated in a protective casing of glass, zinc and aluminum for durability. Silicon is the most valuable material in solar panels due to its semi-conductive properties. The most significant innovation in robotics and automation is robots using solar energy photovoltaic technology. This makes the robots self-generating; they create their own energy. satellites run on solar power Solar power is erratic, one drawback in sun-driven robotics. It currently requires use of big panels to generate small amounts of energy. Silver is also used in solar panels. It conducts electricity and improves efficiency of solar cells. In paste form silver is applied as a layer on the front and back of silicon solar cells. Demand for silver rises worldwide. Cell Communication in Living Organisms Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure Silver - Queen of Precious Metals silver Background Discovery of the photovoltaic effect and invention of the first solar cell are both by 19-year-old Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel (1820 - 1891) in 1839. He's later the father of Henri Becquerel, who discovers radioactivity in 1896. Edmond's discoveries come into use in the 1950s. At first, solar panels power remote pieces of electrical equipment, and satellites in space. Building Robots: Elastomers, Metals & Plastics Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities Antimony (Stibnite, Kohl) Ancient Metal of Science & Beauty Vanguard 1 (above), created by NASA, is the world's first solar-powered satellite. It's launched on St. Patrick's Day, March 17 1958. It's the fourth satellite ever sent into space. By the 1980s, solar power is accessible to the public. Federal legislation offers incentives and tax credits for the installation of renewable energy in residences. In 1983, solar cell sales surpass $250 million. In 2023 the global solar cell market is valued at USD 127.51 billion. It's projected to reach USD 730.74 billion by 2034. Zinc (Zn): Technology, Nature & Health Vermicompost: Composting with Worms Seven Trace Minerals: Nature's Little Helpers The Photovoltaic Effect: How Solar Panels Work The principle behind solar panel operation is the photovoltaic effect, the phenomenon discovered by Becquerel. The process follows several steps. Sunlight Absorption: Sunlight is a stream of photons or light particles. As it hits the solar panel, the photons are absorbed by the semiconductor material, usually silicon. Silicon makes up 95% of the market share for solar cell semiconductor materials. Cadmium telluride is the rest. A coating of zinc oxide protects the panels from too much UV radiation. Zinc oxide's distinct characteristics, including superior electron mobility, also improve efficiency of the solar cells. How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment Glutamates: Umami Flavors & Brain Cells Silicon (Si) Electron Excitation:  The absorption of energy dislodges electrons from their atoms within the silicon, freeing them to move around. Creating an Electric Field: To guide the movement of the newly freed electrons and create a useful electrical current, the silicon is treated with impurities through doping. It creates two distinct layers in each cell: N-type silicon: Doped with elements like phosphorus, which have extra electrons. This layer has a surplus of negatively charged electrons. P-type silicon: Doped with elements like boron, which create electron "holes," or vacancies where electrons should be. This layer has a surplus of positively charged holes. Metalloproteins: Biochemistry of Nature & Health Transition Metals in Science and Health Secret Life of Rust: Power of Bacteria The junction between these two layers creates an electric field (diagram below). This becomes a one-way path for electrons. P-type and N-type semiconductors are needed for functioning of electronic devices. Electron Flow & Current Generation: When sunlight dislodges electrons, the electric field at the junction pushes the electrons towards the N-type layer and pushes the "holes" towards the P-type layer. It creates a flow of electrons, essentially an electric current. Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Copper (Cu) Effects on Human & Plant Health Extracting Electricity: Metal contacts are located on top and bottom of the solar cell. They collect the generated electrons and conduct them through wires to form an electrical circuit. This direct current (DC) electricity can be used to power devices. Otherwise it can be converted into alternating current (AC) using an inverter, making it compatible with the standard electrical grid. Inverter: Converts the DC electricity generated by the panels into AC electricity for use in homes and businesses or for feeding into the grid. Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Sustainable Gardening: Compost & Old Beer Hetero-Fermentation in Lactic Acid Bacteria In solar energy systems, inverters transform the DC electricity produced by solar panels into AC electricity. This is needed by most household appliances and devices. Different types of inverters exist, like string inverters and microinverters, each designed for certain configurations. Microinverters enhance performance in systems where the panels are shaded. Pharos Lighthouse: Ancient Wonder of Alexandria Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Other Solar Panel Parts Mounting System: Secures the panels to a roof or ground-based structure, ensuring optimal exposure to sunlight. Wiring and Connectors: Connect the panels to the inverter and the rest of the electrical system. Monitoring System: Tracks the system's performance, providing data on energy production and potential issues. Battery Storage: Stores excess energy generated during the day for later use. Compost: Teeming Metropolis of Life & Death Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Cherish the Chocolate: Sweet Fermentation Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Artificial intelligence (AI) makes decisions based on predictions, which influence marketing, holiday plans and financial investments. With data and correlations it predicts stock markets more accurately than humans. How to Make an Artificial Intelligence System Artificial Intelligence: Technology & Society Mars Curiosity Rover: Success & Longevity Artificial Intelligence is a powerful system. It learns from historical data to identify patterns, correlations, and trends, and uses these insights to project future outcomes. It requires certain sources and methods. 1. Data Customer Behavior Data includes purchase history, browsing activity, demographics, social media interactions and customer service inquiries. Businesses today capitalize on AI to analyze customer data. Predictive analytics powered by AI can foresee future purchases. Retailers can analyze seasonal trends to determine when customers are likely to shop again. Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space Survival of Bacteria in the Extremes of Space Weather Historical weather data, including temperature, wind speed, humidity, pressure, satellite imagery, and radar data are important information for the AI. Artificial intelligence can sift through extensive datasets from weather stations, satellite images, and historical records to predict future weather conditions. Machine learning explains complex atmospheric behaviors. Neural networks have increased the precision of forecasting severe weather events. The quality, completeness and accuracy of this data are invaluable to give correct predictions. Super Alloys in Space Exploration Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future De-Orbiting Satellites: Problems & Processes Financial Investments This includes analyzing historic prices, economic indicators, industry performance, news articles and even social media sentiment. Quantitative analysts often use ML to find trading opportunities. In finance, artificial intelligence reshapes investment decisions. Predictive modeling enables investors to analyze market trends, stock valuations, and other financial indicators rooted in historical data. An AI model has predicted stock price increases with 85% accuracy rate. By identifying patterns from thousands of financial metrics, AI gives investors a burning edge. Ancient Traders & Buyers: Art of Testing Metals Nickel (Ni): Metallurgy Facts & Folklore History of China: Ancient Days to Space Race Stock Market Trends As in financial investments, stock market predictions use historical stock data, trading volumes, news feeds, economic reports, and alternative datasets like social media trends and investor sentiment. Artificial intelligence in stock market analysis improves prediction efforts. The stock market is influenced by numerous factors and human emotions. Techniques like reinforcement learning means AI can learn from past errors. For instance, if an AI predicts a stock's rise but it falls instead, it analyzes this misstep and adjusts its future approach. This ongoing learning process increases its predictive accuracy for the prosperity of traders and investors. Gold - Precious Metal of the Sun Building Robots: Elastomers, Metals & Plastics Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back 2. Algorithms Once the data is gathered, AI algorithms analyze it and learn underlying patterns. Some of the most common algorithms used in predictive AI are: Regression Models These classic models are good at predicting continuous values, like future sales or temperature fluctuations. Examples include linear regression, polynomial regression and logistic regression. Classification Algorithms Used to categorize data into distinct classes, classification algorithms can predict if a customer will churn, a financial investment will succeed, or the stock market will go up or down. Examples include decision trees, support vector machines (SVMs) and naive Bayes classifiers. What Robots Need to Function & Survive Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Neural Networks and Deep Learning These powerful algorithms mimic the structure of the human brain. They learn complex, non-linear relationships in data. They're useful for analyzing unstructured data like text and images. AI extracts insights from news articles, social media posts and satellite imagery. Recurrent neural networks (RNNs) are often used for time series data, such as predicting stock market fluctuations. Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology Women Scientists of the Ancient World Reduction in Chemistry: Gaining Electrons Time Series Analysis Specifically designed for dealing with data points indexed in time order, these models, like ARIMA and exponential smoothing, forecast weather patterns, stock prices, and other time-dependent phenomena. ARIMA stands for Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average. It forecasts possible future values of a time series. Exponential smoothing applies a weighted average to past observations. It gives more importance to recent data points, gradually less to older ones. This enables smoother predictions. It adjusts to evolving trends and reduces the influence of random variations. Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas Prussic Acid: Secrets of Hydrogen Cyanide Fortune Telling - The Mystic Victorian Steamrolling 3. Pattern Recognition & Correlation The algorithms sift through data, searching for meaningful patterns and correlations. For example, AI might discover that customers who purchase a specific product are more likely to subscribe to a particular service. In finance, AI might uncover correlations between certain economic indicators and stock market performance. 4. Model Building & Training Based on the identified patterns and correlations, the AI system builds a predictive model. The model is then "trained" on a portion of the historical data. The model's performance is evaluated using a separate set of validation data. This ensures it accurately predicts outcomes and isn't just memorizing the training data (overfitting). Ideonella sakaiensis: Plastic-Eating Bacteria Casting the Bones - Astragalomancy Bioremediation: Organic Cleanup of Toxins 5. Prediction & Refinement Once the model is trained and validated, it can be used to make predictions based on new, incoming data. The customer behavior model can predict which customers are likely to be interested in a new product. The weather model can forecast tomorrow's temperature. These predictions are constantly refined as new data becomes available, improving the model's accuracy over time. Problems & Limits Data Bias: If the training data is biased as is often the case in statistics, the model will perpetuate and even amplify those biases, leading to inaccurate and potentially harmful predictions. Carbon Sequestration: Environmental Health Transition Metals in Science and Health Plutonium (Pu): Nuclear Weapons & Space "Today the weather will be clear and calm." Overfitting: Models can overfit the training data, leading to excellent performance on historical data but poor performance on new, unseen data. The "Black Box" Problem: Deep learning models can be complex and difficult to interpret, making it hard to know why a particular prediction is made. Lack of transparency is a concern, as in high-stakes situations. Unforeseen Events: AI models are trained on historical data. This renders them less able to predict effects of unexpected events like pandemics, geopolitical crises, or sudden tech breakthroughs. Nine Countries with Nuclear Weapons Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities Agriculture: Calvin Cycle in Photosynthesis Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Artificial Intelligence (AI) makes it possible to predict market trends with ever more accuracy. AI analyses immense amounts of data influencing stock prices. Building a specialized AI is a basic process with refinements. Artificial Intelligence: Power of Prediction How to Make an Artificial Intelligence System Artificial Intelligence: Technology & Society The nature of stock market data is unpredictable only insofar as human analysis tools, like the brain or other programmable systems, can predict it. Stock prices can fluctuate due to many and varying factors. These include economic indicators, company performance, and market sentiment. Market sentiment is defined by buying and selling activity. It's a set of statistics revealing buyer confidence and touches on the emotional mindset of investors. While markets often flourish on feelings, hard cold analysis gives real facts. Market data is categorized into two types. These are fundamental data like earnings, revenue and financial health; and technical data like historical price movements and trading volume. Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Mars Curiosity Rover: Success & Longevity Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health For example, the earnings report of a company can lead to a spike in stock prices, while high trading volume shows strong investor interest. Modern companies want to maximize spikes and there plenty of ways to do it. Effectively merging data types creates a robust framework for an AI stock analysis model. The model works on similar principles to marketing analysis, geared to specific financial goals. Programming Language The programming language used by 75% of AI developers is Python. It surges in popularity around the turn of the century and is often described as a "batteries included" language. Python has libraries like Pandas for data manipulation and Scikit-learn for machine learning. These simplify many tasks involved in building an AI model. Plutonium (Pu): Nuclear Weapons & Space Phytoplankton: Environment & Human Health Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space Python programming language The other major programming languages is R, developed by Auckland university professors. This open source language is supported by extension packages with reusable code, documentation and sample data. Even rank beginners can learn to use these languages as there are many free tutorials and assistance tools. Coding has come a long way in a few short years. 1. Data Collection The foundation of any successful AI model is high-quality data. For stock market analysis, this data can be categorized into the following types: Historical Stock Data: This includes open, high, low, close prices, volume, and adjusted closing prices for individual stocks. Specialized financial data providers offer this information. How Spacecraft Produce Water for Astronauts Plutonium (Pu): Nuclear Weapons & Space Nickel (Ni): Metallurgy Facts & Folklore Some charge a fee. Data can be obtained through NASDAQ . Its associated API is Quandl, which requires signup and offers free or priced services. Alpha Vantage is another possibility. Financial News and Sentiment: News articles, press releases, and social media posts affect market sentiment. Natural Language Processing (NLP) is used to extract and quantify sentiment from these sources. NLP is commonly used today. Examples include email filters like spam identifiers; "smart" assistants; digital phone calls; language translation; and vastly unhelpful help pages. Economic Indicators: Macroeconomic factors like GDP growth, inflation rates, interest rates, unemployment figures, and consumer confidence indices influence overall market trends. Bioremediation: Organic Cleanup of Toxins Nine Countries with Nuclear Weapons North Korea (DPRK): Total Control lack of consumer confidence Data is often available from government agencies and financial institutions. It's a seek and find mission. The World Bank gives some helpful information with a list of economic indicators. Company Fundamentals: Data like revenue, earnings, debt, and equity are crucial for fundamental analysis. This information can be found in company financial statements. Alternative Data: This can include data points like satellite imagery of parking lots (indicating retail activity), web traffic data, or credit card spending patterns. 2. Data Preprocessing Raw data is often messy, with repetitive, incomplete, erroneous or missing factors. It has to be clean and preprocessed before it can be used to train an AI model. Handling Missing Values: Imputing missing values using methods like mean, median, or more sophisticated techniques. A missing value might be a closing price for a stock is for one date. It can be replaced with the average price of the surrounding days. Super Alloys in Space Exploration What Robots Need to Function & Survive Copper (Cu) Effects on Human & Plant Health stock market data averages Normalization/Standardization: Scaling data to a common range prevents features with larger values from dominating the learning process. Min-Max scaling or Z-score standardization are commonly used. Min-max scaling is suitable when the dataset's approximate upper and lower limits are known, and there are few or no outliers present. Min-max uses X as a random feature value to be normalized In Z-score normalization, each data point is made to represent the number of standard deviations from the mean. This creates a standardized dataset with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. Feature Engineering: Making new features from existing ones can improve model performance. Examples include moving averages, relative strength index (RSI), Moving Average Convergence Divergence (MACD), and volatility measures. History of China: Ancient Days to Space Race Survival of Bacteria in the Extremes of Space Carbon Sequestration: Environmental Health Data Splitting: Dividing the data into training, validation, and testing sets. The training set is used to train the model, the validation set to tune hyperparameters, and the testing set to evaluate the final model's performance. Choosing the right tools and technologies is crucial in AI model development. 3. Model Selection Feature selection and engineering are crucial for your model's success. This process entails identifying which attributes (or features) will have the most greatest impact on stock prices. Common features include: Historical stock prices Moving averages (e.g. 50-day or 200-day) Volatility indices (e.g. VIX) Economic indicators (e.g. GDP growth rate) Ideonella sakaiensis : Plastic-Eating Bacteria Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas De-Orbiting Satellites: Problems & Processes wheat, corn and soybeans are common investments Various AI models can be employed for stock market analysis and prediction. These include: Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs), LSTMs and GRUs: RNNs are especially suited for time series data like stock prices, due to ability to remember past info. LSTMs (Long Short-Term Memory) and GRUs (Gated Recurrent Units) are variants of RNNs. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs): While traditionally used for image recognition, CNNs can also be applied to time series data by treating price charts as images or by converting time series into image-like representations. Regression Models (Linear, Polynomial, Support Vector Regression): These models can be used to predict continuous values like stock prices. However, their performance may be limited in capturing the complex dynamics of the stock market. Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future Food to Energy: Krebs Cycle & Cell Balance Random Forests and Gradient Boosting Machines (GBM): These ensemble methods can be powerful for both classification (e.g., predicting whether a stock will go up or down) and regression tasks. Hybrid Models: Combining different models can often lead to improved performance. For example, a hybrid model might use an RNN to capture temporal dependencies and a CNN to extract features from news articles. AI models vary in their strengths and weaknesses. The choice of model should align with desired data and analysis goals. 4. Model Training and Optimization During training, the model learns to recognize patterns and relationships, adjusting its parameters to reduce prediction errors. A neural network can be trained over several epochs (fixed dates/times), adjusting weights based on the output variance with actual stock prices. Sweet Root Vegetables: Sugar & Starch Women Scientists of the Ancient World Steam & Coal in Victorian Germany Define a Loss Function: A function measuring the difference between the model's predictions and the actual values. Common loss functions for regression include Mean Squared Error (MSE) and Mean Absolute Error (MAE). For classification, cross-entropy loss is often used. Choose an Optimizer: The algorithm adjusts the model's parameters to minimize the loss function. Popular optimizers include Adam, SGD and RMSprop. Hyperparameter Tuning: Adjust the model's hyperparameters (e.g., learning rate, batch size, number of hidden layers) to optimize its performance. Techniques like grid search, random search, and Bayesian optimization can be used. Regularization: Add penalties to the loss function to prevent overfitting. In overfitting, the model works well on training data but poorly on real-world data, due to memorization rather than learning. Techniques like L1 and L2 regularization are commonly used. Early Stopping: Monitoring the model's performance on the validation set during training and stopping the training process when the performance starts to decline. This also helps prevent overfitting. Agriculture: Calvin Cycle in Photosynthesis Gold - Precious Metal of the Sun How Astronauts Breathe in Space 5. Model Evaluation After training, the model needs to be evaluated on the testing set to assess its performance on unseen data. Key metrics include: Regression: Mean Squared Error (MSE), Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE), Mean Absolute Error (MAE), R-squared. Classification: Accuracy, Precision, Recall, F1-score, AUC-ROC. Financial Specific Metrics: Sharpe Ratio, Maximum Drawdown, Return on Investment (ROI). Model evaluation is a key aspect of AI development. Techniques like cross-validation and train-test splits help assess accuracy. A good model should show moderate variance and avoid overfitting. Regular evaluations fine-tune the model’s accuracy, which should be greater than 75%. How Solar Panels Work CubeSats: Science, Technology & Risky Business Drone Warfare: Unmanned Combat Vehicles 6. Model Deployment Once the model meets desired performance criteria, it can be deployed in a real-world trading environment. This may involve: Integrating the model with a trading platform: Allows the model to automatically execute trades based on its predictions. Real-time data feeds: Providing the model with up-to-date market data. Risk management strategies: Implementing safeguards to limit potential losses. Building Robots: Elastomers, Metals & Plastics Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials 7. Monitoring and Retraining The stock market is a dynamic environment. If a model works well today it may not perform well tomorrow. Monitor the model's performance and retrain it on new data to adapt to changing market conditions. Monitor Key Metrics: Tracking the model's performance on real-world trades. Analyze Prediction Errors: Identifying patterns in the model's errors to understand its limitations. Retrain the Model: Periodically retraining the model on new data or updating the model's architecture. Re-evaluating the model every quarter helps its predictions remain valid and reliable. Implementation of feedback loops helps enhance the model’s performance, so it can adjust to dynamic market trends. Problems & Considerations Data Quality: The accuracy and completeness of the data are crucial to avoid analysis errors. Market Volatility: Sudden market shocks are hard to predict. However factors driving specific surges or falls can be analyzed. Model Interpretability: Understanding why the model makes certain predictions isn't always easy. Russo-Ukrainian War: Motives, Propaganda & Technology Aluminum(III) Oxide: Secrets of Precious Gemstones Sirius the Dog Star: Stellar Mythology Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Carbon sequestration capture and store carbon either through biological means or in geological formations. This process, currently used on a small scale, hopes to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in Earth's atmosphere. Phytoplankton: Environment & Human Health Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Carbon Fixation: Environmental Heath & Ecology Carbon sequestration is the process of capturing and storing carbon in a "carbon pool," thus removing it from the atmosphere. Although carbon dioxide is necessary for life, excess can have the opposite effect. CO2 is a greenhouse gas. It's created by factors including industry, forest fires, volcanoes, microbes, older motor vehicles, large vehicles like SUVs, coal burning, commercial and private jets. According to NASA, CO2 causes about 20% of Earth’s greenhouse effect; water vapor accounts for 50%; and clouds 25%. The rest is made of small particles (aerosols) and minor greenhouse gases like methane . Ideonella sakaiensis : Plastic-Eating Bacteria Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Bioremediation: Organic Cleanup of Toxins The greenhouse effect itself is natural. It keeps the planet from turning into a block of ice. Problems proliferate when too much heat is trapped and contributes to rising global temperatures. The objective of carbon sequestration is to securely store carbon in what is known as a carbon pool. Forests, soils, oceans, or deep underground geological formations supply the storage. Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Victorian Trends: Sailor Suits to Taxidermy The two main types of carbon sequestration include: Biological Carbon Sequestration : This method uses natural processes involving plants and soil to absorb CO2 from the atmosphere and store it within biomass and soil. Geological Carbon Sequestration : This method captures carbon emissions from sources such as power plants and injects them deep underground into rock formations for long-term storage. Mars Curiosity Rover: Success & Longevity How Bacteria Survive a Nuclear Explosion Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology Biological Sequestration Biologic sequestration is the natural ability of plants, soil, and water to absorb and store carbon. Forests Through photosynthesis, trees and other plants absorb CO2 and convert it into biomass like trunks, branches, leaves and roots. Actively growing forests are best at collecting and containing CO2. An example of a large-scale reforestation effort is the Great Green Wall in Africa. The project hopes to combat desertification and sequester carbon across the Sahel region. Magnesium (Mg): Ecology & Human Health How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts Agriculture: Calvin Cycle in Photosynthesis Sahel Since 2007 it's restored an area the size of the Philippines, or 30% of goal. Organizers expect the effort to overshoot its initially projected conclusion date of 2030 but it's making progress. The Amazon rainforest absorbs about 2 billion tons or 1.8 billion metric tons of CO2 each year. In 2023, China releases 11.9 billion metric tons of CO2 into the atmosphere, the greatest amount of any country. The rainforest holds 56.8 billion metric tons of above-ground carbon. Destruction by fires and deforestation contribute to a swift turnaround and the Amazon rainforest now emits more CO2 than it absorbs. Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health Soil Healthy soil absorbing and retains carbon as organic matter. Agricultural practices like no-till farming, cover cropping, and the use of organic fertilizers significantly enhance soil's carbon sequestration potential. Tilling is often recommended to aerate and improve soil. No-till farming minimizes soil disturbance, preventing release of stored carbon and promoting accumulation of organic matter. Oceanic Carbon Sinks The ocean is the largest natural carbon sink. It absorbs CO2 directly from the atmosphere and through the process of photosynthesis by marine plants, like phytoplankton and kelp forests. 7 Primary Electrolytes: Essential Ions & Health Survival of Bacteria in the Extremes of Space How Spacecraft Produce Water for Astronauts Kelp Concepts to enhance ocean sequestration include kelp forest restoration, and conservation of mangrove coast, seagrass and salt marshes. Ideas include iron fertilization to promote phytoplankton in specific regions. Oceanic carbon sequestration is undergoing research. Iron fertilization can lead to algal blooms which can deplete oxygen levels in the water, killing marine life. Some algal blooms are toxic in the right circumstances. Mangroves, commonly found along tropical coasts, can store up to five times more carbon per hectare than terrestrial forests. Mangroves are being replanted in countries such as Kenya, Cambodia, India and Nigeria. Super Alloys in Space Exploration Myanmar (Burma): Beauty & Brutality Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice a resident of mangrove ecosystem Geologic Sequestration Geologic sequestration starts with capturing CO2 from industrial sources like power plants and cement factories. It's then injected deep underground into geological formations for long-term storage. Formations for storage include: Depleted Oil and Gas Reservoirs: Repositories with existing infrastructure. Deep Saline Aquifers: Porous rock formations saturated with salty water. Unmineable Coal Seams: CO2 injected into seams improves methane recovery while storing carbon. Flavors of Coffee: From Harvest to Homestead Plutonium (Pu): Nuclear Weapons & Space How Astronauts Breathe in Space coal mining In the North Sea, the Sleipner gas field project is a successful example of geologic CO2 storage. Since 1996, it's been injecting a million tons of CO2 per year into a saline aquifer 1000 m (0.6 mi) under the seabed. The Sleipner CO2 gas processing and capture unit is built in order to evade the 1991 Norwegian CO2 tax. Sleipner obtains CO2 credit for the injected CO2 and does not pay the tax. This project shows the possibility of large-scale geologic sequestration and provides data on long-term storage. However for this to work, companies must be willing to change. Cell Communication in Living Organisms Nine Countries with Nuclear Weapons Metalloproteins: Biochemistry of Nature & Health Northern lights, Norway Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Injecting CO2 into depleted oil wells enhances oil recovery, making companies richer. However, the climate benefits depend on the overall carbon footprint of the EOR process and the fate of extracted oil. Problems of Carbon Sequestration Permanence: Long-term stability of carbon storage is a strong factor. Forests can be lost to wildfires or deforestation, while geological storage sites need monitoring to prevent leakage. Scale: Scaling up both biologic and geologic sequestration to meet the demand requires significant investment, tech advancements and policy support. Food to Energy: Krebs Cycle & Cell Balance Sirius the Dog Star: Stellar Mythology Transition Metals in Science and Health Environmental Impacts: Certain sequestration methods, like ocean fertilization, can have unintended ecological consequences. Cost: The cost of carbon capture and storage technologies remains relatively high. Companies might be more motivated if more countries follow the Norwegian example. Continuous monitoring is essential after the CO2 is injected to ensure it doesn't leak into the atmosphere or contaminate groundwater. The process includes seismic surveys, pressure tracking, and chemical analyses. Current Use of Carbon Sequestration Carbon sequestration is presently use on a limited scale, with several large-scale carbon capture and storage (CCS) facilities already functioning worldwide. Participating countries include Canada, the UK and Australia. Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities Glutamates: Umami Flavors & Brain Cells Before the Viking Age - Gods of the Sámi Canadian Rocky Mountains Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Mars Curiosity Rover is one of NASA's most ambitious projects, hailed as an optimal feat of science and engineering. Far overreaching its 2-year mission, Curiosity analyzes soil, rocks and potential for past and future life. Bioremediation: Organic Cleanup of Toxins Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space Curiosity Mars Rover selfie Launched from the Kennedy Space Center in 2011, Curiosity travels through the frigid dark of space to land on Mars August 2012. Its mission is focused on Gale Crater, a basin profuse in geological history. Curiosity seeks to uncover the mysteries of Mars, including possibility of ancient life. Curiosity's primary goal is to determine whether Mars ever had an environment able to support microbial existence. How Bacteria Survive a Nuclear Explosion Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back Cyanobacteria are believed to be the earliest organisms to populate Earth Its information revolutionizes human understanding of the Red Planet. As it assesses the planet's potential for future human exploration, its findings are critical for long-term plans to send people to Mars. Initially, Curiosity is not expected to last longer than two years. The Rover has now labored continuously for over a dozen years, and is still going strong. Super Alloys in Space Exploration Survival of Bacteria in the Extremes of Space How Spacecraft Produce Water for Astronauts Curiosity photo of Martian dune with the Rover's tracks Design and Features Curiosity is a technologically advanced rover. It weighs about 899 kg (1982 lbs) and measures 3 m (9'10") in length. It stands to a height of 2.1 m (7 ft). It includes six wheels, a robotic arm and a multitude of scientific instruments. Unlike its predecessors, Spirit and Opportunity, Curiosity uses a sophisticated design with nuclear power source. This enables it to operate for extended periods. Distance, night and Martian dust storms make solar power problematic. Sandstorms can last weeks and cover areas the size of continents. How Astronauts Breathe in Space Lithium Ion Batteries on Earth & in Space Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials Notable features include: Wheels : Curiosity's wheels are specially designed to traverse Mars' rocky terrain. They are made of aluminum and have curved titanium spokes for added traction. A full turn of the wheels drives Curiosity 1.65 m (5.4 ft). The Rover covers about 150 m/day (492 ft). Nuclear-powered generator : The Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (MMRTG) uses the heat generated by the natural radioactive decay of plutonium-238 to produce electricity, so Curiosity can operate in the unforgiving Martian environment. Tardigrades (Water Bears): Extreme Survivors Secret Life of Rust: Power of Bacteria Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Plutonium 238 Robotic arm : The 7-foot-long (2.1 m) robotic arm weighs 101 kg (223 lb). It's equipped with tools, such as drill, spectrometer and camera. They help Curiosity investigate chemical composition and structure of Martian rocks and soil. Scientific instruments ChemCam : A laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy instrument that vaporizes rocks and soil to analyze their composition. For example, Curiosity has investigated clay minerals and sulfates, indicating past water activity, which is crucial for understanding the planet's ability to support life. Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk What Robots Need to Function & Survive Magnesium (Mg): Ecology & Human Health Mastcam : High-resolution cameras capture color images and videos of Mars' surface. Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI): A camera mounted on the rover's arm provides close-up images of Martian rocks and soil. CheMin : An X-ray diffraction and fluorescence instrument identifies the minerals present in rock and soil samples. Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future Algae in Glass Houses: Diatomaceous Earth How Solar Panels Work Mars looks red due to oxidization or rusting of iron in rocks, regolith (Martian soil), and dust of Mars SAM : A suite of instruments that analyzes the organic and inorganic constituents of rock and soil samples, searching for signs of past or present life. RAD and DAN : Radiation assessment detector and dynamic aluminum neutron-activated analysis, which study the radiation environment on Mars and its subsurface water activity, respectively. Mars astronauts are subject to radiation over 200x that of Earth. CubeSats: Science, Technology & Risky Business Cell Communication in Living Organisms Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure Chernobyl scene Significant Discoveries and Achievements Throughout its time on Mars, Curiosity has made several groundbreaking discoveries, providing invaluable insights into the planet's geology, climate, and potential for past life. Gale Crater and Mount Sharp : Curiosity traverses Gale Crater, which was filled with water billions of years ago. It's now an extensive dry lakebed. How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment Glutamates: Umami Flavors & Brain Cells dry mud crack patterns reveal several cycles of water presence and dry-up (Curiosity photo) Curiosity finds evidence of water flow and minerals. Eons ago a variety of wet conditions exist in the region. Mount Sharp is a 3.4-mile-high (5.5 km) mountain in the center of the crater. It contains layers of sediment with clues about Mars' environmental history. Organic molecules : Curiosity finds organic molecules in Martian rocks and soil. The molecules may be the result of life, or non-biological processes. Seven Probiotics: Human Digestive Health Building Robots: Elastomers, Metals & Plastics Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Mars Rover fun art Seasonal methane : Curiosity observes seasonal variations in methane levels, suggesting the existence of a reservoir of methane trapped beneath the Martian surface or periodically released from the planet's interior. Radiation levels : Curiosity's radiation measurements have provided crucial data for future human exploration of Mars, informing scientists about the risks associated with long-term exposure to Martian radiation. Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes: Life Forms on Earth Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a powerful force. It enables machines to think and act like humans. From perky virtual assistants and unhelpful help pages to advanced robotics in manufacturing, AI proliferates world-wide. Mars Curiosity Rover: Success & Longevity Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space Defining Artificial Intelligence Artificial Intelligence is the simulation of human intelligence processes by computer systems. These processes include learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI helps machines think and learn the way AI calculates humans think. This incites a mad scramble by marketing industries. Highly independent, AI tackles complex tasks and makes decisions on its own. The effectiveness of AI relies heavily on data. Many AI projects fail due to insufficient information. Quality and quantity of data affect the ability of machines to recognize patterns and make accurate predictions. Super Alloys in Space Exploration Survival of Bacteria in the Extremes of Space How Spacecraft Produce Water for Astronauts Early Intelligence T he term "artificial intelligence" is first used in 1956 at the Dartmouth Workshop. Underlying concepts have roots in earlier explorations of computation and logic. Early codebreaker Alan Turing (1912 - 1954) lays the groundwork with the Turing Test, a standard for machine intelligence. In 1956 experts such as John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky gather to discuss how machines can simulate intelligence by the human definition. With this meeting serious AI research begins. Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk How Bacteria Survive a Nuclear Explosion In the ensuing decades come "AI winters", periods of reduced funding and interest due to unfulfilled promises, interspersed with eureka moments. In the 1980s, advancement of neural networks improve capabilities of AI. By the 21st century, algorithms for machine learning skyrocket. It's a new era in AI research and application. How Artificial Intelligence Works AI encompasses various approaches and techniques, all hoping to achieve intelligent, or at least human-like, behavior. AI assembles data in little thought boxes, seeking predictable patterns. De-Orbiting Satellites: Problems & Processes How Astronauts Breathe in Space Lithium Ion Batteries on Earth & in Space Machine Learning (ML): The most common approach, ML trains algorithms on massive datasets to identify patterns and make predictions or decisions. This includes: Supervised Learning: Training on labeled data (e.g., images labeled as "cat" or "dog") to predict the label of new, unseen data. Unsupervised Learning: Discovering patterns in unlabeled data, such as clustering customers based on purchasing behavior. Reinforcement Learning: Training an automation to make decisions in an environment to maximize a reward, similar to how humans learn through trial and error. Humans learn by feelings of pleasure, disappointment, happiness or guilt. Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back Transition Metals in Science and Health Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure Good humans. To inspire a robot, a "reward" can be an internal signal indicating completion of task or advancement towards a goal. It's often achieved through intrinsic motivation mechanisms. These may be curiosity-driven exploration, novelty seeking, or information gain. The robot is rewarded for learning about its environment and experiencing new situations, rather than solely reaching a specific result.  Deep Learning (DL): A subset of ML, deep learning uses artificial neural networks with multiple layers to analyze data. It's effective for tasks like image recognition, natural language processing and speech recognition. Natural Language Processing (NLP): This enable computers to understand, interpret, and generate human language. It powers applications like chatbots, language translation and sentiment analysis. Rule-Based Systems: These rely on predefined rules and knowledge to make decisions. They're used in expert systems and decision support. Ideonella sakaiensis : Plastic-Eating Bacteria Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Russo-Ukrainian War: Motives, Propaganda & Technology Ownership & Control Companies which develop or buy the technology own it. Major owners of course include Google, Amazon, Microsoft, Facebook and IBM. Startups focusing on niche applications are also emerging. Governments and regulatory bodies are increasingly involved in overseeing AI development. For example, the European Union has proposed new regulations in the hope AI will be developed ethically and responsibly. As AI continues to grow, discussions about intellectual property rights and data usage increase. This raises important questions about who owns the creations of AI, whether companies, developers or users. Data ownership rights are a factor, as AI algorithms aim at datasets owned by different entities. Centralized control of AI by a few powerful companies raises concerns of bias, ethical considerations, and potential misuse. Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Drone Warfare: Unmanned Combat Vehicles CubeSats: Science, Technology & Risky Business Automatic Intelligence in Robotics and Life AI-powered robots can perform tasks from assembling products in factories to assisting surgeons in operating rooms. Robots equipped with AI can adapt to changes in their surroundings. The Boston Dynamics company's robotic arm can assemble IKEA furniture more accurately than humans can. The merger of AI and robotics creates intelligent machines able to perform complex tasks with increasing autonomy. Manufacturing: Robots perform repetitive tasks with greater precision and efficiency than humans, and don't need a coffee break. Lithium (Li): Science, Health & Uses Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future Nitric Acid: Aqua Fortis the Acid Queen Healthcare: Surgical robots assist surgeons with complex operations, for improved accuracy and reduced recovery times. They can learn in 16 seconds what takes 16 years of medical school for humans. Also in healthcare, AI assists in diagnostics. Algorithms analyze medical images for anomalies faster and more accurately than human radiologists can. It enables robots to diagnose diseases, develop new treatments and "personalize" patient care. Logistics: Autonomous vehicles and drones deliver packages and goods, making delivery drivers unnecessary. Self-driving cars and trucks have been developed as well. Exploration: AI robots can explore hazardous environments, such as deep-sea or space. Robot craft are already used in oceans and space. AI makes them independent and can broaden their capacities. Ammonia: Formation, Hazards & Reactions Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas Citric Acid: Nature, Health & Science Search Engines: It's used to "optimize" search results and provide personalized recommendations based on the human's past. This may be seen a roadblock to evolution, but not for robots. Finance: It ostensibly detects fraud. It's able to manage risk and provides personalized financial advice. Artificial intelligence can analyze the stock market. In fields like finance, AI is used to reduce human error and improve decision-making. Algorithms used in trading are known to outperform human traders. Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Algae in Glass Houses: Diatomaceous Earth How Solar Panels Work Pros and Cons Pros Increased Efficiency and Productivity: Automating tasks and optimizing processes. AI systems can handle tasks around the clock without fatigue. Improved Accuracy and Precision: Reducing errors and improving quality.  Unlike humans, AI can analyze large datasets in seconds, uncovering insights that would take humans days or weeks to find. AI automates repetitive tasks. It provides insights and predictions based on data analysis. It's used to solve complex problems and refine products and services to what it decides the individual needs. It can be taught to find solutions to complex problems in healthcare, mitigation of climate change and other areas. Plutonium (Pu): Nuclear Weapons & Space Nine Countries with Nuclear Weapons History of China: Ancient Days to Space Race Cons Job Displacement: 315 million jobs are expected to be taken over by AI by 2030. Bias: It can perpetuate and amplify existing biases in data and algorithms ie it could be wrong. Privacy Concerns: It collects vast amounts of personal data. This is not new, it's already the norm. Security Risks: Vulnerability to cyberattacks and misuse. Buddhist Violence in Rakhine State Myanmar Death Cap Mushrooms: Deadly Poison Knights Templar Crusades & Medieval France Ethical Dilemmas: Raising questions about autonomy, responsibility, and potential for unintended consequences. Dependence on Technology: Overreliance on AI may reduce critical thinking abilities and problem-solving skills as humans grow ever more accustomed to letting machines handle tasks. Global Competition: Countries race to excel in AI technology, leading to competition and alliances internationally. AI strongly affects economic growth, politics and control. Roman Empire: Situation 300 AD Ancient Traders & Buyers: Art of Testing Metals Leap to Flames: Why Did Empedocles Jump into Mount Etna? Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Calcite is made up of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). With stunning crystal formations and a range of beautiful colors, calcite also has industrial applications, and can derive its existence from metal-eating bacteria of micro-ecology. S. pasteurii: Calcium Eating Limestone-Making Bacteria Calcium (Ca): Earth Metal of Structure & Strength Metal to Rust: Unseen Organisms in Action Calcite (CaCO3) About Calcite Calcite is one of the most abundant minerals on Earth. Its chemical composition, calcium carbonate, gives it a wide array of physical properties, including its capacity to fluoresce, its variability in hardness (3 on the Mohs scale), and its distinctive rhombohedral crystal shape. Beyond its beauty, calcite plays an instrumental role in ecological and geological processes. Calcite makes up about 4% of the Earth's crust. It is a primary component of sedimentary rocks like limestone. Women Scientists of the Ancient World   Calcium (Ca): Earth Metal of Structure & Strength Zinc (Zn): Essential Metal in Alchemy & Medicine Stunning orange calcite gets its color from iron oxide inclusions The chemical formula CaCO₃ is the same for limestone, calcite and calcium carbonate. Calcite's distinctive properties include a fizzy reaction with hydrochloric acid and birefringence, in which an incident ray of light is split into two rays. Notably, calcite is important to the carbon cycle, acting as a carbon sink regulating atmospheric CO₂ levels. Limestone, primarily composed of calcite, contains approximately 80% of the global carbonate reservoir. Finding the Philosophers' Egg Sanguine: Red Chalk of Renaissance Masters Chalcopyrite (CuFeS₂): Shining Copper Ore Limestone powder Calcite & Limestone While calcite and limestone are closely related and even share the same chemical formula, they are not the same. Limestone is a sedimentary rock created from calcite. It forms under pressure from the accumulation of organic materials like shells, coral, and other debris. In contrast, calcite is the mineral form of calcium carbonate, which also has the chemical formula CaCO3. Calcite exists in a pure crystalline state and as a component of rock types. Limestone consists of calcite and materials like clay and fossils. Chalcedony Gems: Secrets of Silicon Dioxide Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure Lapis Lazuli: Creating Ultramarine Ancient Shells - Limestone is known for its many fossils How is Calcite Made in Nature? In nature, calcite can be formed through the biochemical activities of organisms, such as mollusks, corals. Corals can generate vast amounts of calcite as they build reefs. Certain bacteria secrete calcium carbonate to create shells and structures. The calcium eating bacterium Sporosarcina pasteurii  is a main contributor to calcite production. Calcite can precipitate from water by evaporation or chemical reactions, resulting in sedimentary deposits. 10 Alchemical Metals - Ancient Metals of Alchemy Antimony (Stibnite, Kohl) Ancient Metal of Science & Beauty Earth of Chios: Ancient Alchemy, Cosmetics, & Medicine Calcium-eating calcite-producing bacteria In marine and freshwater environments, fluctuations in temperature, pressure, and pH can lead to the chemical precipitation of calcite from calcium-rich solutions. This causes significant calcium carbonate deposits. In freshwater lakes, such as Lake Huron, up to 70% of benthic sedimentary layers is calcite. Sporosarcina pasteurii Calcite Making Bacteria Calcite is formed is through the action of bacteria, particularly Sporosarcina pasteurii , a type of ureolytic bacterium. The urease enzyme hydrolyzes urea to produce ammonia and carbonic acid. These bacteria are crucial to microbial-induced calcite precipitation (MICP). When Sporosarcina pasteurii metabolizes urea, it releases ammonia to raise the pH of the surrounding environment, making it more alkaline. Silent Destroyers: Microbial Corrosion of Concrete Biofilm Communities: Metropolitan Microbes Acid-Producing Bacteria in Sulfuric Acid Creation The pH increase causes dissolved calcium ions and carbonate ions to combine and precipitate as solid calcite. This process catalyzes formation of calcite and also aids in soil stabilization. It enhances biodiversity, and can facilitate the remediation of heavy metals and nutrients in contaminated sites. These bacteria can precipitate calcite at about 1 to 10 grams per liter. Colors of Calcite Calcite can display a spectrum of colors, including colorless, white, yellow, pink, green, blue, and brown. These colors are attributed to several factors, including inclusions (impurities), the presence of other minerals, and light interference patterns within the crystal structure. Chloroauric Acid: Gold Salts & Extraction Cupriavidus metallidurans : Metal Eating Gold Making Bacterium 5 Waters of Ancient Alchemy: Aqua Caustic Blue calcite comes from manganese and carbon content Colors of calcite crystals come from: Impurities : Different minerals present during calcite's formation can introduce distinct colors. For example, iron often creates hues of yellow or brown, while manganese can yield pink calcite. Light Refraction : Calcite features specific crystal structures with various optical effects, resulting in an array of visual colors. Environmental Conditions : The environment's temperature, pressure, and chemical makeup at the time of crystallization significantly influence the color of the calcite. Recognizing the color variations in calcite not only enhances its appeal but also provides insights into the environmental conditions during its formation. Algae in Glass Houses: Diatomaceous Earth Flowers of Sulfur (Brimstone): Creation & Uses Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight:  Xanthomonas Campestris Green calcite owes its color to chlorite trapped during crystallization Stalagmites & Stalactites Calcite is responsible for the formation of spectacular cave formations, stalactites and stalagmites. These formations occur as mineral-rich water drips from cave ceilings, gradually depositing calcite as it evaporates. Over millennia, this builds stunning icicle-like stalactites from the ceiling and stalagmites rising from the floor. Consistent dripping causes formations to grow into impressive natural structures. In the Carlsbad Caverns in New Mexico, some stalactites are over 12 m (40 ft). Scheele's Green: History's Most Toxic Pigment Chlorine (Cl): Properties, Hazards & Uses 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Cavern Formations Calcite in Nature and Industry In Nature Calcite is crucial for the formation of geological features and contributes to the carbon cycle. It serves as a habitat for various aquatic organisms and supports soil health. In Industry Calcite is used in production of cement, lime and glass. It acts as a filler in products like paints, plastics, rubber, and adhesives. The agriculture sector also uses calcite to improve soil pH and enhance nutrient availability. Construction Used as an aggregate in concrete, calcite enhances structural stability. It is estimated that around 90% of the cement produced globally contains limestone, a significant source of calcite. Fulminating Silver: Dangerous Explosives in Alchemical Science Iodine (I): Origin, Properties, Uses & Facts Electrum: Metal of Money & Myth Cement Art Carbon Capture Calcite's ability to sequester carbon dioxide is a factor in mitigating climate change. By facilitating the conversion of CO₂ into stable mineral forms, calcite helps reduce greenhouse gas levels. Optics Due to its unique optical properties, calcite is used to make polarizing microscopes and other optical devices. Cosmetics and Pharmaceuticals Calcite acts as an important filler in many cosmetics and pharmaceuticals, showing its wide-ranging applications. In nature, calcite fosters soil fertility and is essential for diverse aquatic ecosystems, supporting numerous marine species. Kaolinite: White Pigment with Benefits B. Linens Bacterium: Big Cheese of B.O. Microbial Alchemy: Fermentation, Digestion, Putrefaction Coral Reef with Life Forms Facts About Calcite Calcite is the primary mineral found in the shells of many marine organisms. The crystal structure of calcite belongs to the trigonal system. Few minerals exhibit double refraction (birefringence), and calcite is one of them; when looking through a piece of calcite, a person can see double images of objects. Calcite is an essential indicator of past environmental conditions and is often studied in paleoclimatology. It is a major component in the formation of coral reefs, helping build complex ecosystems in marine environments. Crystal Habits: Calcite exhibits several crystal habits, including rhombohedral and scalenohedral forms, making it a favorite among mineral collectors. Fizzes with Acid: Calcite is well-known for its vigorous reaction with hydrochloric acid, where it fizzes and dissolves, releasing carbon dioxide gas. Limestone Formation: Most limestone deposits originate from ancient marine environments, indicating historical deposits of organisms causing calcite accumulation. Hardness: On the Mohs scale of mineral hardness, calcite has a rating of 3, meaning it can be easily scratched by a knife. Worldwide Distribution: Calcite is found globally, forming in a variety of environments, from oceans to caves and soil. Rhinestones: Treasures of the Rhine Hematite: Iron Oxide Red Earth Pigment Silver - Queen of Precious Metals Pink Calcite Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Eileithyia (Ilithyia) is an ancient Greek goddess of birth, the process of childbirth and midwifery. She can be one goddess, or several. In this way she relates to the divine Mesopotamian entities Šassūrātu (Sassuratu), and the Kotharat of Syria. Her powers of protection are invoked by birthing mothers. Amazons - Warrior Women History & Myth Pomegranate - Food of the Ancients Arcadia - Greek Lands of Ancient Gods She has empathy with birthing mothers, guards against evil ... she can be fierce With guardian powers of childbirth she's also in the sphere of the Egyptian hippopotamus goddess, Taweret , a ferocious protector of mothers and infants. Her later Roman equivalent is Lucina. The Greek Eileithyia is considered a daughter of Hera and Zeus. Regionally on the Peloponnese Peninsula she may also be known as Eleuthia or Elysia. She doesn't have a consort. Kotharat - Bronze Age Birth Goddesses Minoan Genius (Genii) Helper Spirits Asclepius: Greek Medicine Snake God Crete, north shore At her cult center on Crete, specifically in the cave of Amnisos on the north shore of the island, Eileithyia relates to the annual rebirth of the unnamed "divine child". Here she connects with Enesidaon, Earth Shaker , the chthonic aspect of Poseidon . Her cult may also be related to that of Eleusis and the Eleusinian Mysteries . The Mysteries revolve around the life/death/rebirth cycle. Early worship centers upon the grain goddess Demeter and her daughter, Despoina . Šassūrātu (Sassuratu): Deific Midwives Hutena & Hutellura: Dyad of Birth & Fate Ornithomancy - Prophecy by the Birds Powers of creation, nurturing, growth, cycles Eileithyia is described sitting with the Moirai, or the Fates, where she is responsible for the creation of offspring. The three Greek Fates are Clotho (the spinner), Lachesis (the allotter), and Atropos (the inevitable, or death). She has a son, Sosipolis, meaning 'savior of the state'. He's usually portrayed as a boy or youth in a military cloak, carrying the horn of Amalthea, a cornucopia. In the form or a serpent he brings victory to Elis, southwest Peloponnese. He's worshiped at Elis as patron or tutelary god. Cyrene: Huntress Queen of Greek Myth Asherah: Goddess of Childbirth & Fertility Chaoskampf: Order & Chaos Battle Out Sosipolis saves the Arcadians by turning into a snake, causing the enemy to flee The Goddess Eileithyia seems to pre-date the mainland Greek cultures . She may be based on an earlier Minoan goddess, who in turn evolves from a Neolithic entity. She has attributes of healing and knowledge of herbs and plants. She eases the pain of childbirth. In the Iliad c. 8th century BCE Homer writes, " ... And even as when the sharp dart striketh a woman in travail, the piercing dart that the Eilithyiae, the goddesses of childbirth, send - even the daughters of Hera that have in their keeping bitter pangs ... " Taweret - Hippopotamus Goddess of Egypt Amethyst - Divine Purple Quartz Gemstone Herbology & Lore - Chamomile The Greek traveler Pausanias, writing in the 2nd century AD, reports another early source which is now lost. Pausanias writes, "The Lycian Olen, an earlier poet, who composed for the Delians, among other hymns, one to Eileithyia, styles her as 'the clever spinner', clearly identifying her with the Fates, thus making her older than Cronus." Pagan Solstice Fests: Saturnalia Agrippina & Son: Poisonous Plots of Rome Lora Ley Adventures - Feast of Fools The Titan Cronus, Roman Saturn, devours his children for fear they'll overthrow him. He's right. It's clear Eileithyia is a goddess whose evolutionary origins go back to early times. She's associated with both Artemis and Hera. Artemis, in her aspect of childbirth goddess takes Eileithyia's name as an epithet. A 1792 translation by Thomas Taylor puts forth: "When racked with labor pangs, and sore distressed the sex invoke thee, as the soul's sure rest; for thou Eileithyia alone canst give relief to pain, which art attempts to ease, but tries in vain. Artemis Eileithyia, venerable power, who bringest relief in labor's dreadful hour." Divine Twins: Germanic & Greek Mythology Cress, Watercress: Natural Health of Ancients Bau - Healing Goddess of Babylonia Ancient Greeks value hygiene and cleanliness In Classical Greek art, Eileithyia is typically shown assisting the childbirth. She may appear as two Eileithyiai working in harmony. As the primary goddess of childbirth along with Artemis, Eileithyia had numerous shrines in many locations in Greece dating from Neolithic to Roman times, indicating her importance to pregnant women and their families. Great Women Artists - Käthe Kollwitz Sun Goddesses of World Mythology Inanna (Ishtar) - Goddess of Ancients "The Mothers" Käthe Kollwitz, woodcut, 20th century - mothers protect their children People pray, recite incantations and leave offerings for aid in fertility, safe childbirth, or give appreciation for a successful birth. Terracotta votive figurines include those of children. Holy sites dedicated to her suggest parents pray to her to safeguard their children. As in most cultures, midwives play a vital part in ancient Greece. Women of all classes can take up the profession, even slaves with only basic or theoretical training in obstetrics and gynecology. Apkallu - Seven Sages of Mesopotamia Lahar: Flock & Sheep Pastoral Goddess Butzemann, Witches & Nyx - Scare 'em Good More highly educated midwives, usually from the upper classes, are known as iatrenes, or doctors of women's diseases. They're well respected as physicians. Apart from Artemis, Eileithyia is associated with the chthonic figure Hecate (Hekate), goddess of night, magic, crossroads. Hecate's symbol is the snake, representing rebirth, medicine and fertility. Snakes and the Underworld are also associated with vegetation and the fertile earth. Cinnamon - Spice Trade of Ancients Stymphalian Birds & Greek Heroics Gula - Medicine Goddess of Mesopotamia Nourishment and the fertile earth Eileithyia's worship sites include Achaea, Arcadia , Argos, Athens, Corinth, Crete, Delos, Eretriam, Messene, Olympia, Pyros and Sparta. The temple at Sparta is even recommended to worshipers by the Delphic Oracle. In Argos, offerings are brought to the temple of Eileithyia in the ten days following a birth. In Athens Eileithyia can be an independent goddess, or form a trinity with Artemis and Persephone. Taurus Mountains: Bronze Age Bounty Pan: Wild Rustic God of Music & Flocks Nigella Sativa: Black Seed of Healers Three Women In Crete, the Cave of Eileithyia near the harbor of Knossos is considered the birthplace of the Goddess. Votive offerings to her are found here since Neolithic times. In the deific family tree, Hebe the Cupbearer and Goddess of Youth; Ares the God of War and Courage; and Hephaestus the metal smith are siblings of Eileithyia. Giresun (Aretias): Isle of the Amazons Joyful Arrival of Hapi in Egypt Khaos: Primal Goddess of Greek Myth Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top