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Sin (Nanna, Dilimbabbar, Suen), is the ancient Mesopotamian God of the Moon. He fathers several deities including Inanna , Queen of Heaven, and Utu/Shamash , the Sun God. City of Ur: Urban Life in Ancient Mesopotamia Ninhursag - Great Mountain Mother Nanshe - Nature Goddess of Justice & Dreams Sin, Moon God of Ancient Mesopotamia His wife is the goddess Ningal (Akkadian: Nikkal), or Great Queen. She's held in high esteem especially during the Third Dynasty of Ur (22 - 21st century BCE) and later, by kings of Larsa in the south of today's Iraq. Sin's sukkal is the god Alammuš (Alammush), a divine twin of cattle deity Ningublaga. Alammuš is known as a sukkalmaḫ , or administrative officer tasked with overseeing the responsibilities of sukkals . This term carries over into the human realm. The primary worship location is Ur near the Persian Gulf Coast. It was established as a coastal city in 3800 BCE. The Great Ziggurat of Ur is dedicated to Sin. His temple atop the ziggurat, known as Ekišnugal, is rebuilt several times by different rulers. Sin enjoys great popularity and esteem for many centuries in Mesopotamia. Inanna: Goddess Queen of Heaven Uruk Mesopotamia: Forefront of Civilization Dream Interpretation (Oneiromancy) - Mesopotamia Great Ziggurat of Ur dedicated to Sin - the temple would have been at top The facade of the Great Ziggurat is rebuilt by Saddam Hussein in the 1980s. The ziggurat is part of a larger temple complex and is fundamentally a stand for a main temple, which only priests can access. Over time, silt deposition moves Ur further inland. Today it's about 190 km from the Gulf coast. Its location is shown below in the time of Hammurabi (reign 1792-1750 BCE). Worship of Sin as far as Harran at the border of today's Turkey and Syria; and Tutub in central east Iraq. He's considered one of the Old Gods, having immense power, revered throughout the Mesopotamian lands. Papsukkal - Grand Vizier of the Gods Figs - Food of the Ancient World Ninurta (Ninĝirsu) - God of the People Sin guarantees the safety and abundance of his tutelary city and those who come to his worship sites. He's seen as a benevolent entity who can intercede with other gods on behalf of the petitioner. He can grant requests or fulfill wishes, and has prophetic powers. Childless couples pray to him for fertility and pregnancy. For women, pregnancy and childbirth is hazardous. Demons like Lamashtu seek to destroy mothers and children. Sin's symbol is the crescent. In Mesopotamian artwork it represents the god and his lunar barque traveling far above the mortal realm. Like the Sun, the Moon in the sky sees all. In accordance with the appearance of the new moon in the latitude of Mesopotamia, it's represented as recumbent. The crescent is likened to bull horns as Sin is also a cattle deity. Girsu (Tello): Ancient Sumerian City Gibil - Fire God of Mesopotamia Gallu (Galla) Demons of Ancient Kur King Ur-Namma, part of a cylinder seal, with Sumerian glyphs and recumbent crescent moon A less benign aspect of his character is his potential to call up disease demons. He's especially associated with Shulpae (Šulpae) , consort of mountain mother Ninhursag . Shulpae is the Mesopotamian entity thought responsible for inflicting bennu ( benu ) or epilepsy. In medical texts, the benu demon is described as the "deputy" ( šanê ) of Sin. The affliction is greatly feared in the ancient world. It causes such symptoms as seizures, derangement or insanity, muscle spasms and uncontrolled shouting or bleating. Bau - Healing Goddess of Babylonia Kish: Glory Days in Ancient Babylonia Ereshkigal & the Mesopotamian Underworld disease demon Shulpae The disease demon is acts under the direction of the Moon God. Thus, the moon is associated with madness. Sin connects to powers of the night, mysteries of magic and Underworld. The moon disappears into the earth to bring his silvery light to the land of the dead. Disease demons, vegetation snake gods and other primal entities call the Underworld home. Sin knows them well. Even kind gods can have a mean streak. Especially if not respected, they're swift to punish mortals. Demons - Evil Udug of Mesopotamia Nergal - Ancient Underworld Gods Pazuzu - Demon God of Mesopotamia Palace of Ereshkigal , Queen of the Underworld For example Enlil , one of the oldest gods, is seen as a benevolent deity, but in a popular myth he asks disease demon Namtar  to send plague and sickness into the human population. This is because the mortals make so much noise he can't sleep. He tries drought and disease and finally sends a flood. The latter works and at last Enlil gets some sleep. In the Underworld Kur, Sin the Moon God is a divine judge. Although there is no judgment in the Mesopotamian afterlife, he's associated with human fate. Care & Feeding of Ancient Gods - Enlil Shurpu: Ancient Rite of Curse Removal Kulullu - Fish Man Monster of Tiamat The moon is often seen as an oracle, accessible even to ordinary people. The mysteries of the moon and its shining light create an aura of cosmic power associated with prophecy, illumination, dreams and divination. Apart from his role as a moon god, Sin is a pastoral deity and guardian of flocks and herds. Cattle, milk and dairy products are sacred to him. As a patron of cattle, Sin has the Bull as his sacred animal. Secondary names given him include Abkar or Shining Cow, and Ablulu, He Who Makes the Cows Abundant.  He's associated with the number 30, the number of days in a lunar cycle, and with boats. He appears on  kudurru , or boundary stones, wearing a crescent on his hat or staff, or depicted as only as his symbol the crescent. Ninsun - Lady of the Wild Cows Hathor: Cosmic Cow Goddess of Ancient Egypt Pagan Pantheon - Anu, Oldest of the Gods Kudurru or boundary stone; top left to right: eight point star of Inanna; crescent of Sin; star of Shamash He has the power to help women during pregnancy and in childbirth. This aspect of his character appears in the incantation " Cow of Sîn" . According to the incantation he sends a pair of lamassu (protector) goddesses to assist with difficult births. Lamma goddesses are household guardians as well, placed as figurines in the home to repel evil spirits. In the Old Babylonian god lists (2900 - 2350 BCE), the entourage of Sin includes cattle deity Nindara. A god of Lagash , he's husband of nature goddess Nanshe , a significant entity of the ancient delta. Goddess Nisaba - First Lady of Writing Ninshubur: Loyal Goddess Sukkal of Inanna Enki (Ea) God of Water & Creation Nanshe, goddess of nature, water, fishing, dreams and justice Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top Back to Top

The Akitu festival falls on the first day of the Babylonian and Assyrian month of Nisan near the Spring Equinox (March or April). Akitu marks the arrival of spring, the sowing of barley and renewal of the agricultural cycle. Inanna (Ishtar) - Goddess Queen of Heaven Abzu - Primal Waters of Creation Nanaya: Goddess of Erotic Love Barley The Akitu festival dates back to the Sumerian New Year festival known as Zagmuk. It's a time of rebirth and joy Akitu first emerges in ancient Babylon and Assyria. Zodiac and lunar calendars determine wth timing. The festival spans several days and includes public celebrations and religious ceremonies. Elaborate feasts go on for twelve days. Animal sacrifices and offerings of grain are made to the gods, which then feed the masses, imparting blessings of the deities, with strong pastoral and agricultural connections. Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe City of Ur: Urban Life in Ancient Mesopotamia Barley is central to the festival and economy. A main crop, it provides a reliable food source. It's essential for brewing beer, a beverage sacred to beer goddesses Ninkasi and Siris . Akitu celebrates rebirth of nature, triumph of order over chaos, and the divine mandate legitimizing the ruling dynasty. All members of the city, regardless of their station, and even slaves participate in the festivities. From the awilu (the upper class), to the muskena (the middle class), and the wardu (the lower class), everyone contributes to collective joy and share in the hope for a prosperous year. The King is an active participant. Ninkasi: Beer Goddess Mesopotamia The Igigi - Why Humans are Created Uruk Mesopotamia: Forefront of Civilization beer - a barley product Specific rituals of Akitu vary over time and place, but core elements are consistent. Temple Cleansing and Purification: Before festivities began, the temples are cleaned and purified to welcome the gods. Re-enactment of Creation: A major component of Akitu is the dramatic re-enactment of the Enūma Eliš. The myth comprises seven tablets describing creation of the world, a struggle between gods, like battles of Marduk and Chaos Sea Goddess Tiamat . Scorpion Men of Babylonia Ushumgallu: Dragon Lion Snake Monster Kusarikku - Bull Men of Mesopotamia Warrior Marduk In the Epic of Creation Tiāmat gives birth ( alādu ) to monstrous serpents, described as mušmaḫḫū , "with sharp teeth, merciless fangs, instead of blood she filled their bodies with venom." The myth covers the creation of humans, destined for the service of the Mesopotamian deities. Humans are made to replace the Igigi , first servants of the gods, who rebel. The myth ends with a passage praising Marduk. Gula - Medicine Goddess of Mesopotamia Gallu (Galla) Demons of Ancient Kur Disease Demons & Doctors: Ancient Mesopotamia Lordly Marduk with Mushussu , his loyal comanion Humiliation of the King: In Babylon the king is stripped of his royal insignia and publicly confesses his sins to the High Priest. The act of humility purifies the king and ensures continued favor of the gods upon his reign. The gods give the King and his family the divine right to rule. After confession he's symbolically reinstated, signifying a renewed covenant between the ruler and the divine. In other versions, the King must spend the night in a reed prison, stripped of rank, while laments and prayers are sung around him. The High Priest might slap him in the face so hard he cries. Shamhat: Sacred Prostitute & the Wild Man Bull of Heaven - Inanna vs Gilgamesh Ninurta (Ninĝirsu) - God of the People that really hurt ... Sacred Marriage: A major ritual is the hieros gamos, or sacred marriage, symbolizing the union of the main god (variable) with a goddess. This ensures fertility of the land and prosperity of the kingdom. The hieros gamos appears frequently in alchemy. It refers to the sexual union of the Red King and White Queen, or a union of opposites, necessary to create the divine hermaphrodite . At Akitu the hieros gamos is a sexual coupling of the King with a High Priestess. Some consider it symbolic rather than physical act; but sexuality in ancient Mesopotamia doesn't bear the same stigma as it does today. Tiamat - Queen of Chaos & the Sea Bashmu (Bašmu): Voracious Serpent Dragon Goddess Nisaba - First Lady of Writing In Mesopotamia and Assyria, monogamy is the norm but polygyny may be practiced by both rulers and commoners. Women are not known for taking multiple husbands, but have the right to divorce a man and get another. An example of sexual norms is prostitution. Not only is it legal, it's a profession sacred to Inanna Goddess Queen of Heaven. In one famous tale, wild man Enkidu is "civilized" by a sacred prostitute . In Mesopotamia,  Nanaya  is the goddess of erotic love. She has an important place in the entourage of Inanna and is often listed with love goddess Bizilla . Ningizibara: Sumerian Balaĝ Music Goddess Namtar: Underworld Sukkal & Disease Demon Architect Gods & Building in Mesopotamia wild man Enkidu Processions:  Throughout the festival, elaborate processions wind through the city. They carry statues of the gods and goddesses, accompanied by music and dancing. People wear colorful garb and flowers like daffodils, jonquils, tulips and irises bloom everywhere. Death of the King : In the Zagmuk festivities the king is killed so he can live again, proving his divine connection, or battle at the side of Marduk. This is either a ritual death, or a prisoner or a criminal is appointed King at start of festivities, enjoying all benefits and later slain in his stead. Many of these concepts carry over into the Saturnalia of ancient Rome, Feast of Fools or Narrenfest in Germany and the Lord of Misrule in Engand. Today, the Akitu festival survives as a symbol of identity and cultural heritage for Assyrian communities throughout the world. Though rituals have changed, the spirit of celebration lives on. Inara & the Dragon - Purulliya Festival Wine God Liber: Liberty & Liberal Libation Ereshkigal & the Mesopotamian Underworld Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

The Feast of Zagmuk begins in March and lasts twelve days. The name Zagmuk comes from the Sumerian term for 'beginning of the year'. The feast celebrates the victory of hero god Marduk over the forces of Chaos. Chaoskampf: Order & Chaos Battle Out Enuma Elish: Marduk & the Chaos Monsters Bull of Heaven - Inanna vs Gilgamesh Triumph as the powers of Chaos subside The god Marduk holds considerable influence in ancient Mesopotamia. Originally the patron god of the city of Babylon, founded in the 23rd century BCE , Marduk is at first a minor deity. The glory of Babylon is yet to come. Marduk is mentioned in writings of the 3rd millennium BCE. An unnamed ruler builds a temple to him in an unnamed city. Babylon rises to prominence in the reign of Hammurabi 1792 to 1750 BCE. With it rises Marduk. Enuma Elish: Marduk & the Chaos Monsters Tiamat - Queen of Chaos & the Sea Lora Ley Adventures - Feast of Fools Marduk & helper Mušḫuššu - from a cylinder seal c. 900 BCE The snake dragon Mušḫuššu (Mushhushshu) becomes the symbolic animal and servant of Marduk after the god defeats him in a battle. A hybrid of several creatures, Mušḫuššu is loyal and helpful. The festive days of Zagmuk begin on the first day of the first month. In the Persian calendar the first month is March, or Nisan. In c. 700 BCE, Roman king Numa Pompilius brings January and February into the calendar. This makes March the third month and January the first. The festival is still held held in March/April, corresponding to lunar and zodiac calendars. Curse of the Evil Eye & Apotropaic Magic Care & Feeding of Ancient Gods - Enlil Demons - Evil Udug of Mesopotamia Daffodils bloom in March/April in Mesopotamia The Twelve Days celebrate the triumph of Marduk over the forces of Chaos, symbolized by the chaos sea goddess Tiamat and her monstrous creations. The battle between Marduk and Chaos lasts 12 days. In Uruk the same festival is associated with An or Anu , all-powerful Sumerian god. Both are essentially equivalent to the Akkadian "Akitu" festival. In some variations, Marduk is killed by Tiamat on the winter solstice, and resurrected on the spring equinox. Mušḫuššu - Snake Dragon Animal of Marduk Lahar: Flock & Sheep Pastoral Goddess Shumugan - God of Donkeys & Mules ... spring has sprung During the Twelve Days of Zagmuk, revels reverberate through the land. The story of Marduk battling the powers of Chaos is acted out in the royal court, with the King playing the part of Marduk. His son and rescuer / resurrector is Nabu , god of writing. Freed from the Underworld, the King undertakes the rite of hieros gamos and has sex with his 'spouse', a high priestess of the special priest class naditum . She has vowed a type of chastity, a refusal to have children. Many centuries later, the hieros gamos is a vital element of alchemy . It's the conjunction of the Red King and White Queen , the union of opposites. Nanaya: Goddess of Erotic Love Inanna (Ishtar) - Goddess Queen of Ancients Immortal - Quest for the Elixir of Life The high priestess, also called entu , and her ritual act of intercourse with the King is a re-enactment of the primordial couple An and Ki, who bring the world into existence. An (Anu) is the Sky, while Ki is the Earth. The God Enlil separates them so the Earth can be made habitable for humans, similar to the Egyptian myths of Nut and Geb . If an eclipse of the sun falls on any of the 12 days, a surrogate King is put in place of the real King. Any evils which might affect the King then gravitate to the substitute. Akitu Festival: Springtime in Mesopotamia Ninkasi: Beer Goddess Mesopotamia The Igigi - Why Humans are Created Eclipse or not, on the last day of Zagmuk, the King is slain so he can battle at Marduk's side. Due to problems of offing a king each year, the people use a mock monarch. He's a criminal anointed as King at the beginning of Zagmuk, and killed the last day. The tradition of appointing a fake King is later one of the themes of Narrenfest, or Feast of Fools in Germany, similar to the Lord of Misrule in England and Saturnalia of Rome. In these celebrations a king is chosen from the populace. He makes up ridiculous rules everyone must follow. Fortunately for him he isn't slain at the end. Uruk Mesopotamia: Forefront of Civilization German Folklore - Irrwurz or Mad Root Care & Feeding of Ancient Gods - Enlil Feast of Fools or Narrenfest, Jan 1 1550 by Pieter Bruegel der Ältere The king can be a beggar, petty criminal or even a woman. The ceremonies involve switching status and gender roles, showing utmost disrespect to authority figures, heavy drinking and manic dancing. At the end of these festivities the King is returned to his former lowly status and Chaos is defeated once more. The traditional date of Narrenfest is the first day of the first month of the year. Pagan Solstice Fests: Saturnalia Ishum: Night Watchman & Fire God Bizilla - Shining Love Goddess Sukkal Sylvia Rose Books Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Nabu is the inventor of writing in Mesopotamian mythology. Patron of scribes, wisdom and literacy, the God Nabu goes back to Sumer in 3rd millennium BCE, when he replaces scribe and grain goddess Nisaba . Sin (Nanna): Moon God of Mesopotamia Šassūrātu (Sassuratu): Deific Midwives Warrior Portal Gods Lugal-irra & Meslamta-ea Prayers praising Nisaba substitute Nabu. He reigns as God King for a while. As Akkadian takes over the lands of Mesopotamia from c. 2500 BCE, Nabu becomes a son of the mighty hero god Marduk and wife Sarpanitum. Nabu is considered a Divine Scribe, the god of literacy, rational arts (science), scribes, architecture and wisdom. As an oracle deity he's linked to the Moon God Sin and is also a god of grain and vegetation. Nabu is equated with the Sumerian god Ninurta, deity of scribes, agriculture, farming, hunting healing, law and war. A god invoked during exorcisms, Ninurta has the power to drive out demons causing sickness. Sukkals - Mythic Viziers to the Gods Shulpae (Šulpae): Disease Demon Warrior God Chaoskampf: Order & Chaos Battle Out legendary Hanging Gardens of Babylon As the inventor of writing, Nabu relates to communication, inspiration and the planet Mercury. His divine symbols are the clay tablet and reed stylus, a wedge-shaped instrument. Nabu is often depicted with a traditional horned helmet or crown of rulers. Archaeological finds show him standing, with clasped hands, symbolic of priesthood. Deific equivalents of Nabu include Greek - Hermes Roman - Mercury Egyptian - Thoth City of Ur: Urban Life in Ancient Mesopotamia Sacred Music of Ancient Mesopotamia Inanna: Goddess Queen of Heaven Colossal Statue of Nabu, 8th century BCE The first written language dates back to c. 3400 in Sumer, Mesopotamia. Sumerian develops as a cuneiform language of wedge-shaped symbols made with a stylus. The inscribed clay tablets sit in the sunshine to dry. In c. 2290 BCE, the enemies of Ebla , North Syria, raze and burn the town. Later archaeologists are delighted to discover over 20,000 inscribed clay tablets, hard-baked by flames of destruction, remaining in top condition through the centuries. Nabu and his wife Tashmet (Tashmetum), are tutelary Gods of Borsippa, the sister city of Babylon. Borsippa is famous for the legendary Tower of Babel, later identified as the ziggurat temple of Nabu and Tashmet. At the ziggurat, priests give sacrificial offerings and ritual prayers to Nabu and Tashmet. The temple sits atop the ziggurat. Ordinary people are not permitted in the temple as it's the divine home of the deity. Epic of Erra - Plague God of Babylon Ishum: Night Watchman & Fire God Enuma Elish: Marduk & the Chaos Monsters Ruins of ancient ziggurat of Nabu & Tashmet, Borsippa 6th century BCE; part of it is underground Also Akkadian, Tashmet is a Goddess of Supplication. She's invoked to hear prayers and grant requests. Her name means  lady who listens . Her epithets include Lady of Hearing and Lady of Favor. She's a scribe and keeper of libraries. Nabu also becomes a fate deity. Upon his clay tablets Nabu inscribes the fates decreed to members of the human race. In ancient Mesopotamia, fate is controlled by the gods to maintain order in the universe. Often perceived as unchangeable, fate can sometimes be altered to keep the universal order. According to the Enuma Elish , before creation of the gods no fate is decreed. 12 Days of Zagmuk: Chaos & the King Tiamat - Queen of Chaos & the Sea Pistachio: Turpentine, Resin & Nuts Inscribed ancient clay tablet from Ebla Offerings at his temple include clay tablets aspiring to calligraphic excellence. In this respect he's a teacher and inspiration for students and master scribes. During the Assyrian Empire, the worship of Nabu continues as he's adopted into the dominant pantheon. He becomes the son of Assyrian deities rather than Akkadian. Otherwise he's retained as an important god. He's featured in the twelve days of the Akitu festival on the Spring Equinox, which is also the first day of the Mesopotamian new year and celebrates the sowing of barley. Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Ninkasi: Beer Goddess Mesopotamia Nungal (Manungal) Prison Goddess Barley, an important crop of ancient Mesopotamia Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

The stone walls of Uruk surround a vibrant city in ancient Mesopotamia. Uruk is the first definitive urban center. Uruk is believed founded by King Enmerkar around 4500 BCE, long before the Bronze Age.  Uruk Mesopotamia: Forefront of Civilization Pagan Pantheon - Anu, Oldest of the Gods Inanna: Goddess Queen of Heaven Ladies in colorful fabrics gaze over the land About 80 km (50 mi) south of ancient Ur, another powerful center,   the town is created of large mud brick buildings. It's decorated with relief carvings, paintings and mosaics. A city wall is built c. 3000 BCE. The buildings of Uruk include temples, houses, barracks, artisan quarters and palaces. The palace is equated with a gathering place, not necessarily the home of a monarch, though it can be either. The main city covers an area of 5.5 sq km (2.1 sq mi). Ereshkigal & the Mesopotamian Underworld Sin (Suen): Moon God of Mesopotamia Dream Interpretation (Oneiromancy) - Mesopotamia building boom At its height of activity c. 2900 BCE, Uruk has 50,000 city residents and 90,000 more in the surrounding area. By the end of the 3rd millennium BCE it's the largest city in the known world. Excavated by archaeologists, the large Anu Ziggurat stands at the entrance to Uruk. At one time the White Temple of Anu, with smooth lime walls, gleams atop the ziggurat like a desert lighthouse. The Igigi - Why Humans are Created Nergal - Ancient Underworld Gods Belet-Seri: Underworld Scribe Goddess Anu Ziggurat - a marvel of modern engineering in ruins today The ziggurat is part of a larger temple complex. Uruk temple architecture is consistent with that of previous people. Buildings follow tripartite plans with central hall and anterooms. Uruk is the capital city of Gilgamesh, princely hero of the Epic of Gilgamesh, which holds the distinction of being the oldest known written story in history. Versions of the poem date to c. 2000 BCE. They're inscribed in Sumerian cuneiform, the first written language, which itself dates back to about 3400 BCE. About 400 Proto-cuneiform clay tablets have been found. Asherah: Goddess of Childbirth & Fertility Enki (Ea) God of Water & Creation Mahaleb Cherry: Spice, Nature & Myth Gilgamesh kills the Bull of Heaven In pottery, bevel rim bowls are the most common type of containers, used for food or drink rations to dependent laborers. Pottery increases in quality and quantity with the throwing wheel. The pottery wheel emerges in Uruk in the 3rd millenium. It makes mass production of pottery easier and more consistent. Patron goddess of Uruk is Inanna (later Ishtar). The people want her patronage so build her a beautiful house with priests, musicians and servants in attendance. As the story goes she's delighted and moves in. Inanna is one of the central figures of Mesopotamian mythology. She is a goddess of beauty, sex, divine law, political power, love, war and fertility. Her symbols are the lion, dove, barley, rose, owl and the eight-point star. Gala Priests: Clergy of Goddess Inanna Shumugan - God of Donkeys & Mules Gula - Medicine Goddess of Mesopotamia Warrior Inanna She is worshipped at the temple as a three-aspect goddess or triad. The triple goddess is a familiar form in mythology and belief. Her official title is Queen of Heaven . Her consort is the agriculture god Dumuzid. The goddess Ninshubur is her sukkal (divine attendant). Temperamental, spontaneous Inanna has many adventures involving them. As in many other cultures, the ancient Mesopotamians make sacrifice to the gods. This can be on a special occasion or a regular schedule. As civilization and mythos grow in complexity, the gods are allocated specific feeding times and rituals. Sacrificial animals include the rooster and goat, but greater honor is accorded bull sacrifice . Apkallu - Seven Sages of Mesopotamia Lamashtu, Baby-Eating Demon Goddess of Mesopotamia Bull of Heaven - Inanna vs Gilgamesh The bull is a symbol of fertility, virility and power Other gods are associated with Uruk in particular and greater Mesopotamia in general. Shamash the Sun God sees all with his eye as he travels the sky. He has the role of judging humankind, and is responsible for justice, and the safety of travelers. Like Moon God Sin (Nanna) he's associated with Underworld in his aspect of divine judge. Both sun and moon travel through the underworld when they're not in the sky. Mesopotamian life is highly spiritual. People live with demons, elemental spirits, house entities and nature deities. There are creatures of the home, wild ones in mountains, many with both creative and destructive powers. Owl - Death, Memory, Mystic Wisdom Ninshubur: Loyal Goddess Sukkal of Inanna Enki (Ea) God of Water & Creation Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Ur is a prominent city-state in ancient Mesopotamia. Founded c. 3800 BCE, Ur is a coastal city on the Persian Gulf. It slowly moves inland due to silting. It's known for trade, bureaucracy and architecture. Uruk Mesopotamia: Forefront of Civilization Sacred Music of Ancient Mesopotamia Inanna: Goddess Queen of Heaven Dotted line is the extent of the Gulf when Ur is a coast city. It's now 190km inland. The location of Ur at the mouth of Euphrates in the Fertile Crescent promotes rapid urban growth and development. It's the start of a civilization focused on vital areas like trade, religion, and governance. The climate in Ur is hot and dry, with temperatures reaching up to 49°C (120°F) in summer months. The Euphrates river provides fresh water for irrigation and fertile land. Seasonal floods enhance soil fertility. Crops such as barley and wheat sustain the city’s population. Archaeologists discover grain storage facilities beneath the Great Ziggurat of Ur The early people of Ur are Sumerians. A highly advanced civilization they're for their writing system, mathematics and architecture. The Sumerians are also skilled farmers, who develop irrigation systems to water their crops. Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Effects of Extreme Heat on the Human Body Abu - Ancient Vegetation Snake God barley Ur begins as a small village and grows into an industrious coastal city. Its location on the Persian Gulf is ideal for trade and commerce. Merchants come to Ur to trade goods such as spices, textiles, and precious metals. Society has a hierarchical structure. At the top are ruling class and priests, followed by artisans and farmers. A clear class difference exists, but skilled artisans, for example, can rise in status through their work. At its peak, Ur has a population of 30,000 to 40,000 people. It's among the largest urban centers of the ancient world. Ur architecture is highly advanced. Buildings are mud-brick, a durable, plentiful and affordable building material. The city's streets are paved, and buildings have with indoor plumbing. Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Nungal (Manungal) Prison Goddess Kish: Glory Days in Ancient Babylonia ruins of Ur today, Great Ziggurat in distance Ancient Mesopotamians pave roads by using mud bricks bonded with bitumen , also called pitch or tar, about 6000 years ago. Bitumen is a valued trade item often used to waterproof boats. Ur is a well-planned city, with a grid layout. The city is divided into districts such as residential, commercial and religious. The residential district is made up of small, one-story homes, while the commercial district has markets, shops and warehouses. The religious district includes several large temples and the Great Ziggurat of Ur. Administration offices appear in the temple complex. Priests and priestesses are often involved in this work, as spirituality and daily life are inseparable. They can also read and write. Ninkasi: Beer Goddess Mesopotamia Scribes & Writing: Ancient Beginnings Gala Priests: Clergy of Goddess Inanna Sumerian cuneiform writing, from a trade tablet Ur is ruled by a king advised by a council of elders. The king is responsible for governing the city, maintaining order and leading the city's army in times of war. He's known as ensi or "lord of the plowland" or lugal . While queens also hold power as the king's consort, sole-ruling queens are rarer. If a queen rules alone she's also considered a king, like Queen Puabi of Ur (2600-2334 BCE) and given the title lugal . Papsukkal - Grand Vizier of the Gods Figs - Food of the Ancient World Ninurta (Ninĝirsu) - God of the People King Ur-Nammu (reign 2112-2095 BCE) and cr escent boat of Moon God Sin; cylinder seal . The bureaucracy of Ur is highly organized, with a complex system of record-keeping and administration. Officials manage resources, legal matters and tax collection. Trade and commerce drive the economy of Ur. The city imports spices, textiles, timber and precious metals from India, Egypt, and Arabia. Ur exports grains, dates, pottery and wool. Bronze Age Trade of Mesopotamia Disease Demons & Doctors: Ancient Mesopotamia Dream Interpretation (Oneiromancy) - Mesopotamia date palms abundant with fruit The people of Ur are skilled in pottery, weaving, and metalwork. The city's pottery is highly prized, both beautiful and durable. Weaving is an important industry in Ur, and trade of fine fabrics is lucrative. Conflicts include The Sumer-Elamite wars and the wars of the Early Dynastic Period (c. 2900-2334 BCE). Sumer and Elam border each other and numerous battles arise over territory and control of trade routes. The wars of the Early Dynastic Period involve frequent conflicts between city-states in Mesopotamia, including Ur, Kish , Lagash and others. Ur is at times aggressor and at others defender.  The Sumerians believe in a rich pantheon of gods and goddesses, each representing different aspects of life and nature. Major deities include An (Anu) god of the sky, and Enlil, wind god. With Enki, water divinity, these three often form a triad. Ningizibara: Sumerian Balaĝ Music Goddess Namtar: Underworld Sukkal & Disease Demon Architect Gods & Building in Mesopotamia Inanna (later Ishtar) goddess of war, sexuality, love, fertility, with her symbols lion, doves, barley Inanna is the most popular goddess in Mesopotamia, and many cities including Ur have temples to her and her entourage, including her sukkal Ninshubur . The gods are worshipped in temples of the religious complex. Priests and priestesses are intermediaries between the people and the gods, offering sacrifices and performing rituals on behalf of the people. Priests, doctors, and scribes are important to the society of Ur. Priests perform religious rituals and make offerings to the gods. The deities have "feeding schedules" and lists of appropriate sacrifices. Doctors are skilled in medicine, herbalism, incantations and exorcism. Disease is considered caused by specific demons. For example, epilepsy is associated with disease demon Shulpae . In dentistry, the insidious tooth worm is a cause of oral pain, infection and cavities. Earth's Atmosphere: Layers of Dynamic Design Ninshubur: Loyal Goddess Sukkal of Inanna Enki (Ea) God of Water & Creation disease demon Shulpae Scribes are highly educated. They're responsible for record-keeping and administration. Only about 10% of the population is literate, a figure fairly stable throughout the Mesopotamian Bronze Age and ancient history. The Great Ziggurat of Ur dominates the temple complex, a massive stepped pyramid to honor moon god, Nanna (Sin, Suen) . Coincidentally, disease demon Shulpae is believed to act on orders of Sin. The ziggurat is built in the religious district of Ur. It's the city's most prominent landmark. Made of millions of mud bricks, it's over 30.5 m (100 ft) tall. Gula - Medicine Goddess of Mesopotamia Šassūrātu (Sassuratu): Deific Midwives Gallu (Galla) Demons of Ancient Kur Great Ziggurat of Ur, refurbished facade The average citizen of Ur lives in a small, one-story home in the residential district. People work as farmers, merchants, or artisans. Women are often weavers, potters and traders. In ancient Mesopotamia, women can own property. They have the right to divorce their husbands, own slaves and operate their own businesses. Weaving is a major industry, with wool the primary textile fiber. Women are primary producers. They spin and weave while men dye the fabric or yarn.  Craft knowledge is carefully protected and handed down from parents to children. Many crafters use specific techniques, formulas, or recipes to be kept secret from competitors. Sometimes, a skilled artisan gets famous. Scribes & Writing - Ancient Mesopotamia Eridu - City of Ancient Gods Mesopotamia Sacred Geometry: Insight to the Mysteries When artistic creations attract attention of the nobility, demand for the products increases. Perfumers, musicians, jewelry-makers, scribes and poets can become particularly favored by the aristocracy. The first written evidence of slavery in the ancient world comes from ancient Mesopotamia. Sumerian, Babylonian, and Assyrian civilizations use slaves, and slavery is a recognized part of social and legal structures.  Slaves work in agriculture, mud brick making, domestic service (usually female), messengers or for credit purposes. Their owners sometimes use them as collateral or to settle a debt. Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Famous Women of Ancient Rome Apkallu - Seven Sages of Mesopotamia Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Ziggurats are temple icons of ancient Mesopotamian architecture, usually constructed of baked clay brick. The ziggurat may be built over hundreds of years. It's the base for a temple to deities such as Inanna or Enlil . Dumuzi & Geshtinanna: Reasons for Seasons Shamash (Utu) Sun God of Mesopotamia Enuma Elish: Marduk & the Chaos Monsters ChoghaZanbil Ziggurat, Iran The ziggurat is only one part of a larger temple complex. It's a center for the living god(s). No tombs or burial sites are found here. Ziggurat designs vary from basic platforms with a temple to intricate math and architectural wonders, with multiple terraced levels. Ziggurats are topped with a temple, which only priests or priestesses may enter. Number of floors or levels of the ziggurat range from two to seven. Many temples in the complex relate to the sphere of the prime god/dess, like the divine sukkal  or family members. Others are for divinities worshipped through the lands. Ninhursag - Great Mountain Mother Nanshe: Nature Goddess of Justice & Dreams Bull of Heaven - Inanna vs Gilgamesh Ziggurat of Ur 2030 BCE, façade reconstructed in the1980s by Saddam Hussein The sukkal can intercede with the deity on behalf of humans. Sukkals can be gods, goddesses, demons or animals. Medicine goddess Gula , worshipped throughout Mesopotamia, has a canine-formed sukkal. Mesopotamian doctors , whose work is often spiritual and related to that of the priest, associate their practice with a temple or ziggurat. Priests can also be doctors, or scribes. Sukkals - Mythic Viziers to the Gods Kur - Underworld of Mesopotamia Disease Demons & Doctors: Ancient Mesopotamia Clay bricks differ in color by region, from red to yellow and whitish. Part of a ziggurat might be below ground to take advantage of cool earth on hot days. Temple complex buildings can have offices of administration and scribes. Bureaucracy begins in the ziggurats and temples of Sumer. Between 4100 - 2900 BCE, almost every Mesopotamian city has its own ziggurat. As the ziggurat is associated with nourishment, community grain is stored in special chambers of the building, as found in the Ziggurat of Ur. Lammašaga: Sumerian Angel Goddess Gula - Medicine Goddess of Mesopotamia Lamashtu, Baby-Eating Demon Goddess of Mesopotamia Ruins of the Great Ziggurat of Ur (back view), - home to Moon God Sin (Nanna) Priests and those related to the ziggurat have quarters in the temple complex. Royalty might have a private worship area. Only priests are permitted to access the temples atop the ziggurat. It's their responsibility to care for the gods, and the ruler's task to enable ziggurat building and maintenance. A sloppy ziggurat is an embarrassment to the gods and the people. Kulullu - Fish Man Monster of Tiamat Mušḫuššu - Snake Dragon Animal of Marduk Iraq: Mesopotamia to Modern Middle East Mountain House of Enlil in Nippur (partly reconstructed) A temple at the top is dedicated to a specific god, usually the city god or an older deity like the Sky Father. In Uruk, a white temple dedicated to Sky God An / Anu is built c. 3500 BCE. It's created at top of the Anu Ziggurat (built c. 4000 BCE). The whitewashed temple in its heyday would be visible to travelers for a long way, shining like a bright beacon in the sunlight. Shurpu: Ancient Rite of Curse Removal Pagan Pantheon - Anu, Oldest of the Gods Immortal - Quest for the Elixir of Life ruins of the Anu Ziggurat and White Temple Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

An innocuous shrub of desert regions, green ushtun ( Seidlitzia rosmarinus ) is used by ancients for soap and medicine. In Mesopotamia it's used to treat scorpion stings. In medieval times it's called launderer's potash.  Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Potash: Agriculture, Plant & Garden Health Scorpion Men of Babylonia Seidlitzia rosmarinus in Qatar (photo: Alex Sergeev) Among saltworts, this green perennial enjoys saline soils, salt flats with hard ground where other plants can't grow. It's also fond of riverine gulches and drainage runnels with an accumulated quantity of sodium and chloride. It likes slippery, silt-rich soils which become hard baked in dry seasons and is often found on hummocks. The silt crumbles to dust when dry and is a vital source of nutrients for the land during seasonal floods. Leaves are soapy to the touch. The Arabic Bedouins are among those who use Seiditzia rosmarinus  as a soap substitute. It's traditionally used to make nabulsi  soap. Giant Cinnamon Birds of Arabia Ancient Arabia - Stone Age to Bronze Uruk Mesopotamia: Forefront of Civilization The plant enjoys coastal desert lands, saline or alkaline soils, dry wadis, flood plains and edge of salt marshes S. rosmarinus is native to the lower Jordan Valley along the Dead Sea, Israel, the Syrian desert, Central Iraq (near Najaf) and in coastal regions of Saudi Arabia. It's found in the islands of Bahrain, as well as Qatar and Iran. Despite similarity in name, S. rosmarinus  has only a distant relationship to the Mediterranean herb rosemary ( Salvia rosmarinus). T hey share the clade of Eudicots, or plants forming two seed leaves on germination. Ushtun is a well-known helpful herb. Even in ancient times potassium is extracted from the plant for medical use, giving rise to the word potash. Figs - Food of the Ancient World Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Nanaya - Goddess of Erotic Love plant ashes In the 10th century, the Arabian physician al-Tamimi describes production of laundry soap. Plants are gathered while fresh and green into bundles. Workers toss the bundles into furnaces of plaster and stone. From the plants an extracted solution drips from the furnaces, down stone spouts to a threshing floor. Collected as liquid, it hardens into a black stone. This is broken into smaller parts and used as laundry detergent. According to al-Tamimi, a chemical element made by burning Seidlitzia rosmarinus green leaves is called al-qalī (alkali). This refers to ashes of saltwort plants, used in soap and glass-making. They create a strong base for extraction of the alkaline metal potassium . Regions of Extreme Heat: The Future is Now Bau - Healing Goddess of Babylonia Shamash (Utu) Sun God of Mesopotamia Potassium (K) The process includes placing ashes into a pot, hence English potash , and adding water. The creator steams off the water, leaving an evaporated or crystallized solution. This type of approach is popular in alchemy . The name potassium doesn't appear until 1807 AD. It's applied by Humphrey Davy, a scientist using the evaporation process. Ancient Treatment for Bleeding Gums, Tooth Pain or Bad Breath In the ancient world, one way to treat or prevent oral problems uses the above prepared powder. It's mixed with coarsely ground yellow-orpiment , a sulfide crystal, and oil of unripe olives. Shulpae (Šulpae): Demon Warrior God Giant Cinnamon Birds of Arabia Dumuzi & Geshtinanna: Reasons for Seasons ... or it could be a tooth worm Then, it must be heated over a fire in a ceramic skillet and turned constantly with an iron spoon until it congeals. When touched by fire it turns a reddish hue. When the substance congeals it's allowed to burn completely in the ceramic skillet. While still hot it's pounded with mortar and pestle, making a powder, and sifted. Created in quantity it's stored for later use. Rubbed on gums it's left for an hour, during which the patient suffers a severe burning sensation. It's then rinsed away with water and a gargle of Persian rose oil. There's also a Mesopotamian tooth worm extraction rite . Seidlitzia rosmarinus  is used as an electuary, a sweetened or palatable substance in compounds or theriacs  for use in treating scorpion stings and snake bites. Serket - Scorpion Goddess of Egypt Natural Health: Paracelsus & Hermetic Principles Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Theriac pot Introduced by the Greeks in the first century AD, a theriac is especially formulated as an antidote to venom. It may be a potion, balm, powder or enema. It's sometimes sold as a 'cure-all'. The medicine is reputed to have healing effects on the sting of a scorpion or bite of a snake. True theriac can take months or years to make, and is subsequently costly. Ancient Hebrew literature refers to the alkaline plants borith  and ahal . Borith  is a plant of fullers, also called  saponaria , a type of soapwort and close relative of green ushtun plant. Hand and laundry soap are made from derivatives of the herbs. They include native flora like Seidlitzia, Salsola, Anabasis, Suaeda, Hammada, Mesembryanthemum  or Salicornia , all considered alkaline plants. Shamhat: Sacred Prostitute & the Wild Man Scribes & Writing - Ancient Mesopotamia Dromedary Camel: Animals of Ancient Arabia Scorpion Men open the gates each night to let Shamash the Sun God (sun w wings) into the Underworld Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Gravity influences ocean tides and shapes the weather patterns. It attracts objects toward one another, causing swollen seas, cloud formation, storms, and pollution intensity in low-lying regions. Gravity: Celestial Bodies & Space Travel Space Aerosols: Weather, Health, Ecology Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Tides: Gravity & Inertia Isaac Newton (1643-1727) proves the Moon's gravitational pull exerts a force on Earth. It's strongest on the side facing the Moon and weakest on the opposite side. On the part of Earth closest to the Moon the ocean is pulled more forcefully, causing water to swell and bulge, thus high tide. As the Moon pulls the Earth, the Earth itself is also being pulled towards the Moon. The water on the far side has a lag, but also creates a bulge and high tide. Two high tides and two low tides happen every 24 hours and 50 minutes, with the extra 50 minutes due to Moon's orbit around the Earth. Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Earth's Atmosphere: Layers of Dynamic Design Carbon Fixation: Environmental Heath & Ecology Despite its distance, the Sun also influences tides due to its massive size. When the Sun, Earth, and Moon align, during new and full moons,, their gravitational forces combine, causing especially high tides or spring tides. When the Sun and Moon are at right angles to each other, during first and third quarter moons, their gravitational forces partially cancel each other out. This causes weaker tides, or neap tides. The Bay of Fundy on the east coast of Canada, has experiences some of the highest tides globally, reaching up to 16 m (52 ft). This comes from the gravitational effects of the moon combined with the bay's unique shape. Rising sea levels due to climate change can alter local gravitational forces. This can control tidal ranges and weather patterns. Gravity is a strong factor in maintaining ecological balance. Clean Rooms: Science & Technology Nanotechnology: Nanoscale Power & Progress Spacecraft Re-Entry: Atmosphere & Aerosols Gravity & Weather Gravity holds the atmosphere in place, preventing it from dissipating into space. Without gravity, Earth wouldn't have an atmosphere to regulate temperature, block radiation and support known life. Gravity influences movement of air, creates weather formations. Warm air rises and cools, creating clouds as vapors condense on tiny particles or aerosols . Gravity pulls down cooler air, resulting in a cyclical motion, creating various weather conditions. Atmospheric gravity waves can help create tornados or intensify those existing. Pollution, especially air pollution, responds to the forces of gravity. Air pollution is denser in low-lying areas and valleys, often seen as smog. Smog brings its own effects to weather and health. It traps heat, alters rainfall and reduces sunlight necessary for plant photosynthesis. Cities such as Cairo in the Nile River valley, have rising smog problems. Isaac Newton: Alchemy & the Occult Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP) Ideonella sakaiensis : Plastic-Eating Bacteria Cairo, Egypt, with Giza pyramids in the distance Atmospheric Pressure Gravity pulls air molecules towards the Earth's surface, creating atmospheric pressure. Differences in air pressure drive wind as air moves from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. Pressure systems interact with gravity. Low-pressure areas form when warm air rises, creating a vacuum to draws in cooler air, often causing storms. High-pressure systems result from cold air sinking and exerting force on the ground. These systems shape wind directions and storm activities. A forming low-pressure system creates storms and increased precipitation. Hurricanes, powerful low-pressure systems, produce over 25 cm of rain. Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Genetic Engineering: Biotechnology of Change Laser Weapons in Modern Warfare Convection Currents The sun heats the Earth unevenly, causing some areas to warm more than others. Differential heating creates temperature differences. Warmer air is less dense and rises while cooler air is denser and sinks. The rising and sinking motion, driven by buoyancy and gravity, creates convection currents. These contribute to cloud formation, wind patterns and thunderstorms. Gravity shapes ocean currents, affecting global climate patterns. The Gulf Stream carries warm water from the tropics to northern latitudes, passing through regions along the eastern United States and European coasts. The current affects temperatures and weather patterns along the way. Ocean currents distribute heat to climates in regions as far as 1,500 km away. Space Aerosols: Weather, Health, Ecology Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk Nanorobots: Micro Robotic Tech, Ecology, Health Miami, known for warm sunny weather, is on the Gulf Stream Orographic Lift As air is forced to rise over mountains it cools and condenses, forming clouds and often precipitation on the windward side of the mountain. Gravity pulls cooler, denser air downwards after it passes over the mountain. Storm Formation Gravity creates the vertical development of thunderstorms and hurricanes. As warm, moist air rises rapidly, it cools and condenses, releasing heat to further fuels the upward motion. This continuous process, driven by buoyancy and regulated by gravity, can create towering storm clouds. These release torrential rain, strong winds and possibly tornadoes. Gravity affects the shape of raindrops. Small raindrops are nearly spherical, but as they grow larger, air resistance and gravity distort them into a flattened, pancake-like shape. 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Gravity is the invisible force defining the paths of celestial bodies and spacecraft. It affects the way planets orbit and space navigation. Einstein's relativity theory says gravity is a curvature of spacetime caused by mass. How Spacecraft Produce Water for Astronauts Laser Weapons in Modern Warfare De-Orbiting Satellites: Problems & Processes Gravity pulls objects toward one another. The larger an object, the stronger its gravitational pull. Jupiter, the largest planet in the solar system, has 24.79 m/s² of gravitational acceleration compared to Earth's 9.81 m/s². In theory, the reason mass is proportional to gravity is because everything with mass emits tiny particles, gravitons. The gravitons create attraction. The more mass, the more gravitons. This has yet to be proven. Earth's gravity is integral to weather patterns. It influences air pressure, wind, and movement of water in the atmosphere, affecting precipitation and cloud formation.  Khonsu - Moon God of Ancient Egypt Caffeine: Nature, Characteristics & Health Nine Countries with Nuclear Weapons Force of gravity Valleys generally slightly higher gravity than hilltops or mountain peaks they're are closer to the Earth's center. Pollution and airborne particles tend to accumulate in low-lying regions. The gravitational pull between Earth and Moon causes Moon's orbit. The balance between pull and inertia keeps the Moon traveling around the planet at an average distance of about 384,400 km. Gravity of the Moon and to a lesser degree, the Sun, creates tides on Earth. The Moon's gravitational pull causes oceans to swell on the side nearest to the Moon and the side opposite it, creating high tides. Satellite Radio Waves: Type & Function Magnetic Fields & Space Travel Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health boats at low tide Without Earth's gravity the Moon would drift away into space. Similarly Earth is held in orbit by the Sun’s gravity. According to NASA, the only known way to create artificial gravity it to apply a force on an astronaut, generating the same acceleration as on the surface of earth: 9.8 meters/sec2 or 32 feet/sec2. It can be done with bungee chords or body restraints. Another methods is to spin the spacecraft fast enough to create enough centrifugal acceleration. Centrifugal force is force generated by rotation. A centrifuge uses the force to separate mixture components according to density. It's often used in labs to divide liquids from solids, or liquids of varying densities.  Spacecraft Re-Entry: Atmosphere & Aerosols How Spacecraft Avoid Burning Up on Reentry Spacecraft Graveyard of the South Pacific centrifuge - also a force in many amusement park rides The Earth functions on centrifugal force due to its rotation. Earth spins on its axis at about 1,600 km/hr. Force is strongest at the equator and non-existent at the poles. As a result the Earth is slightly oblate. Earth has an equatorial radius of 6378.1 km, or 0.34% greater than the polar radius of 6356.8. Centrifugal force pushes objects outward, while gravity pulls them inward. Centrifugal force is often combined with gravity to determine apparent weight of objects.  Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk CubeSats: Science, Technology & Risky Business Gravity & Orbit An orbit is a dynamic equilibrium. The Sun's immense gravity constantly pulls Earth towards it. However, Earth is also moving forward with high velocity. Earth orbits the Sun at a speed of 107,000 km/h. Forward motion prevents the Earth from falling into the Sun. Instead, the Earth continuously falls around the Sun. Objects in orbit are in a constant state of free fall. They’re falling towards the body they orbit, but also have enough forward velocity to avoid crashing into it. Communication satellites are placed in geostationary orbit, where they maintain a fixed position relative to Earth. This type of orbit is 35,785 km above Earth’s equator, for telecommunications and weather monitoring. How Astronauts Breathe in Space Lithium Ion Batteries on Earth & in Space Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials hurricane Different types of orbits are heavily influenced by gravity. For instance, low Earth orbit (LEO) is 160 to 1,930 km above Earth. Satellites in this orbit, like the International Space Station (ISS), make frequent trips around the Earth. One cycle is about 90 minutes. Satellites in LEO travel about 28,000 km/h. Those in geostationary orbit (GEO) 35,406 km above the equator move more slowly. Earth's magnetic field has no effect on gravity, and vice versa. They're different forces, overall independent of each other. Speed and Distance: Speed of an orbiting object is directly related to its distance from the body it orbits. An object closer to the central body gets a stronger gravitational pull and needs to move faster to maintain orbit. Humans in Space: Effects on Body & Mind Electric Vehicles (EVs): Creation & Operation Artificial Intelligence: Power of Prediction satellite in low Earth orbit (LEO) Perturbations: Gravitational influences from other celestial bodies, like the Moon or planets, can subtly alter an object's orbit. Orbital Decay: Objects in low Earth orbit experience slight atmospheric drag, even in the thin upper reaches of the atmosphere. This gradually slows the object down, causing it to lose altitude and spiral towards Earth. Gravity & Space Flight Launch & Escape Velocity: Overcoming Earth's gravity is the first hurdle in any space mission. Rockets must achieve minimum speed, or escape velocity (4,0234 km/h), to break free of Earth's gravitational pull. Once in space, spacecraft enter microgravity. Although gravity is still present, astronauts can float. Aboard the ISS, gravity is one-sixth less than on Earth, a weightless environment conducive to scientific experiments. Laser Technology: How Lasers Work Earth Communication: Satellites, Spacecraft & Astronauts Genetic Engineering: Biotechnology of Change Orbital Mechanics  Navigating in space relies heavily on orbital mechanics. Mission planners determine the precise trajectories needed to reach specific destinations. Gravity affects a spacecraft's velocity and trajectory. The craft can perform maneuvers like orbital transfers, moving from one orbit to another; and rendezvous with other spacecraft. Gravity Assists: In a gravity assist or slingshot maneuver, a spacecraft uses the gravitational field of a planet to change its speed and direction. By carefully approaching a planet, a spacecraft can use some of the planet's orbital momentum. This increases its velocity without expending fuel. This technique has been instrumental in missions to the outer solar system, like the Voyager probes. Space Aerosols: Weather, Health, Ecology Slime Mold: Brainless Wonder & Evolutionary Link Nanorobots: Micro Robotic Tech, Ecology, Health Voyager lauch (VGER carried by Titan 3E) Artificial Gravity: One problem of long-duration space travel is lack of gravity. Prolonged exposure to microgravity can cause bone loss, muscle atrophy, and other health problems. Gravity in Space Missions For re-entry into Earth's atmosphere, spacecraft are subject to the pull of gravity. Operators try to decrease their speed to avoid overheating. The angle of approach, known as the angle of attack, helps adjust velocity. Long-duration spaceflight introduces physiological challenges. Muscle atrophy and bone density loss are common afflictions of astronauts on the ISS. People lose 1-2% of bone mass per month in space. Missions can last several months. Astronauts use daily resistance exercises to maintain physical health. Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Wildfires & Climate Change: Lethal Cycle Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad View of Earth from ISS Gravity governs the movement of galaxies and the universe. Gravitational waves or oscillating states of gravity are created by massive cosmic events like black hole collisions. Galaxies form complex gravitational interactions, shaping the larger cosmic structure. When galaxies come into proximity, their gravitational forces begin to influence each other. Attraction causes galactic merging, formation of tidal tails and transition of gas and stars from galaxy to another. A tidal tail is a thin stream of material created when gravitational force strips cosmic matter to form long "tails" extending into space.  What Robots Need to Function & Survive Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Galaxy clusters consist of hundreds to thousands of galaxies bound together by gravity. Formation is a gradual process beginning with small density fluctuations in the early universe. As the universe expands and cools, regions with higher densities attract more matter, forming protoclusters. Over billions of years, protocluster gravity pulls in more galaxies and dark matter. Dark matter is a major component of gravitational interaction in galaxy formation. It creates a large part of total mass in the universe. In galaxies it uses gravity to trap galaxies and gas, facilitating cluster formation. Earth's Atmosphere: Layers of Dynamic Design Human Microchip Implants: Pros & Cons How Bacteria Survive a Nuclear Explosion black hole visualization showing light warm by extreme gravity, NASA Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Satellites, spacecraft and astronauts must communicate with Earth. It's necessary for mission success, data transfer and astronaut safety, from the faint signals of Mars Rovers to a continuous lively stream from the ISS. Satellite Radio Waves: Type & Function How Solar Panels Work CubeSats: Science, Technology & Risky Business Free-space optical (FSO) Systems FSO systems transmit data wirelessly using light beams through the air, providing high bandwidth, security and immunity to electromagnetic interference. It's a growing alternative to traditional wired or radio frequency communication.  Laser communication, lasercom or optical communication, is increasingly used today. In space missions it can provide quicker data transfer speeds and better security than conventional radio frequency systems. Radio Waves Much space communication relies on radio waves. Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light (299,792 km per second or 186,282 mps). They carry information encoded within their frequency, amplitude or phase. How Astronauts Breathe in Space Genetic Engineering: Biotechnology of Change Mars Curiosity Rover: Success & Longevity Cosmic noise and immense distances as in the outer reaches of space can limit communication. In the outer solar system signals can be delayed up to several hours, just as light takes longer to reach Earth. Signal Strength: The further a signal travels, the weaker it becomes. Spacecraft need powerful transmitters and Earth-based receivers have massive antennas to capture faint signals. Top 5 Countries of the Global Space Race Semiconductors: Materials, Methods & Markets Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Time Delay: Communication with the Moon has a delay of just a few seconds, but communicating with a Mars rover can involve delays of up to 20 minutes each way. Interference: The space environment is filled with sources of interference, from cosmic background radiation to human-made radio noise. It's essential to filter out for accurate communication. The Voyager spacecraft, for instance, are now operating for over 40 years. Voyager 1 is over 24 billion km away. A radio signal takes 22.5 hours to reach the spacecraft and response return takes another 22.5 hours. Slime Mold: Brainless Wonder & Evolutionary Link Cell Communication in Living Organisms Genetic Engineering: DNA Region Manipulation Voyager 1 carried by Titan IIIE in 1977. VGER is now the furthest human-made object from Earth. Antennas New antenna designs, such as phased array antennas and deployable reflectors, can improve signal strength and coverage. Phased array antennas are used in military radar systems, 5G technology, satellites, and other applications needing flexible and reliable wireless.  Deployable reflectors, especially mesh reflectors, are used primarily for satellites. They enable compact storage of large antennas to be deployed in orbit. Optical Communication Terminals (OCTs) OCTs function in space-based communication. They use laser-based communication techniques to transmit data between satellites, or between satellites and ground stations. This yields higher data rates and improved security compared to traditional radio frequency systems.  Mars Rovers & Deep Space Explorers Communication with rovers on Mars, specifically Curiosity and Perseverance, and deep space probes like Voyager, enables exploration and enlightenment. Quorum Sensing: Microbial Coordination Magnetic Fields & Space Travel Super Alloys in Space Exploration Curiosity Rover selfie X-Band Communication: These missions use X-band radio frequencies, around 8 GHz. This frequency offers a good balance between signal strength and bandwidth. Gigahertz (GHz) is a unit of frequency, or the amount of radio waves passing through a given point within one second. It's equal to one billion hertz (ie cycles per second) and used to measure speed of electronic devices, especially computer processors.  Deep Space Network (DSN): NASA's DSN is a global network of massive radio antennas in California, Spain and Australia. The antennas can receive weak signals from distant spacecraft. Their placement ensures continuous coverage as Earth rotates. Relay Satellites: Orbiters around Mars, like Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) and MAVEN, are relay stations. Rovers send data up to the orbiters, which relay the information back to Earth. This increases data transmission rates and reduces the power requirements for the rovers. Humans in Space: Effects on Body & Mind Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space Canada in Space: Canadarm(s) & Dextre Curiosity Rover photo: its tracks on Mars Three countries have landed spacecraft on Mars: Soviet Union (now Russia) in 1971; the United States, and China. The Chinese rover Zhurong is designed for a lifespan of 93 Earth days and active for more than 358 days. The rover goes to sleep 20 May 2022 due to approaching sandstorms and Martian winter. It doesn't wake up. Due to dust buildup on its solar panels it's unlikely to be active again. Its accompanying satellite still orbits Mars in preparation for a landing in 2028. US Rover Curiosity is a real trooper, landing almost 13 years ago on the Red Planet. Although its mission is expected to last about three months, it continues to trundle along today, sending photos and data from Mars. Data Compression: Due to limited bandwidth and long travel times, data is highly compressed before transmission. Algorithms prioritize essential information and compress images and videos to reduce their file size. Autonomous Operations: Because of significant time delays, rovers and probes usually operate autonomously. Scientists upload instructions for days or weeks at a time, and the craft executes them independently. Their communication Earth relies on the relay system as they're too far from Earth for a direct connection. Communication delays are up to 22 minutes. Decisions on Earth can't be immediately executed, requiring a high level of autonomy for the rovers and ability to make decisions independently. ISS Communications Communication with astronauts aboard the International Space Station (ISS) is quicker and more direct. Wildfires & Climate Change: Lethal Cycle How Spacecraft Produce Water for Astronauts Vermicompost: Composting with Worms International Space Station catching some rays S-Band and Ku-Band Communication: These use S-band (2-4 GHz) for voice and telemetry and Ku-band (12-18 GHz) for higher-bandwidth data like video. Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS): TDRSS is a constellation of geostationary satellites. It's communication relay between low-Earth orbit (LEO) spacecraft, like the ISS, and ground stations. This system ensures nearly continuous communication coverage. Direct Communication: In some cases, the ISS can communicate directly with ground stations when in range. Near Real-Time Communication: Shorter distances enable near real-time communication. Astronauts have relatively normal conversations with mission control and families. Satellites Inter-Satellite Links:  Satellites are increasingly linked by laser connections, or optical inter-satellite links (OISLs). These enable rapid data transfer between satellites in orbit, eliminating reliance on ground stations. Most still rely on radio waves. How to Make an Artificial Intelligence System Secret Life of Rust: Power of Bacteria De-Orbiting Satellites: Problems & Processes Satellites have many purposes, from weather forecasting to global positioning and communication. They orbit at different altitudes such as geostationary, low Earth orbit (LEO), and medium Earth orbit (MEO). Geostationary Satellites: Communication satellites in geostationary orbit remain fixed above a specific point on Earth. They use C-band (3.7-4.2 GHz), Ku-band, and Ka-band (27-40 GHz) for functions like television broadcasting, internet access and telecommunications. Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites: LEO satellites, like those used for Earth observation and satellite internet constellations, orbit closer to Earth. They use frequencies like L-band (1-2 GHz) and S-band. A network of ground stations receives the data as the satellites pass overhead. Telemetry, Tracking, and Command (TT&C): Satellites have TT&C systems to allow ground controllers to monitor the satellite's health, adjust its orbit, and upload new instructions. Cryptocurrency Scams: Goodbye, Money Rare Earth Elements (REEs): Science & Environment Electric Vehicles (EVs): Creation & Operation IoT devices gain popularity, increasing the need for effective communication Types of Satellites Communication Satellites : These transmit signals for television, internet, and phone services. Earth Observation Satellites : They collect data about weather and environmental changes. Scientific Satellites : These gather data about space. The Hubble Space Telescope sends amazing high quality images and info from distant galaxies and cosmic phenomena since its 1990 launch. Though the James Webb telescope launches in 2021, Hubble continues its stellar journey today, predicted to last up two more decades. Navigation Satellites : GPS satellites provide location services, supporting navigation systems used by millions of vehicle drivers and aviation industries worldwide. Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Electrum: Metal of Money & Myth Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials Quantum Communication   Quantum communication technologies, especially quantum key distribution (QKD), are used in specialized applications, such as securing data transmission for financial institutions and government agencies.  Commercial availability is a mere few years away. Quantum communication uses principles of quantum physics, especially quantum mechanics, to improve and secure communication protocols. It works with the principles of superposition and entanglement. 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A laser weapon is a type of directed-energy weapon (DEW) using lasers to inflict damage. Unlike traditional projectile weapons, which rely on kinetic energy, laser weapons deliver right to the target. Laser Technology: How Lasers Work Clean Rooms: Science & Technology Lasercom: Laser Communication in Space The energy can manifest as heat, causing the target to melt, burn, or structurally weaken, or as electromagnetic radiation to disrupts electronics and sensors. Advantages include near-instant speed of light delivery, cheap ammunition and pinpoint accuracy. While engaging a drone with a missile could cost tens of thousands of dollars, a laser weapon can do it for about $1 per shot. The response time of these systems is near-instantaneous. Lasers can operate at long ranges without need for traditional ammunition logistics. Once set up, they can continue to fire as long as they have power available. Rare Earth Elements (REEs): Science & Environment Human Microchip Implants: Pros & Cons Effects of Extreme Heat on the Human Body Various laser types are chemical, fiber, and solid-state lasers. Several systems have already emerged. One prominent example is Israel's Iron Beam. It's a high-energy laser weapon system made to intercept short-range rockets, artillery shells, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). This hopes to complement the existing Iron Dome air defense system. Anti-drone systems use lasers to disable or destroy agile targets like drones (uncrewed combat aerial vehicles or UCAVs). In 2022, the Pentagon successfully tests a laser to engage drones. The US and Israel previously collaborate on a high-energy laser weapon system purportedly to intercept rockets and artillery shells. This project has been discontinued but contributes to laser weapon technology advances. DragonFire is a British laser directed-energy weapon (LDEW) in testing for the Royal Navy. It's expected to be on Royal Navy ships by 2027. Nine Countries with Nuclear Weapons Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk Nanorobots: Micro Robotic Tech, Ecology, Health DragonFire UK In warfare lasers are used in mapping for accurate terrain data in navigation and targeting. Laser rangefinders are ubiquitous. Soldiers determine the distance to targets with pinpoint accuracy. Laser designators "paint" targets for precision-guided munitions. Thus bombs and missiles hit with minimal deviation. One problem is power. High-energy lasers need huge electrical power to operate effectively. Atmospheric conditions such as rain, fog, and dust can reduce the range and effectiveness of laser beams. Heat management is a concern, as generating high-energy laser beams produces substantial amounts of waste heat. This has to be dissipated. Wildfires & Climate Change: Lethal Cycle Water Pollution: Eight Countries in Crisis Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top