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Spacecraft re-entering Earth's atmosphere must navigate intense heat and friction. Primary defenses against burning up include heat shields, design, trajectory and controlled deceleration. Spacecraft Graveyard of the South Pacific Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk How Spacecraft Produce Water for Astronauts Spacecraft travel at speeds of 25,000 km/h (16,000 mph) on reentry. Friction between spacecraft and air molecules generates heat of 1650°C (3000°F). Some materials, like tungsten , can take the heat but most burn up. Ballistic missiles also leave the earth's atmosphere and re-enter. At the beginning a missile's trajectory well defined. In heavier layers of atmosphere it's increasingly influenced by gravity and aerodynamic drag. Heat Shields The heat shield is positioned on the leading end of the spacecraft. This protective layer bear the brunt of friction and resulting heat. Ablative Shields: As the shield encounters extreme temperatures, the outer layer vaporizes, carrying heat away from the spacecraft. Apollo spacecraft used a phenolic resin-based material, which carbonized and vaporized. Such shields were used on the Vostok, Voskhod, Mercury, Gemini and Apollo spacecraft, and are currently used by deep-space Orion (NASA), and Soyuz, a series of Russian craft from the 1960s to present day. Carbon phenolic is the most used heat shield in spacecraft today. De-Orbiting Satellites: Problems & Processes CubeSats: Science, Technology & Risky Business Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back Reusable Heat Shields: Space Shuttle orbiters, before discontinuation, use shields made from thousands of ceramic tiles. The lightweight tiles radiate heat away from the spacecraft. Details: Much of the orbiter's exterior is air trapped within nearly pure silica fibers. This refractory insulation absorbs and redirects heat back into the atmosphere. These tiles are coated with silicon borides and borosilicate glass, with darker tiles on the lower surface. Lighter tiles are on the tail, parts of the upper wing, crew cabin surfaces, and the exterior of the payload bay doors. The nose cap, nose landing gear doors, and leading edges are made of reinforced carbon-carbon, which is rayon infused with graphite-filled resins and coated with silicon carbide. Upper, white areas not covered by tiles are mainly made from either Nomex felt coated with silicon-rich elastomer or beta cloth, which is woven silica fibers covered in Teflon. Missiles keep their warheads in a re-entry vehicle to protect them from burnup. The craft uses different shield types depending on its manufacture. Blunt Body Shape A spacecraft has blunt, rounded front. The shape makes a shockwave ahead of the vehicle to compress and heat the air before it contacts the spacecraft itself. Heat is concentrated in the air around the shockwave, not directly on the shield. Solar Panels & Batteries in Space How Spacecraft Produce Water for Astronauts Lithium (Li): Science, Health & Uses Trajectory Management Mission planners calculate the re-entry trajectory to optimize safety and control. Factors include: Atmospheric Conditions: density and composition of the atmosphere varies depending on altitude and weather. Target Landing Site: trajectory must be precisely calculated to be sure the spacecraft lands in the designated zone. "Angle of Attack" The angle at which the spacecraft enters the atmosphere is called the angle of attack, and it's carefully controlled. A steeper angle causes faster deceleration and higher heat. Shallower angles enable a slower descent. Controlled Deceleration Slowing down the spacecraft reduces kinetic energy. Atmospheric Braking: This uses the atmosphere to slow the spacecraft. By adjusting the angle of attack and using the heat shield to manage resulting friction, spacecraft can gradually shed velocity. Parachutes: Once the spacecraft slows sufficiently, parachutes are deployed to further reduce speed. Multiple parachutes are often used, often starting with a smaller drogue parachute to stabilize the vehicle. Different sets of parachutes are deployed at various altitudes. The Soyuz spacecraft deploys its primary parachutes at about 10 km (6 mi) above the Earth's surface, and stabilizes descent with smaller chutes. Before launch of the craft, engineers use wind tunnels and computer simulations to replicate extreme conditions of reentry. The tests continually refine spacecraft designs and heat shield materials. Genetic Engineering: Biotechnology of Change Nanorobots: Micro Robotic Tech, Ecology, Health Top 5 Countries of the Global Space Race Orion spaceship heat shield for Artemis II mission Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Lead acid batteries are found in electric vehicles, backup power systems, golf carts, factory forklifts and more. A notable variation is the silver-calcium battery. Sulfuric Acid: Creation, Properties, Health Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy White Lead Toxic Beauty, Art, Ancient Production 12 V lead-acid battery About Lead-Acid Batteries A lead-acid battery is rechargeable. It works through chemical reactions among lead, lead oxide, and sulfuric acid to store and release electrical energy. Lead acid batteries are known for high surge current capabilities. This is great when a burst of power is needed, as in starting a car. They're favored for efficient energy storage and delivery. Lead acid batteries are made of lead dioxide as the positive plate, sponge lead as the negative plate, and diluted sulfuric acid as the electrolyte. Divine Water: Sulfuric Acid in Alchemy Ozone Gas (O3) & the Ozone Layer Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Lead Acid Battery Components Positive Electrode (Anode): This is composed of lead dioxide (PbO2) paste coated on a lead grid. During discharge, the lead dioxide reacts with sulfuric acid. Negative Electrode (Cathode): Made of spongy metallic lead (Pb), it's also coated on a lead grid. During discharge, the lead reacts with sulfuric acid. Electrolyte: A solution of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) diluted with water, it facilitates chemical reactions between the electrodes. Separator: A porous, non-conductive material prevents direct contact between the positive and negative plates, protecting from short circuits while allowing ion flow. Container (Case): A durable enclosure, usually made of plastic, houses and protects the components. Terminals: Positive and negative terminals connect the battery to an external circuit. Environment: Lithium-ion Battery Recycling Carbon-14 Diamond Battery: Nuclear Power Solar Panels & Batteries in Space lead (Pb) Creation Process Lead and lead dioxide electrodes are prepared and immersed in an electrolyte solution. As the battery charges, chemical reactions convert lead sulfate back to lead dioxide and sponge lead. The average battery supports over 1,200 charge and discharge cycles. Grid Casting: Lead alloy grids are cast, providing a framework for the active materials. Paste Application: Lead dioxide paste (for the positive electrode) and spongy lead paste (for the negative electrode) are applied to the grids. Curing: The pasted grids undergo a curing process to strengthen the bond between the paste and the grid. NOx: Air Pollution & Tropospheric Ozone Vehicle Emissions: Environment & Society Radioactive Gas: Radon (Rn) Noble & Deadly some components are created or treated in clean rooms to avoid particulate contamination Plate Formation: The plates are formed through a chemical process of "formation" or "charging." It converts the lead pastes to active materials: lead dioxide at the positive plate and spongy lead at the negative. Assembly: The positive and negative plates are interleaved with separators, and these "cell groups" are placed into the battery container. Electrolyte Filling: The battery is filled with sulfuric acid electrolyte. Sealing and Testing: The battery is sealed, tested for voltage and capacity and ready for distribution. Electric Vehicles (EVs): Creation & Operation Ethanol Biofuel: Methods, Pros & Cons Water Pollution: Eight Countries in Crisis lead-acid battery components Uses of Lead-Acid Batteries Automotive: Starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) systems in cars, trucks, and motorcycles. These batteries are used in up to 99% of all vehicles manufactured. Backup Power: Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS) for computers and critical equipment, data centers, emergency lighting, and alarm systems. Renewable Energy: They store energy generated by solar panels and wind turbines. Industrial Equipment: Forklifts, golf carts, mobility scooters and other electric vehicles use lead-acid batteries. Telecommunications: They provide backup power for communication systems. How Wind Turbines Create Electricity Fossil Fuels: Ecology & Economy Silver (Ag): Ancient Trade to Modern Tech communications tower Lead-Acid Battery Disposal Lead-acid batteries contain lead, a heavy metal, and highly corrosive sulfuric acid. These can cause environmental contamination and health risks. Recycling: The vast majority of lead-acid batteries are recycled. Lead and other valuable materials are recovered and reused in new batteries or other products. Authorized Collection Centers: Batteries should be taken to authorized collection centers or recycling facilities. Many auto parts stores and battery retailers offer battery recycling programs. Landfill Bans : Regions enforce laws to prohibit disposing of lead acid batteries in landfills due to environmental hazards. Biofuels: Creation & the Dark Side Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Landfill Silver-Calcium Batteries Silver-calcium batteries are a specialized type of lead-acid battery. The lead grids are alloyed with silver oxide (Ag2O) and calcium (Ca). This gives several advantages. Reduced Water Loss: Calcium reduces water loss due to self-discharge and overcharging, making the battery maintenance-free or low-maintenance. Improved Corrosion Resistance: Silver resists corrosion, extending the battery's lifespan. Enhanced Performance: Silver can improve cold cranking performance, especially beneficial in colder climates. Silver-calcium batteries are more expensive than standard lead-acid batteries. They're used for high-demand functions as in military and aerospace systems. What Robots Need to Function & Survive Algae in Glass Houses: Diatomaceous Earth How Solar Panels Work Pros & Cons of Lead Acid Batteries Pros High Surge Current: Excellent for applications requiring large bursts of power. Relatively Inexpensive: Generally more affordable than newer battery technologies like lithium-ion. Lead acid batteries are generally less expensive to produce, costing around 30-50% less than lithium-ion alternatives. Well-Established Technology: Mature technology with a long history of reliable performance. High Recyclability: Lead-acid batteries are highly recyclable, reducing environmental impact with over 95% of components being recyclable. Robots & Robotics in Modern Healthcare Artisan Perfumery: Four Degrees of Fragrance Build a Basic Robot: Method & Materials Cons Heavy Weight: Lead makes them heavier than alternative battery types. Lower Energy Density: They store less energy for their size and weight compared to lithium-ion batteries. Environmental Concerns: Contain lead and sulfuric acid, requiring careful disposal and recycling. Shorter Lifespan: Compared to some newer technologies, their lifespan can be limited, especially with deep cycling. Solar Wind: Supersonic Tempest from the Sun Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk Golf carts on the course Facts About Lead Acid Batteries The lead-acid battery is invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté. As the first rechargeable battery technology, lead acid batteries open the way for modern battery innovations. Lead-acid battery technology has remained largely unchanged for over a century. The recycling rate for lead-acid batteries is one of the highest of any consumer product. Although commonly referred to as a "12-volt battery," a standard lead-acid car battery actually consists of six individual cells, each producing 2.1 volts Lead acid batteries make up 30% of the global battery market share. The emergence of valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA) batteries or sealed batteries introduces maintenance-free options, safer and easier to use. Plant Health: Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria Lithium (Li): Science, Health & Uses Electrolytes: Vital Minerals of Human & Environmental Health EVs use lead-acid batteries for ignition and backup power Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Sulfuric acid is a powerful chemical compound. A colorless, thick liquid with a sharp smell, it's often called the King of Acids due to its highly corrosive nature. Uses include batteries, drain cleaners and as a solvent. Divine Water: Sulfuric Acid in Alchemy Nitric Acid: Aqua Fortis the Acid Queen NOx: Air Pollution & Tropospheric Ozone Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is a mineral acid. It's also used in lead-acid batteries, popular despite the rise of lithium ion . A colorless to slightly yellow viscous liquid, it's soluble in water and vigorously releases heat on mixing. The exothermic reaction is an important consideration when handling and diluting the acid. Sulfuric acid is highly corrosive, thus effective as a solvent. Acid-Producing Bacteria in Sulfuric Acid Creation Volatile Organic Compounds: Home & Away Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 Decomposition sulfuric acid is the most common cause of deterioration of concrete structures How Sulfuric Acid is Created The most common industrial method for producing sulfuric acid is the Contact Process. This method oxidizes sulfur dioxide (SO₂) to sulfur trioxide (SO3), which is dissolved in water to produce sulfuric acid. 1. Production of Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): Sulfur is burned in air or oxygen to produce SO2. Alternatively, SO2 can be obtained from roasting sulfide ores. 2. Conversion of Sulfur Dioxide to Sulfur Trioxide (SO₃): The SO2 is then passed over a vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) catalyst to convert it to SO3. Carefully control of temperature maximizes yield of SO3. 3. Absorption of Sulfur Trioxide in Sulfuric Acid: SO3 is absorbed into concentrated sulfuric acid (98-99%) to form oleum (H2S2O7), also known as fuming sulfuric acid. Secret Lives of Sulfuric Acid Bacteria Oxidation: Metabolism & Molecular Action Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris oleum Microbes Producing Sulfuric Acid Sulfur-oxidizing bacteria like Thiobacillus thiooxidans  and Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans , can produce sulfuric acid. The bacteria derive energy by oxidizing sulfur compounds like elemental sulfur, sulfides, and thiosulfates. This process generates sulfuric acid as a byproduct. It can contribute to acid mine drainage and the bioleaching of metals from ores. In areas of acid mine drainage pH drops to below 4, decimating aquatic life. Oleum is diluted with water to make the desired concentration of sulfuric acid. This process can produce millions of tons of sulfuric acid annually, meeting the high demand. Science of Alchemy: Hydrochloric Acid Peracetic Acid: Origin, Reactions, Hazards Iron III Acetate - Formula, Production, Use Occurrence in Nature Sulfuric acid can occur naturally. It's found in volcanic emissions, as a component of acid rain, and in some mineral deposits. Sulfur-eating microbes also contribute to its natural formation. Due to its strong affection for water, sulfuric acid in pure form is rare. It can appear in geological formations. Acid rain happens when sulfur dioxide from both natural and man-made sources reacts with atmospheric moisture. Acid rain has decreased in many parts of world due to emissions controls. Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Bioremediation: Organic Cleanup of Toxins Science of Onion Tears: Demystifying Acids Discovery Exact date of discovery is debated. Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), an 8th-century Persian alchemist, is often credited with its initial discovery. In the 16th century, alchemist Basil Valentine studies its production. Large-scale production methods of the 18th century are still used today, improved by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and others. Historical Precedents The Mesopotamians have no name for "sulfuric acid" as a specific chemical, but they know vitriols. From these hydrated sulfates sulfuric acid can be derived. The Sumerians classify different types of vitriols based on color. This carries over into later alchemy. Although the Romans don't have commercially produced sulfuric acid, they use sulfur, an essential component in the production of sulfuric acid. Romans use sulfur for such purposes as fire for pyrotechnics. They also apply it as an insecticide and in some medical mixtures. The Romans know burning sulfur produces a choking gas. This, when combined with moisture, can form sulfuric acid. Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides Scheele's Green: History's Most Toxic Pigment Kimchi: Microbes, Acids & Fermentation crystalline sulfur (S) Scientific Properties & Characteristics Strong Acid: Sulfuric acid is a strong diprotic acid, meaning it can donate two protons (H+) in water. This contributes significantly to its reactivity. With a density of 1.84 g/cm³, it's over 1.8 times heavier than water. Powerful Solvent: It's a powerful solvent due to its high polarity and strong hydrogen bonding capabilities. It can dissolve many substances other solvents cannot. Metals resistant to sulfuric acid corrosion include lead , tungsten , tantalum,  platinum , gold , silver , iridium and zirconium. Some of these metals dissolve in aqua regia , a mix of hydrochloric and nitric acid . Hygroscopic: Sulfuric acid is hygroscopic, readily absorbing moisture from the air. It's used as a drying agent in some applications. Citric Acid: Nature, Health & Science Acetogenesis in Nature & Human Health Lactic Acid: Nature & the Human Body gold flakes Dehydrating Agent: Sulfuric acid removes water molecules from other compounds and can cause charring. Concentrated sulfuric acid reacts with sugar to form a blackened carbon mass. Oxidizing Agent: At high concentrations and temperatures, sulfuric acid is an oxidizing agent. It can accept electrons from other substances. Viscosity: The concentrated form is a viscous liquid due to strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding. It has a thick, syrup-like consistency. Sulfuric acid's solvent abilities are in its strong acidic nature, enabling it to dehydrate materials efficiently. In oil refining, sulfuric acid helps separate impurities from hydrocarbons. In metal processing, it strips away oxide layers to prepare surfaces for further treatment. Water treatment facilities use it to neutralize alkaline waste. Ozone Gas (O3) & the Ozone Layer Ethanol Biofuel: Methods, Pros & Cons Acetate in Nature: Vital Functions & Health oil refinery Corrosiveness of Sulfuric Acid Corrosiveness of sulfuric comes comes from strong acidity and ability to dehydrate and oxidize organic materials. High concentrations of hydrogen ions (H+) attack materials to break chemical bonds. Dehydration further amplifies corrosive action, especially on organic tissues. Sulfuric acid reacts vigorously with metals, minerals, and organic materials. It can also dissolve polycarbonates, but not Teflon. Sulfuric Acid & the Human Body Sulfuric acid is dangerous to human health. Skin contact creates severe burns, tissue damage and scarring. Ingestion causes internal burns, corrosion of mouth, throat and stomach, organ damage and death. Inhalation of sulfuric acid fumes causes respiratory irritation, pulmonary edema and permanent lung damage. Handle sulfuric acid with extreme caution. Use personal protective equipment (PPE) like gloves, goggles and respirators. Acetic Acid: Food, Health & Science Vehicle Emissions: Environment & Society Secret Life of Rust: Power of Bacteria Sulfuric Acid in Chemical Warfare While sulfuric acid itself isn't a typical nerve agent or specifically designed chemical weapon, it can be used as such. It inflicts severe burns and disfigurement, incapacitating and killing victims. Sulfuric acid as a weapon is a violation of human rights and international law. Sulfuric Acid: Robots & Machines Sulfuric acid can damage robots and machines. The acid corrodes metal components, damages electronic circuitry, degrade plastic or rubber parts and melts silicone. Specialized robots designed for hazardous environments are constructed with materials resistant to acid corrosion. Industries handling sulfuric acid use stainless steel or other acid-resistant materials in equipment. Living Metals & Genders in Ancient Alchemy Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas stainless steel Stainless steel is not impermeable and can be dissolved with sulfuric acid gradually. The rate and extent of corrosion depend on factors like acid concentration, type of stainless steel and temperature.  Highly concentrated sulfuric acid can dissolve silver but the reaction is slow, more so at low temperatures. Reaction of silver and concentrated sulfuric acid produce silver sulfate (Ag2SO4) and hydrogen gas.  Lead-Acid Batteries Despite increasing popularity of lithium-ion, lead-acid batteries are favored in automotive and industrial settings. They're low-cost and reliable. Lead-acid batteries are best suited to low speeds and short distances, such as in golf carts, forklifts and neighborhood electric vehicles. They're used as auxiliary batteries in hybrid and electric vehicles. Lithium Ion Batteries on Earth & in Space Carbon-14 Diamond Battery: Nuclear Power Leap to Flames: Why Did Empedocles Jump into Mount Etna? forklift Lead-acid batteries are recycled with over 90% efficiency. They're dismantled to their constituent parts: lead, plastic and acid. The lead is melted, purified, and formed into ingots to make new batteries. Plastic casing is transformed into pellets, which can be reused in new cases or other plastic items. Acid is recycled, neutralized or transformed to sodium sulfate, a drying agent, detergent filler and laxative.  Uses of Sulfuric Acid Fertilizer production: A major application is in the production of phosphate fertilizers. It is essential in producing phosphoric acid, a foundation of many fertilizers. Petroleum refining: Used as a catalyst in various refining processes, it's especially favored for producing high-octane fuels through alkylation. Chemical synthesis: Sulfuric acid is a key reactant in production of chemicals including detergents, plastics, and synthetic fibers. Organic Polymers: Ecology & Natural Health Magnetotactic Bacteria: Magnetic Microbes Nanotechnology: Nanoscale Power & Progress Metal processing: It's used in pickling (cleaning) metals, refining, and in the extraction of metals from ores. Battery production: Sulfuric acid is the electrolyte in lead-acid batteries, helping power millions of vehicles. Wastewater treatment: It's used to adjust pH and remove certain contaminants. Drain cleaning: It's effective but very dangerous. Melanin Pigment: Form & Function in Nature Why Apples Turn Brown: Science & Nature Amino Acids: Optimal Body Health & Energy Facts about Sulfuric Acid Production of sulfuric acid is often used as an indicator of a country's industrial strength. Millions of tons of sulfuric acid are produced worldwide per year, making it one of the most manufactured chemicals. Sulfuric acid is sometimes referred to as "oil of vitriol," a name going back to early alchemy. The planet Venus has clouds of sulfuric acid droplets. Some onions release weak sulfuric acid when cut, making eyes sting and water. In diluting sulfuric acid, always add the acid to water. Adding water to acid causes eruptive splashing and boiling due to the exothermic reaction. Sulfuric acid is a major component in production of titanium dioxide, a pigment used in paint, plastics, cosmetics and paper. Plants in Space: ISS Microgravity Gardening Lactobacillus: Nature of Lactic Acid Bacteria Space Aerosols: Weather, Health, Ecology Titanium white is a favorite artists' paint color Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Acidophillium and Acidobacillus ferroxidens bacteria thrive in harmful conditions. These microscopic sulfuric acid-producing bacteria use sulfur for energy, enabling them to flourish in places most life would perish. Acid-Producing Bacteria in Sulfuric Acid Creation Reduction in Chemistry: Gaining Electrons Biofilm: Metropolitan Microbes of People & Planet Sulfur fumes, vapors Bacteria including Acidophillium spp. , Acidobacillus ferroxidens , Thiothrix, and Beggiatoa spp . survive and prosper in sulfuric acid environments. They maintain internal pH levels despite surrounding acidity. By using specific enzymes and transport proteins, they can eject protons from their cells to counterbalance the external acidic conditions. They live comfortably where other organisms would perish. Divine Water: Sulfuric Acid in Alchemy Flowers of Sulfur (Brimstone): Creation & Uses Metal to Rust: Unseen Organisms in Action Acidobacillus ferroxidens - also makes rust Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans - above - (basonym Thiobacillus ferrooxidans ) can be isolated from iron-sulfur minerals such as pyrite deposits. It oxidizes iron and sulfur as energy sources to support autotrophic growth, and producing ferric iron and sulfuric acid. First isolated from soil, acid-loving bacteria are also observed to cause biogenic sulfide corrosion of concrete sewer pipes. They alter hydrogen sulfide in sewage gas to make sulfuric acid. Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Soot & Lampblack: Beauty, Art and Medicine Antimony (Stibnite, Kohl) Ancient Metal of Science & Beauty Acidobacillus ferroxidens  is popular in bioleaching, a method to extract metals from ore using microbes. This species is often associated with acid mine drainage. A. ferroxidens  has a robust metabolism. It uses iron ions as electron donors, contributing to the mobilization of valuable metals like copper and gold from ores. These bacteria are happy in pH levels as low as 1.5. Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 Decomposition Hydrogen Peroxide: Chemistry, Production, Risks Peracetic Acid: Origin, Reactions, Hazards happy microbes Acidophillium survives highly acid environments with a pH of 3 or below. These bacteria are often found in sulfuric acid-rich areas such as metal mines, acidic hot springs, and regions of industrial pollution. Classed as acidophiles , these organisms not only tolerate, but require acidic conditions for their growth. Certain species within the Acidophillium genus live in environments with a pH as low as 1.0, a super strong acid. Talc (Magnesium Silicate): Beauty, Art & Industry Etch Carnelian Beads Like It's Indus Valley 2500 BCE Catalase: Unseen Enzymes Essential to Life These bacteria are often found in settings where acid waters emerge, such as metal-rich mine drainage environments. Acidophillium  species easily adapt to biogeochemical cycling in extreme habitats. Acidophillium bacteria oxidize reduced sulfur compounds such as sulfides to produce sulfuric acid. This lowers the pH of their surroundings. Iron III Acetate - Formula, Production, Use Digestion & Horse Manure: Alchemy Process Rotten Egg Sulfur Smell: Microbial Processes Conversely, Acidobacillus ferroxidens generates sulfuric acid as a byproduct during iron oxidation. The production of sulfuric acid helps survival, as high acidity inhibits the growth of less resilient organisms. This gives Acidophillium and Acidobacillus ferroxidens a competitive edge in their ecosystems. They both have high-status jobs as acid producers and facilitators of metal bioleaching. Human Methane: Meet the Microbes of Flatulence Methanogens: Microbes of Methane Production White Lead Toxic Beauty, Art, Ancient Production rust In nature, Acidophillium and Acidobacillus ferroxidens are important to nutrient cycling in ecosystems with high sulfur content. Their metabolic actions maintain nutrient balances supporting many life forms. Industrially, Acidobacillus ferroxidens is used in bioleaching, especially for metals such as copper and gold. This bioprocess is an alternative to extract metals from low-grade ores. Bioleaching helps reduce mining waste. Alchemy: Circulation & the Pelican Phantasy Heavy Metals Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Chromium & Arsenic Arsenic Trioxide: Paint Pigment & Pesticide Facts About Sulfuric Acid Bacteria Extreme Survivors: The bacteria thrive in environments with a pH lower than 2. Microbial Fuel: Both Acidophillium  and Acidobacillus  species have potential in microbial fuel cells, where their metabolic processes can generate electricity. Ecosystem Builders: The bacteria aid in mineral formation, contributing to the development of biogeochemical ecosystems. Research and Innovation: These bacteria are subjects of intense research, with scientists exploring their potential applications in waste treatment, sustainable mining practices and biotechnology. Environmental Indicators: The presence of these bacteria often signals the geochemistry of their environment. They're biological markers for acid mine drainage and sulfur-rich ecosystems. Lactic Acid Bacteria: Nature to Modern Uses Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses Microbial Alchemy: Fermentation, Digestion, Putrefaction Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

The Yemeni civil war is a freedom fight and humanitarian disaster. Millions suffer starvation and human rights violations due to blockades and ongoing violence from Israel, Saudi Arabia, the US and internal factions. Houthi Rebels: Origins & Warfare Gaza Strip: Cause & Effects of War Houthi War in Yemen: Politics & Motivations Yemen's civil conflict has become a proxy war between Saudi and Iran, who sit at the same OPEC table. Iran backs the Houthi rebels with weapons and money, while Saudi Arabia leads a coalition to eradicate them. Political Turmoil & Grievances Though the civil war begins in 2014, the conflict goes back much further. Yemen has a history of political instability, characterized by deeply felt grievances, economic disparities, and tribal divisions. The 1990 unification of North and South Yemen hopes to form a more stable nation, but it leads to violent division. Discontent rises over governance, resource allocation and political representation. The Houthi movement forms in 1992, initially against political and economic marginalization. It's founded by late cleric Hussein al-Houthi. Today it's run by his brother, Abdul Malik al-Houthi. Nine Countries with Nuclear Weapons Iran: Perilous Power of the Middle East Gaza, West Bank: Hamas & Fatah Houthis protest against airstrikes Southern Separatists The Southern Movement, colloquially known as al-Hirak ('the movement'), is a political and paramilitary organization active in the south of Yemen. In 1994 they renege on unification agreements, citing greed in the north, and trigger the Yemeni Civil War. After the outbreak of the war, the party splits into two factions. One becomes the "YSP (Yemen Socialist Party) Anti-Aggression", declaring loyalty to the Houthi movement and its leader Abd al-Malik al-Houthi. Much of the party's leadership, including Abdulrahman al-Saqqaf and Yasin Said Numan, go into exile in Riyadh. They back the government of Hadi. The "Anti-Aggression" faction issues statements against the leadership in Riyadh. They are said to be expelled from the party for of their support of the Saudi-led intervention in Yemen. The statements call for their punishment. Originally a Marxist-Leninist communist party, the YSP moves away from communism and adopts pan-Arab nationalism and social democracy. The party also supports the implementation of rule of law in Yemen. Drone Warfare: Unmanned Combat Vehicles Fossil Fuels: Ecology & Economy China: Politics, Economy, Military & Modern Life Socialist Party of Yemen logo today Arab Spring & Hadi Government In 2011, the Arab Spring uprisings throw the Middle East into turmoil. The Arab Spring is a the revolutionary wave of non-violent and violent pro-democracy protests and demonstrations, riots, and civil wars. The protests reach Yemen and force its longtime autocratic president, Ali Abdullah Saleh, to step down after decades of absolute power. The transition results in Saleh replaced by his deputy, Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi. Hadi receives a country with a struggling economy, widespread corruption, a weak central government, and the growing separatist movement in the south. At the same time the Houthis become more aggressive. The Houthis, a Zaydi Shia political and armed group, arise in the north of Yemen due to marginalization and exclusion from the political process. They resent the government's favoritism of Sunni Muslims. Political crises further disrupt Yemen. The country is vulnerable to outside influence and internal conflict. Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Human Warfare Buddhist Violence in Rakhine State Myanmar Russo-Ukrainian War: Motives, Propaganda & Technology Sunni worshippers Houthi Uprising & Escalation of Conflict The Houthis expand their influence. They're encouraged by popular discontent with Hadi's government and its failure to address corruption and improve living conditions. In 2014, the Houthis, allied with disgruntled factions of the Yemeni military loyal to the ousted president Saleh, launch a major offensive. They seize the capital, Sana'a, which they still hold today. They force Hadi to flee to Aden, a turning point in the conflict. Houthi support surges. When Hadi flees to Saudi Arabia in early 2015, he begs Saudi for help, and the conflict escalates further. Intervention of Saudi Arabia & Allies A military intervention by a Saudi-led coalition of Arab states tries to restore his government. The intervention, framed as an effort to counter Iranian influence, escalates the conflict. Civil war becomes a proxy war. The coalition launches a massive air campaign targeting Houthi positions and infrastructure. It imposes a naval and air blockade on Yemen. Coalition members are Egypt, Morocco, Jordan, Sudan and the United Arab Emirates, providing air and ground forces; and Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, and Constellis leading several ground operations. Cryptocurrency: Finance in the Space Age Make an AI for Stock Market Analysis & Prediction North Korea (DPRK): Total Control Clock towers in Mecca, Saudi Arabia Djibouti, Eritrea, and Somalia open their airspace, territorial waters, and military bases to coalition forces. While the UN tries to bring together conflicting factions, lasting agreements fail. The Saudi blockade, ostensibly intended to prevent arms from reaching the Houthis, severely restricts the flow of essential goods. Scarcity of food, medicine and fuel contribute to the humanitarian crisis. By 2021 24 million Yemenis, or 80% of the population, need humanitarian help. In March 24 the figure is at 21.6 million people or two thirds of the population. 2025 figures put it at 19.5 million people, or over half. The UN believes this figure is rising, or perhaps the population is shrinking. In territories they hold, the Houthis establish schools and health care. They amass public support. Still the Saudi blockade forces desperate humanitarian need. Ethical concerns arise over support to the Saudi-led coalition. Several major arms manufacturers, including the US and the UK, sell billions of dollars' worth of weapons to the coalition. This worsens the human crisis. Weapons of Mass Destruction: United States Rohingya Genocide in Myanmar Women Scientists of the Ancient World Yemeni woman: civilians like her are targets of terror by internal & external sources Al Qaeda & ISIS Emerging after weakening of leadership in Yemen, Al Qaeda supports the Sunni Muslims in Yemen against the Houthis and everyone else. Al Qaeda in the Arabia Peninsula (AQAP) is a Sunni Islamist militant organization. It seeks to overthrow Yemeni government and establish the Islamic Emirate of Yemen. Part of the overall al-Qaeda network, the group is based and primarily active in Yemen, also with operations in Saudi Arabia. In 2018 the US designates its leader, Khalid Batarfi, a global terrorist and puts a $5m bounty on his head. Following failure to expand in north Yemen, AQAP regroups in its strongholds in the south as of 2023. In 2024 Batarfi's death is announced by Al-Qaeda. Details of death are withheld. Building Robots: Elastomers, Metals & Plastics Vibrio Cholerae: the Cholera Bacteria Pakistan: Ancient Cultures to Nuclear Power Azrael, Muslim Angel of Death - 19th century drawing Al-Qaeda rival ISIS takes action in Yemen by 2014 with armed assaults against Houthis, striving for advantages amid the chaos of war. It attacks in March 2015 with the suicide bombings of two Shia Mosques in Sana'a. The mosques are Houthi-affiliated. One bomber blows up outside the al-Badr mosque when caught by militia. The other makes it to target at the Al-Hooshish mosque and detonates amidst a crowd of fleeing worshippers. 137 people are killed altogether. Hundreds are injured. The incident is considered a terrorist attack and causes the most deaths and trauma of any such act in the history of Yemen. In the following months the group continues attacks aimed largely at civilian targets associated with the Houthis. In July 2022, a suicide bomber on a motorcycle hits a Houthi convoy near Sana’a, killing and wounding several Houthis. As of 2025 ISIS controls no direct territory in Yemen or the Middle East. Although without a territorial perveance, it's considered a low level insurgency in the Middle East. Neither party is affiliated with the South Yemeni government, which has also been targeted by al-Qaeda. Nerve Agents (Nerve Gas) as Weapons Scam Centers in Southeast Asia Water Pollution: Eight Countries in Crisis Red Sea Crisis The crisis begins in October 2023. The Houthi movement launches missiles and armed drones at Israel, demanding an end to the horrific attacks on the Gaza Strip against the Palestinian population. Gaza is currently occupied by Hamas , who, like the Houthis, are labeled terrorists by the West. Gaza faces major humanitarian crises due to blockades of food and medicine by Israel and Egypt. Two million people inhabit the Gaza Strip, a space 40 km long and 6-10 km wide. Houthis capture several vessels and launch aerial attacks against dozens more in the Red Sea , asserting every Israeli-affiliated ship is a target. In response come hundreds of air strikes on Yemen by US and allied forces. By 2025 Israel and the US target refugee camps, hospitals and homes in Gaza, under the thinning guise of battling Hamas. Israel is on a mission of genocide to wipe out the Palestinians. These attacks are all considered war crimes under the Geneva Convention. While humanitarian groups plead, world powers don't seem to care, raising the question of who the terrorists really are. Iran supports both Hamas and the Houthis. Though this brings ire from the US and Saudi coalition no one dares attack Iran directly, partly because Iran officially denies the support. Thus they target terrified and vulnerable populations in regions held by Iran-backed groups. How to Make an Artificial Intelligence System Robot Lubrication: Grease the Machine Zagros Mountains - the Way to Kur Humanitarian Catastrophe The Yemeni civil war causes tens of thousands of deaths. These come from direct attack by Saudi, Israel, US and other forces, and indirectly from starvation, disease, and lack of healthcare access. Millions are displaced and seek refuge in overcrowded camps and urban centers, where they living conditions are dire. Overburdened healthcare systems struggle to cope with the needs of the population. Diseases like cholera, dengue fever and malaria are rampant, especially due to lack of clean water and sanitation. The United Nations repeatedly warns that Yemen is on the brink of famine. Attacks increase in violence. Infrastructure is devastated with 60% of hospitals non-functional and malnourishment rampant. Attacks on Yemen and Gaza continue. The current US government is highly aggressive. It shows off firepower to watching nations in a mix of self-aggrandizement and fearmongering. Its rise in terror tactics come from an economic side deal with Israel. Travel advisories are strongly against all travel to Yemen at this time due to the risk of terrorism, civil unrest, health risks, kidnapping, armed conflict and landmines. Biological Warfare: Microbes & Insects Scheele's Green: History's Most Toxic Pigment Humans in Space: Effects on Body & Mind Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) evaporate or vaporize easily at room temperature, diffusing into the air we breathe. They transition from liquid or solid state to a gas, dangerous to health and environment. NOx: Air Pollution & Tropospheric Ozone Vehicle Emissions: Environment & Society Ozone Gas (O3) & the Ozone Layer Organic compounds contain carbon, a fundamental element in living organisms and many synthetic materials. High vapor pressure makes VOCs pervasive. They're constantly released from materials and products. Examples of VOCs include formaldehyde, benzene and xylene. While some occur naturally, most are synthetic. VOC levels inside are up to 10x more than outdoor, due to emissions from everyday items. VOCs cause health problems from eye irritation to long-term illness. They're neurotoxic and can disrupt the central nervous system. Earth's Atmosphere: Layers of Dynamic Design Human Microchip Implants: Pros & Cons Biofuels: Creation & the Dark Side Sources of VOCs Mold: Mold, often in damp areas like bathrooms and basements, is a prime source of VOCs. Some molds release an array of VOCs as part of metabolic processes. This causes the musty, stale odor of mold infestations. Upholstered Furniture: Fabric, foam, and adhesives used in upholstered furniture release VOCs, especially when new. Flame retardants added to upholstery can break down and release chemicals into the air. Arts and Crafts Supplies: Paints, glues, markers, solvents, and other art supplies often contain VOCs. Strong odors associated with these products are signs of inherent chemical volatility. Dry Cleaned Clothing & Cleaning Supplies:  Dry cleaning solvents, like perchloroethylene ("perc"), are known VOCs. Many dry cleaners are implementing safer practices. Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Phytoplankton: Environment & Human Health Survival of Bacteria in the Extremes of Space Cleaning Products : Common household items like all-purpose cleaners, bleach, detergents, dishwashing products, furniture polish, and floor polish contain VOCs. Building Materials: Paints, varnishes, adhesives, carpets and some types of wood products can release VOCs for months or years after installation. Personal Care Products: VOCs in hairsprays, perfume, deodorants and nail polish evaporate into the air shortly after application. Products can include alcohol and other volatile solvents adding to indoor VOC levels. The "new car smell"  is the result of off-gassing. Various volatile organic compounds from materials used in the car's interior are released into the air. They include chemicals like ethylbenzene, toluene, xylene and styrene. Ethanol Biofuel: Methods, Pros & Cons Melanin Pigment: Form & Function in Nature Environment: Lithium-ion Battery Recycling Outdoor Sources VOCs are common outside from industrial emissions, vehicle exhaust, and burning of fossil fuels. VOCs add to air pollution by reacting with nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sunlight to form ozone , a major component of smog. They create formations of fine particulate matter, an air pollutant. VOCs can also be direct toxins, causing respiratory and cardiac ailments. Outdoor VOCs can infiltrate indoor spaces. Vehicle emissions are a major source of outdoor VOCs. Gasoline and diesel engines create numerous volatile organic compounds and intensify air pollution. Factories and industrial processes release VOCs as byproducts. The emissions can reduce air quality and degrade health of local populations. Gravity: Weather, Pollution & Ocean Tides Space Aerosols: Weather, Health, Ecology Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP) Symptoms of VOC Exposure Exposure to VOCs can have range of health effects, depending on the type of VOC, the concentration, and the duration of exposure. Short-term effects include: Eye, nose, and throat irritation Headaches Nausea Dizziness Allergic skin reactions Long-term exposure to certain VOCs causes more serious health problems, including: Respiratory illnesses Liver and kidney damage Central nervous system damage Increased risk of certain cancers Improving indoor ventilation and opting for low or no VOC products can lower the risks. Air purifiers to filter out VOCs can also help maintain a healthy indoor atmosphere. Solar Wind: Supersonic Tempest from the Sun Effects of Extreme Heat on the Human Body Cassava Root: Nutrition, Toxins & Economy Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Vehicle emissions are the waste material of combustion, including gases and particulate matter (PM). With more than 1.4 billion vehicles on the road worldwide, emissions are an ongoing problem of modern lifestyles. Ozone Gas (O3) & the Ozone Layer Earth's Atmosphere: Layers of Dynamic Design Ethanol Biofuel: Methods, Pros & Cons Components of Vehicle Emissions Vehicle emissions refer to the pollutants released into the atmosphere by internal combustion engines used in cars, trucks, buses, and motorcycles. Carbon Dioxide (CO2): A greenhouse gas contributing to global warming. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Contributes to smog, acid rain, and respiratory problems. Particulate Matter (PM): Tiny particles can penetrate deep into the lungs, causing respiratory and cardiovascular illness. Carbon Monoxide (CO): A poisonous gas, it reduces oxygen delivery in the bloodstream. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): This react with NOx to form ground-level ozone, or smog. Cryptocurrency Scams: Goodbye, Money Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health Los Angeles, California is the smoggiest city in the US due to vehicle emissions Countries with the Most Vehicle Emissions China and the United States consistently rank among the top emitters globally. Per capita emissions vary due to factors like urban planning, public transportation infrastructure and vehicle emission standards. Globally, vehicle emissions vary significantly by country, influenced by factors like vehicle ownership, fuel type, and national regulations. Countries with the highest vehicle emissions include China, US and India Vehicle Emissions Standards 20 Years Ago & Today Over the past two decades, vehicle emission standards have changed. In 2005, regulations are less stringent. Governments worldwide lack effective regulations to reduce vehicle pollution. Biofuels: Creation & the Dark Side Solar Wind: Supersonic Tempest from the Sun Plants in Space: ISS Microgravity Gardening Now, organizations like the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the European Union promote higher standards. Modern emission standards significantly lower permissible levels of NOx, PM and CO2. Catalytic Converter Technology: Improvements in catalytic converter technology increase efficiency, converting toxic emissions into less harmful ones. Onboard Diagnostics (OBD) Systems: Modern vehicles are equipped with sophisticated OBD systems to continuously monitor engine performance and emission control systems. Electric Vehicles: The growing promotion of hybrid and electric vehicles helps reduce tailpipe emissions. Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Electric Vehicles (EVs): Creation & Operation Water Pollution: Eight Countries in Crisis Effects of Vehicle Emissions Environment Climate Change: CO2 emissions contribute to global warming, leading to rising temperatures, extreme weather events, and sea-level rise. Vehicles emit thousands of tons of CO2 daily. Air Pollution: NOx and VOCs are major factors in smog formation. High levels of nitrogen oxides and particulate matter can cause respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. Acid Rain: NOx emissions contribute to acid rain, toxic to forests, lakes, buildings and animals. Emissions can destroy ecosystems. How Wind Turbines Create Electricity Oil Wars: A Global Power Play Rare Earth Elements (REEs): Science & Environment Health Respiratory Problems: PM and NOx can trigger asthma, bronchitis, and other respiratory illnesses. Cardiovascular: Exposure to vehicle emissions is linked to heart disease and stroke. Cancer: Some VOCs are known carcinogens, increasing the risk of cancer. Overall Pollution Water Pollution: Vehicle emissions can contaminate waterways through runoff and deposition. Soil Pollution: Heavy metals from vehicle exhaust accumulate in soil. Lodestones: Natural Ferromagnetic Compass Environment: Lithium-ion Battery Recycling Ideonella sakaiensis: Plastic-Eating Bacteria Lead, a heavy metal Problems in Reducing Vehicle Emissions Aging Vehicles: Older vehicles with less efficient emission control systems remain on the road, contributing a disproportionate amount of pollution. Affordability: Newer, cleaner vehicles are often more expensive, making them less accessible to low-income individuals. Changing to sustainable vehicles is a major financial investment for consumers and manufacturers. Infrastructure Limitations: Widespread adoption of electric vehicles also needs significant investment in charging infrastructure. A significant barrier is scarcity of charging stations for electric vehicles. Consumer Behavior: Societal dependence on personal vehicles for transport is a problem, requiring a shift towards public transport, cycling and walking. Cars are more convenient. Carbon Fixation: Environmental Heath & Ecology Fossil Fuels: Ecology & Economy Phytoplankton: Environment & Human Health Many consumers use gas-powered vehicles due to lower upfront costs. Car buyers often prioritize price over environmental impact. Global Trade: The trade in used vehicles, which are often older and more polluting, undermines efforts to reduce emissions in developing countries. The age of vehicles entering Africa, for instance, is up to 20 years. In India, cars are resold about 5 times before being scrapped. However trends see people replacing older vehicles sooner. Limits are imposed in India on car age with 10 years for diesel and 15 years for gasoline. Drivers of older vehicles are fined. Results may vary depending on region. Facts About Vehicle Emissions The transportation sector is one of the largest contributors to greenhouse gas emissions globally. Exposure to vehicle emissions is linked to reduced life expectancy.  Global electric vehicle sales have risen strongly in recent years. The Heliosphere: Radiation & Solar Wind Plants in Space: ISS Microgravity Gardening Gravity: Weather, Pollution & Ocean Tides Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

NOx are nitrogen compounds, mainly nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). These gases create serious environmental problems, including smog, acid rain and high amounts of ground-level ozone. Vehicle Emissions: Environment & Society Ozone Gas (O3) & the Ozone Layer Earth's Atmosphere: Layers of Dynamic Design Nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide are the most prevalent and reactive forms. These gases are often byproducts of combustion in vehicles, power plants, industry or agriculture. When fuel burns at high heat, nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen to forming NOx. Smog The most visible impact of NOx emissions is smog formation. Smog is the hazy, brownish or yellowish fog hanging over urban areas. It's a mix of pollutants like ground-level ozone, particulate matter (PM) and chemicals. While ozone in the stratosphere protects the planet from UV radiation, ozone at ground level is a potent air pollutant. In presence of sunlight, NO2 breaks down, releasing a free oxygen atom. The atom combines with molecular oxygen (O2) to form ozone (O3). Smog irritates the respiratory system, worsening ailments like asthma or bronchitis. It causes eye and throat problems, coughing and wheezing. Biofuels: Creation & the Dark Side Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad In Los Angeles (above), the smoggiest city in the US, most ozone in the air comes from NOx reacting with volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and sunlight. Acid Rain NOx also contributes to acid rain. When released into the atmosphere, NOx can react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form nitric acid (HNO₃). Nitric acid then falls to earth as acid rain or precipitation. Acid rain has devastating ecosystem effects. It acidifies lakes and streams, destroying aquatic life. In forests, acid rain damages leaves, weakens trees, and makes them susceptible to disease and pests. It decreases agricultural output. Buildings and monuments of limestone and marble are corroded by acid rain. Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas Solar Wind: Supersonic Tempest from the Sun Gardening: Grow Beautiful Morning Glories Acid rain worsens water pollution Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Biofuels, made from organic materials, promise a renewable alternative to fossil fuels. While the sunny side of biofuel touts its benefits, realistic expectations are not as bright. Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas Biofuel promotes energy independence and is claimed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs). Energy independence is an important factor as the world moves toward deglobalization . Biofuels and fossil fuels differ in origin. Biofuels are considered renewable resources while fossil fuels are finite resources accumulated over millions of years. It's easy for investors to get carried away with green technology idealism without taking a necessary walk on the dark side of biofuels. Burning biomass creates many environmental and health problems, including greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution and ecosystem damage.  Plant Health: Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria Glutamates: Umami Flavors & Brain Cells Carbon Fixation: Environmental Heath & Ecology fossil fuels - oil extraction About Biofuel Biofuel is any fuel derived from biomass, which is organic matter from plants and animals. It includes crops like corn, soybeans, and sugarcane, as well as algae, agricultural waste and animal manure. In sugarcane biofuel, most production is absorbed by the domestic market. It's sold as either pure ethanol fuel (E100) or blended with gasoline (E27). An alcohol-based fuel, it's produced by the fermentation of sugarcane juice and molasses. In the US, 45% of corn croplands are used for ethanol production. Corn is the main feedstock used for producing ethanol fuel in the United States. It's fermented by yeast, which create ethanol and CO2. Amazing Yeast: Feeding, Breeding & Biofilms Cornstarch: Cuisine, Beauty, Cleaning Uses Potash: Agriculture, Plant & Garden Health Animal manure, burned in many countries since the dawn of civilization, can produce biofuels, primarily through anaerobic digestion by bacteria to generate biogas. This mix of methane and CO2 can be used for heat, electricity or as a transport fuel. Unlike fossil fuels, which require millions of years to form, biofuels can be replenished in a short time. Major types of biofuels are biodiesel, ethanol, and biogas. Wood pellets and algae are also growing concerns. Solar Wind: Supersonic Tempest from the Sun Melanin Pigment: Form & Function in Nature Gardening: Grow Beautiful Morning Glories Tanking up with ethanol Types of Biofuel Ethanol Primarily produced from corn in the US and sugarcane in Brazil, ethanol is an alcohol-based fuel blended with gasoline. It's used to improve octane ratings. Ethanol and ethanol-gasoline mixtures burn cleaner and have higher octane levels than gasoline without ethanol. They also have higher evaporative emissions from fuel tanks and dispensing equipment. These evaporative emissions contribute to formation of ground-level ozone and smog. Gasoline also needs extra processing to reduce evaporative emissions before blending with ethanol. Ethanol in fuel can cause corrosion, dry out rubber parts, and attract water, with potential engine damage and reduced fuel efficiency. Fuel ethanol is highly flammable. Space Aerosols: Weather, Health, Ecology Humans in Space: Effects on Body & Mind Carbon-14 Diamond Battery: Nuclear Power Los Angeles, smoggiest city in the US. After Texas California is the largest consumer of ethanol. Biodiesel Made from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled greases, biodiesel can be used in diesel engines in pure form or blended with petroleum diesel. Biodiesel, while considered a renewable alternative, presents such problems as increased NOx emissions, lower energy output compared to diesel, and storage issues causing mold growth and poor fuel quality.  NOx are a group of highly reactive nitrogen oxides, mainly nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). These are major contributors to air pollution, especially from combustion processes.  Biodiesel is flammable. Its production uses hazardous chemicals like methanol (wood alcohol) thus needs careful handling and storage.  Effects of Extreme Heat on the Human Body Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Scheele's Green: History's Most Toxic Pigment Biogas Produced through anaerobic digestion of organic waste by microorganisms like bacteria, biogas is mainly methane (50-75%) and carbon dioxide (25-45%). It can be used for electricity generation, heating, and transportation. Impurities in biogas can cause health issues like pulmonary paralysis, asthma, respiratory diseases, and fatalities. They can contribute to global warming, subsequently droughts, flooding, malnutrition and other disasters. Wood Pellets By making wood pellets from waste or byproduct fiber, the debris becomes low carbon biofuel. Ideally, the CO2 produced when burning wood pellets is offset by the CO2 absorbed by trees as they grow. Trees have a limit. The Amazon Rainforest is now producing more CO2 than it absorbs. Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Environment: Lithium-ion Battery Recycling Magnetotactic Bacteria: Magnetic Microbes rainforest deforestation According to the University of British Columbia, wood pellets burning in presence of oxygen release more CO2 than the great polluter, coal. Wood also has a higher water content, making it less efficient for combustion. Other factors include deforestation. Wood waste is already often used in products like particle board and masonite, which have sizeable markets. High carbon emissions during production and combustion are a concern. Algae Algae has 20%–80% oil content, which can be converted into different types of fuels such as kerosene oil and biodiesel. It's currently used in biodiesel production. While algae is still researched as a biofuel in itself, today it may be used as a way to absorb some of the the flue gas CO2 produced during biofuel manufacturing. One of the major problems using algae as biofuel is the massive water resources it needs. Lodestones: Natural Ferromagnetic Compass Soap & Medicine Herb of Ancients Giant Cinnamon Birds of Arabia Biofuels: Related Problems Land Use Competition: Using land for biofuel production can compete with food production, potentially driving up food prices and contributing to deforestation in some regions. Cost: Producing biofuels may be costlier than fossil fuels due to material and processing expenses. Water Usage: Cultivating biofuel crops can require significant amounts of water, placing strain on water resources in water-scarce areas. "Food vs. Fuel" Debate: The ethical dilemma of diverting food crops for fuel production remains a major concern, particularly in regions with food insecurity. Also, increase in biofuel demand can cause food prices can rise significantly. Life-Cycle Emissions: The overall carbon footprint of biofuels depends on the entire production process, including farming, processing and transportation. In some cases, the full life-cycle emissions of biofuels may be comparable to or even higher than those of fossil fuels. Technological Limitations: The efficiency and cost-effectiveness of some biofuel production methods still need research. 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Ozone manifests as pale blue gas. The ozone layer, a concentrated region in the stratosphere, protects Earth from damage by UV rays. Ground level or tropospheric ozone is a major pollutant. Earth's Atmosphere: Layers of Dynamic Design Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Ethanol Biofuel: Methods, Pros & Cons Commercial aircraft fly in the stratosphere, where the ozone layer forms About Ozone Ozone (O3) is a molecule made up of three oxygen atoms, one more than oxygen (O2). This slight difference gives ozone its unique properties. A pale blue gas, it has a distinct, pungent odor. Ozone is the smell after a lightning storm. Lightning generates nitrogen oxides (LNOx) which contribute to higher tropospheric ozone. Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Nine Countries with Nuclear Weapons CubeSats: Science, Technology & Risky Business In the stratosphere, 10-50 km above Earth's surface, ozone builds up to create a protective layer. The ozone layer absorbs 97-99% of the sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation. While stratospheric ozone is essential for life, tropospheric ozone is a pollutant. It's formed by reaction of sunlight with volatile organic compounds (VOCs) like vehicle emissions and nitrogen oxides (NOx). Concentration of ozone in this layer is thicker over the poles in winter, and thinner in the tropics. Seasonal changes and weather patterns can cause ozone levels to vary regionally. Biofuels: Creation & the Dark Side Metalloproteins: Biochemistry of Nature & Health Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Atmospheric ozone absorbs infrared radiation emitted by the Earth's surface. This traps heat in the troposphere. Formation of Ozone Ozone forms naturally in the atmosphere by photodissociation. When ultraviolet light from the sun strikes oxygen (O2) molecules, it splits them into individual oxygen atoms (O). These highly reactive single oxygen atoms collide with other oxygen molecules. A single free oxygen atom combines with an oxygen molecule to form ozone (O3). Human activities causing release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) disrupt the balance. Thinning of the ozone layer, noted in the 1980s, creates an "ozone hole" over Antarctica. Consumer aerosol products are widely banned. Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas Food to Energy: Krebs Cycle & Cell Balance Solar Wind: Supersonic Tempest from the Sun Spray paint (aerosol paint) is released from a pressurized can as an aerosol spray. Importance of the Ozone Layer The ozone layer absorbs most of the sun's ultraviolet radiation, such as UVA, UVB and UVC rays. These powerful types of UV radiation can have devastating effects on living organisms. Ultraviolet A (UVA) has the longest wavelength of the UV spectrum. While UVB radiation affects the epidermis, UVA goes deeper into the dermis. It degrades collagen and elastin causing skin to age and wrinkle prematurely. It's also a factor in sunburn, which is caused primarily by UVB rays. UVBs are shorter in wavelength than UVA rays and are primary factors in sunburns and skin cancer.  Melanin Pigment: Form & Function in Nature Space Aerosols: Weather, Health, Ecology Scheele's Green: History's Most Toxic Pigment UVC radiation is the shortest wavelength in the ultraviolet spectrum, with wavelengths between 100 and 280 nanometers. It's also known as short-wave or germicidal UV. UVC radiation is largely absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, especially the ozone layer. Humans are exposed to UVC mainly through artificial sources like UV lamps or lasers. UVC is extremely harmful. Because it disrupts microbial DNA it's used for disinfection and sterilization.  Robots & Robotics in Modern Healthcare Sustainable Gardening: Compost & Old Beer Nuclear Energy: Power & Process Effects of UVs DNA Damage: UV radiation damages DNA, causing mutations and increasing risk of skin cancer, cataracts and other health problems. Plant Damage: UV radiation inhibits plant growth, reduces yields of crops like wheat and soybeans, and undermines delicate ecosystems. Marine Life Disruption: UV radiation can be deadly to phytoplankton, the the base of the marine food web, causing ecosystem upheaval. Immune System Suppression: Exposure to high levels of UV radiation weaken the human immune system. Machine Learning (ML) Form & Function Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment Facts About Ozone & Ozone Layer The Montreal Protocol: After discovery of the ozone hole, nations sign the Montreal Protocol in 1987, pledging to phase out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances like CFCs. It's considered one of the most successful environmental treaties in history. Measuring Ozone: Scientists use numerous methods to measure ozone levels, including ground-based instruments, balloons and satellites. Ozone Therapy : Some alternative practitioners use ozone to treat medical conditions through blood transfusions. Ozone Day : On September 16, the United Nations celebrates International Ozone Day to raise awareness about the importance of the ozone layer. 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Machine learning teaches computers to learn from data without being programmed. A branch of artificial intelligence, ML enables computers to improve performance by learning from the data they process. Artificial Intelligence: Technology & Society Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health Artificial Intelligence: Power of Prediction When an ML algorithm is exposed to a dataset of images labeled peaches or pears, it learns to differentiate. By adjusting internal parameters, the algorithm gets more precise over time, increasing accuracy in classifying new, unseen images. It can identify differences in types of peaches or pears, and group them according to seasonal availability, shipping costs, other relevant factors. Based on data in these sectors it can create a profit-and-loss scenario. Machine learning algorithms identify patterns and improve accuracy as they're exposed to more data. Algorithms are the learning processes, data is teaching material and outputs are predictions or decisions. How to Make an Artificial Intelligence System Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space What Robots Need to Function & Survive Data Data powers machine learning. It can be images, text, numbers or sensor readings. The more data available, the better the algorithm learns. Data comes from sources such as online databases or real-time transactions. It's obtained on the internet by web scrapers, tools which copy all the contents of multiple websites within nanoseconds. For instance a financial institution may gather transaction records of thousands of customers to identify spending patterns. Data farming is now bigger than ever. Data preprocessing cleans and prepares the data. This step is for removing duplicates, handling missing values, and normalizing numerical data. Poor data preprocessing degrades model performance. AI: Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) Make an AI for Stock Market Analysis & Prediction Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future Algorithms Once data is prepped, different algorithms are applied to understand patterns and relationships in the dataset. During this phase, the algorithm learns by adjusting its parameters according to its predictions. For instance, decision trees may be used to classify whether a customer will repay a loan or not, based on historical data regarding demographics and credit scores. The customer is judged by the machine. Prediction/Decision This is the final output of the machine learning process. It could be predicting whether an email is spam, classifying an image, recommending a product or denying a loan. Biofuels: Creation & the Dark Side Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Cryptocurrency Scams: Goodbye, Money Types of Machine Learning Supervised Learning The algorithm learns from labeled data, meaning the data has pre-defined categories or outcomes. Examples include predicting house prices based on historical data or classifying emails as spam or not spam. Unsupervised Learning The algorithm learns from unlabeled data, meaning the data doesn't have pre-defined categories. Examples include clustering customers into different segments or identifying hidden patterns in social media data. Retailers may use machine learning algorithms to analyze purchasing behaviors, and group customers into distinct categories and numbers based on patterns. Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Human Warfare How the Cloud Works - Pros & Cons Build a Basic Robot: Method & Materials Reinforcement Learning The algorithm learns by interacting with an environment and receiving rewards or penalties for its actions. It's used in gaming and robotics, where the goal is to learn the optimal strategy to achieve a specific objective. In reinforcement learning an agent learns to make decisions by interacting with its environment and receiving feedback. Feedback is by rewards or penalties. "Rewards" are like switches turned on when a task is completed or a correct decision made toward achieving a goal. This type of learning is used in robotics and game development. Carbon Sequestration: Environmental Health How Bacteria Survive a Nuclear Explosion Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology Uses of Machine Learning Automate repetitive tasks: Automate tasks traditionally done by humans, freeing up time and resources, and saving the company money. Make better and faster decisions: Analyze vast amounts of data to identify patterns and insights that humans might miss, and get rid of factors judged to be redundant or unnecessary. Personalize experiences: Tailor products and services to meet individual needs and preferences, a feat apparently impossible for humans. Solve complex problems: Solve problems too complex for traditional programming approaches. For instance, ML is used in cryptocurrency decoding by "miners," usually large organizations with powerful computers. Ethanol Biofuel: Methods, Pros & Cons Environment: Lithium-ion Battery Recycling Robots & Robotics in Modern Healthcare cryptomining facility Machine Learning in Action Recommendations: Machine learning algorithms analyze viewing history to recommend movies and TV shows you might enjoy. It can and does backfire splendidly. Personal experience: looking at a news article on grizzly bears being killed due to human idiocy results in a slew of horrifying and unwanted articles on animals being killed or abused, continuing for days. An algorithm goes by what it "thinks" the viewing victim wants. It's important to give viewers an option; for instance the news reader has no option for turning off the subject matter, just the news source. This allows the barrage to continue, but from different sources. Spam Filters: Machine learning algorithms identify spam emails based on patterns and characteristics. This is decades old and the results pretty much stay the same, but so does the spam. Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Leap to Flames: Why Did Empedocles Jump into Mount Etna? Solar Wind: Supersonic Tempest from the Sun Self-Driving Cars: Machine learning algorithms use sensor data to navigate roads and avoid obstacles. Fraud Detection: Machine learning algorithms identify fraudulent transactions by analyzing patterns in financial data. Fraudsters also have all the right info, collected by their own ML agent. Medical Diagnosis: Machine learning algorithms help diagnose diseases by analyzing medical images and patient data. Algorithms can predict outcomes, assist in diagnoses and attempt to personalize treatment. Machine learning improves commercialism and retail by optimizing inventory management. Algorithms predict sales trends so retailers can stock products most likely to sell. Earth's Atmosphere: Layers of Dynamic Design Lasercom: Laser Communication in Space Human Microchip Implants: Pros & Cons Problems of Machine Learning Data Privacy As machine learning relies on large datasets, data privacy concerns continue to grow. Companies assure privacy while at the same time milking all possible data from customers (for their own protection). Interpretability Many machine learning models like deep learning algorithms are too complex for users to know how decisions are made. This can be a problem in for sectors where explanation and transparency are necessary, such as healthcare. Top 5 Countries of the Global Space Race Transition Metals in Science and Health Silver (Ag): Ancient Trade to Modern Tech Misinterpretation Personal experience Ask AI: How far is Uruk (an ancient Mesopotamian city) from the Tigris River? AI: Uruk is not on the Tigris River. It is on the Euphrates. I know this but want to find out how far it is from the nearby Tigris. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers form the Mesopotamian Fertile Crescent and vary in distance apart, especially over time. Trying a different approach: What is the geographical distance between ancient Uruk and the Tigris River? AI: Uruk is not on the Tigris River. It is on the Euphrates. Fine, I have an atlas. Applied to something important, such as financial information, this can cause havoc as ML decides for itself what is valid. Bias in Data Machine learning can learn biases embedded in training data. If the provided data reflects historical inequalities, the model may perpetuate these biases. Satellite Radio Waves: Type & Function Nanorobots: Micro Robotic Tech, Ecology, Health Cryptocurrency: Finance in the Space Age Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Ethyl alcohol, or ethanol, is the primary ingredient in alcoholic beverages. A clear, colorless liquid, it has a chemical formula of C₂H₅OH, and is classified as a simple alcohol. There is nothing simple about alcohol. Red & White Tartar: Wine Salts of Alchemy Ethanol Biofuel: Methods, Pros & Cons Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper Ethanol is a solvent. One of the many quests of medieval alchemy is to find a "universal solvent" which can dissolve anything. Aqua regia , a mix of nitric and hydrochloric acid, will consume gold and platinum but retreats from silver and iridium. Nitric acid dissolves silver but not gold. Ethyl alcohol, first isolated and identified in the 18th century, misses the alchemical boat. Today ethanol is considered the "universal solvent" in chemistry. Azoth: Divine Substance of Alchemy Biofuels: Creation & the Dark Side Tartrate Crystals: Secrets of Tartaric Acid Ethanol Ethyl alcohol can be produced through fermentation of sugars by yeast. This process converts sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The alcohol is then distilled to increase its concentration, resulting in production of ethyl alcohol. It's highly flammable but doesn't catch fire itself. Instead its fumes burst into flame (reason behind the warnings not to use nail polish remover near any kind of fire or heat source). Ethanol is produced through two main processes: fermentation and synthetic. How to Make Asem: Essential Alchemy Parabalani: Medics & Murderous Mobs Glauber: Preparation of a Golden Spirit of Wine copper brewing vats 1. Fermentation This natural, biological process involves the conversion of sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide by yeasts, primarily Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The fermentation process is vital in the production of beer, wine, and spirits. In alchemy, with processes based on those of nature, fermentation is a process of change or transformation. Intentional fermentation for booze goes back to c. 8000 BCE when people first make honey mead, based on observations of its natural formation in abandoned bee hives. Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Ardent Spirits Alchemy: the Fiery Elixirs of Life Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast Fermentation Process Preparation : Raw materials such as grains, fruits, or sugarcane are first processed to extract fermentable sugars. Fermentation : Yeast is added to the sugar-rich substrate. Yeast consumes the sugars and converts them into ethanol and carbon dioxide. Distillation : The alcohol content is then concentrated through distillation to separate the ethanol from the remaining mixture. 2. Synthetic Production Ethanol can also be synthesized through petrochemical routes. Ethylene, a byproduct of the petroleum refining process, can be hydrated to produce ethanol. This method is commonly used to produce high-purity ethanol for industrial uses. Uses of Ethyl Alcohol Beverages : The most well-known use of ethanol is in alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine and spirits. Fuel : Ethanol is used as a biofuel, either blended with gasoline (E10, E15, E85) or as a standalone fuel. It is considered a more sustainable energy source than fossil fuels. Solvent : Ethanol is a common solvent in the manufacturing of personal care products, pharmaceuticals, and cleaning agents. Its properties make it effective in dissolving non-polar compounds. Antiseptic : Ethanol is an effective disinfectant, used in hand sanitizers, medical wipes, and antiseptic solutions due to its ability to kill bacteria and viruses. Food Additive : It is used as a flavoring agent and preservative in various food products. Pharmaceutical Industry:  Commonly used as a solvent in the manufacturing of medicines. Cosmetics Industry:  Found in perfumes, colognes, and personal care products. Women of Alchemy - Mary the Jewess Solnitsata - Neolithic Salt Trade Town Oil of Philosophers: Alchemy Health & Beauty Science of Ethyl Alcohol The molecular structure of ethanol comprises a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to an ethyl group (C₂H₅). This configuration gives ethanol its properties, such as its ability to act as both a polar and non-polar solvent. Ethanol once consumed is rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream through the stomach and small intestine. It works on the central nervous system, producing the intoxicating effects associated with alcohol. Ethyl alcohol is a simple organic compound with the chemical formula C2H5OH. It is soluble in water and has a boiling point of 78.37°C. Ethyl alcohol is metabolized by the liver into acetaldehyde and then acetic acid, which are further broken down and eliminated from the body. Hazards of Ethyl Alcohol Health Risks: Excess consumption of alcoholic beverages can lead to alcohol poisoning, liver disease and other health problems. Long-term abuse can affect mental health and cognitive functions. Flammability: Ethanol is highly flammable. Proper safety measures must be taken when using ethanol in laboratories or industrial settings. Vapors are explosive near heat or flame. Toxicity: In concentrations of 70% or higher, ethanol can irritate skin and eyes. Ingestion of industrial-grade ethanol can be lethal. Consuming high levels of ethyl alcohol can cause alcohol poisoning. Arcanum Joviale: Alchemy of Sudorific Sweat Litharge: Toxic Lead Mineral of Science & Art Kohl: Eye Beauty Magic of Ancients Liver, Stomach, other organs Interesting Facts about Ethyl Alcohol Historical Significance : Ethanol has been produced and used for thousands of years for various purposes. Ancient civilizations ferment grains, fruits, and honey to create booze. Ethyl alcohol has been used religious ceremonies, medicinal treatments, and recreational activities. Biofuel Production : Ethanol is seen as a renewable fuel source and can be produced from various biomass, including corn, sugarcane and agricultural waste. Industrial Uses : Beyond its common household uses, ethanol is essential in the production of various chemicals, including acetaldehyde, acetic acid, and ethyl acetate. Antifreeze Agent : Ethanol is commonly used as an antifreeze agent in automotive and other applications, helping reduce the freezing point of liquids. The term "proof" when referring to alcohol content originates from sailors in the British Navy, who would test the strength of their rum by mixing it with gunpowder. If the mixture ignited, it was considered "proof" the alcohol content was sufficient. Caterina Sforza: Renaissance Alchemy Carbuncle: Red Stone of Magic & Medicine Spirit of Wine of the Wise: Alchemy Recipe fiery liquor Other names for ethyl alcohol or ethanol include: Absolute alcohol Alcohol Cologne spirit Drinking alcohol Ethylic alcohol EtOH Ethyl alcohol Ethyl hydroxide Ethylene hydrate Ethylol Grain alcohol Hydroxyethane Methylcarbinol Alchemists of Ancient Alexandria Basil Valentine: Secrets of Medieval Alchemy Divine Water: Sulfuric Acid in Alchemy Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top