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Lectins and phytates are compounds essential for plant health. In small amounts they benefit humans. Lectins protect plants, often with toxins, while phytates are storage vessels for phosphorus , a reactive element. Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment 7 Primary Electrolytes: Essential Ions & Health Magnesium (Mg): Ecology & Human Health beans sprouting What Are Lectins? Lectins are proteins found in many plants, especially legumes like beans, peas and lentils; grains or seeds and some vegetables. They bind to carbohydrates, enabling interaction with cell membranes. In nature, lectins are a defense against pests and diseases, helping repel hungry herbivores and protect from harmful microbes. Without this defense, plants would sicken and die. Natural Anti-Spasmodic Treatments for Muscle Spasms & Pain Amino Acids: Optimal Body Health & Energy Flavonoids: Sensory Compounds of Nature Lectins in vacuoles or protein bodies are released when a plant's cells are disrupted by an herbivore, microbe or insect. The effect can repel or even kill the pathogen or predator. For example ricin, a lectin from the castor oil bean , is deadly toxic. Lectins are the reasons people for thousands of years soak or ferment beans, peas, rice, soybeans, pumpkin seeds and other produce with hulls. Almonds, for instance, are best when soaked in their skins for 24 hours. Tannins: Complex Astringents of Nature Electrolytes: Vital Minerals of Human & Environmental Health Mold: Cultivation & Use in Food Fermentation almonds What Are Phytates? Phytates, or phytic acid, are the storage form of phosphorus in many plant seeds, grains, and legumes. When seeds germinate, phytates convert to usable phosphorus for the growing plant. They contain essential minerals but can also bind to these, potentially affecting nutrient absorption in humans and animals. Phytates affect such vital minerals such as iron, calcium and zinc. Like lectins, phytates are beneficial to plants. They help seeds and grains endure environmental stressors. In humans they might have antioxidant and anticarcinogenic properties. Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter Talc (Magnesium Silicate): Beauty, Art & Industry Pasteurization: Microbial Dominance & Destruction Sunflower seeds are a source of lectins and phytates Lectins and phytates are most often found in foods such as: Legumes : Beans, lentils, and peas are rich in both lectins and phytates. For instance, red kidney beans contain a particularly high level of phytohemagglutinin. A potent lectin, it must be inactivated by thorough cooking. Soaking legumes can also reduce 'bean farts'.    Grains : Whole grains like wheat, brown rice, barley and quinoa have high levels of lectins and phytates. For example, the phytic acid content in whole wheat can reach around 1.0 to 2.6% of its weight. Nuts and Seeds : Almonds, cashews, and sunflower seeds contribute to phytate intake. Phytate amounts can vary widely. For example almonds contain 0.4 - 9.1% phytic acid by weight. SCOBY & Mother of Vinegar: Cultured Cuisine 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Cherish the Chocolate: Sweet Fermentation rice husks contain phytates, lectins, indigestible silica and lignin These same foods provide nutrients such as proteins, fiber and vitamins. Health benefits are maximized through preparation techniques. They include soaking, hulling, fermenting, and/or cooking. Lectins and phytates are important to environmental balance. Like botanical bodyguards they help plants function and prosper. By deterring herbivores, lectins encourage tastier plant species to grow, thus promoting biodiversity. Phytates also contribute positively to soil health. As plants decompose, their phytate content enriches the soil by gradually releasing phosphorus, promoting overall soil fertility. Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Microbe pH Levels: Acidophiles, Neutrophiles & Alkaliphiles Spores & Yeast: Saccharomyces cerevisiae Effects on Human Health The effects of lectin and phytate consumption by humans are not fully known but may cause digestive discomfort, inflammation, and interference with nutrient absorption. Some research suggests they can have positive effects eaten in moderation as part of a balanced diet. Individual bodies can also respond differently to lectin. People consume lectin regularly as part of other foods. Malevolent Microfungi: Hazards of Health & Home Polysaccharides: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose Celandine: Plant Toxins & Medicine pumpkin seeds - soak them for 24 hrs before eating While phytates can inhibit the absorption of minerals such as iron, calcium, and zinc, populations with diets high in phytates are known to adapt to absorb these minerals more efficiently. Phytates are essential for plant growth, helping seeds and grains endure environmental stressors. Phytates, like lectins, might have antioxidant and anticarcinogenic effects in humans, but more research is needed. Song of the Loreley - Lethal Attraction Five Sugars: Glucose, Maltose, Fructose, Sucrose, Lactose Esters: Nature's Fragrance & Flavor Makers Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Alchemy uses natural processes, often driven by microbial forces. Unseen biological entities include bacteria, amoeba and flagellates. While some alchemists muse over hidden meanings, others use hidden microbes to create meanings. And cheese. The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Meet the Microbes - History of Microbiology Processes such as fermentation, digestion and putrefaction all appear in a day of the life of the alchemist. The alchemy lab doesn't smell so great, with flesh decomposing, urine fermenting and organic matter growing colonies of putrefying microbes. The alchemist dare not even open a window for fear of outside contamination, or someone interrupting a vital process. Some alchemists, like Caterina Sforza , turn to the more fragrant, cosmetic side of alchemy, while others like Dippel get stench complaints from neighbors. Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses Alchemy: How to Make Rosaceum Oil Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files Johann Dippel, alchemist of Castle Frankenstein 1. Fermentation: The Art of Transformation Fermentation is a vital process in alchemy. Alchemists experiment with various materials, from fruits to grains, creating products such as cheese, beer, and vinegar. Fermentation is perhaps one of the oldest alchemy processes, as humans learn to make honey mead c. 8000 BCE. Fermentation along with distillation is practiced by alchemical friars in convents to make medicines and patent brews. Beer is commonly created due to the obligation of friars and nuns to provide food and drink for travelers. It's later distilled into whisky and still made today. Great Women Artists - Käthe Kollwitz Honey Mead: Most Ancient Ambrosia Secret Life of Rust: Power of Bacteria Microorganisms, most commonly bacteria and yeast, convert sugars into acids, gases or alcohol. This transformative technique produces beloved culinary delights and is also important in the preservation of food and the creation of complex flavors. In fermentation, yeast and bacteria convert sugars into acids, gases or alcohol in anaerobic conditions. In beer brewing, yeast (usually Saccharomyces cerevisiae ) ferments the sugars in malted grains to produce carbon dioxide and ethanol. Flowers of Sulfur (Brimstone): Creation & Uses Kerotakis: Ancient Alchemical Equipment Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe In cheese production, starter cultures containing specific strains of bacteria and molds initiate fermentation, breaking down lactose into lactic acid. This contributes to flavor and texture. Vinegar production involves the oxidation of ethanol into acetic acid by acetic acid bacteria. 2. Digestion: The Slow Burn Alchemical digestion, often referred to as "the philosophical process," involves slow cooking substances within a flask or container. The sealed flask is buried in organic matter such as horse manure. This natural slow cooker stays hot due to the action of decomposition bacteria and other microbes. The digestion process can last hours or even weeks. Digestion & Horse Manure: Alchemy Process Vinegar Eels: Life Cycle & Survival in Vinegar Seven Deadly Diseases of the Renaissance Horse Manure - like compost , it creates heat as it matures In this alchemy method the manure is a source of heat created by activities of decomposition bacteria, fungi and protozoa. Alchemical digestion simulates natural digestion in the body, where complex organic matter is broken into simpler compounds and nutrients. Digestion can also be done in a furnace or oven, involving direct heat instead of microbial. In ancient alchemy the apprentice spends long hours rotating the flask and/or keeping ovens at the critical temperature. 3. Putrefaction: Decomposition of Animal Substances Putrefaction, characterized as the decomposition of animal remains, is considered an essential phase in the cycle of life. It's associated with transformation and rebirth, the concept of new life after death. Alchemists observe the decay process from beginning to end, a microcosm of the greater scheme. In this natural biological event, putrefaction is the breakdown of proteins and organic material by microorganisms. Glauber: Preparation of a Golden Spirit of Wine Alchemical Salt: Essential Salts of Alchemy Volatile Organic Compounds: Home & Away This process is primarily facilitated by anaerobic bacteria, including species like Clostridium and Fusobacterium , that thrive in low-oxygen environments. During putrefaction, proteins are decomposed into simpler compounds. These include amino acids, gases such as ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and methane, which contribute to the characteristic odor of decay. The putrefactive process is crucial in the nutrient cycle and powers of life and death. Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Soot & Lampblack: Beauty, Art and Medicine Antimony (Stibnite, Kohl) Ancient Metal of Science & Beauty the cosmos of mold As organic matter breaks down, essential nutrients are released back into the ecosystem, providing nutrition for plants and promoting biodiversity. In essence, putrefaction transforms dead matter into constructs sustaining life, closing the loop of biological systems. In each process, remarkable teamwork of microorganisms, enzymes, and biochemical reactions takes shape. The biological science behind fermentation, digestion, and putrefaction reveals the complexity of nature's design. Linen, Hemp & Cotton - Fabrics of Ancient Egypt Alchemy & the Magnum Opus - Black White Yellow Red Eight Dye Plants & Natural Dyes in History Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Plants are dynamic participants in their environments. They sense and respond to stimuli like light, using specialized photoreceptors to give them a spectral view. Sweet Root Vegetables: Sugar & Starch Sustainable Gardening: Compost & Old Beer How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts Plants perceive their surroundings and respond in ways crucial for survival. Some secrete toxins or foul tastes, some have thorns, but all plants turn toward the light using sophisticated light detection systems. Plant vision relies on photoreceptors, highly sensitive protein molecules designed as light sensors. They detect specific wavelengths of light. Plants can perceive the presence or absence of light, and also its color, intensity and direction. These factors influence botanical processes like growth, flowering and photosynthesis . Earthworms: Soil Health & Ecosystem Balance Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Potash: Agriculture, Plant & Garden Health Types of Photoreceptors The best known photoreceptors include: Phytochromes These are red and far-red light specialists. Phytochromes are like the plant's internal clock, helping track the changing seasons and regulate processes like flowering, germination, and stem elongation. In a seed germinating beneath soil, phytochromes detect the ratio of red to far-red light filtering down from above. A high ratio signals plenty of direct sunlight, indicating that it's safe to begin growing. Conversely, a low ratio, as in shaded environments under a dense canopy, might cause the seed to stay dormant or prioritize stem elongation to reach for more light. This aids survival in competitive environments. Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Hormones in Microbes, Plants & Animals Black Tea ( Camellia sinensis ): Harvest to Cup Cryptochromes These photoreceptors are sensitive to blue and UV-A light. They influence a range of developmental processes, such as stem elongation, phototropism (growth towards light), circadian rhythms and UV-A radiation protection. Cryptochromes keep a plant's internal clock is synchronized with the external environment. Growth direction aligns with maximum sun exposure, necessary for photosynthesis. The plant can anticipate and prepare for daily changes in light and temperature. Plants exposed to blue light grow more efficiently than those in the shade. How to Grow Carrots Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper Polysaccharides: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose Phototropins Phototropism is the directional growth of plants in response to light. Triggered by blue light, phototropins cause cells on the shaded side of the stem to elongate faster than those on the illuminated side. This causes the plant to bend towards the light source. Phototropins are mainly responsive to blue light. Ultraviolet-B (UV-B) Receptors Plants can detect harmful UV-B radiation. The receptors trigger defense mechanisms to protect the plant from DNA damage and oxidative stress. These include protective pigments like anthocyanins as natural sunscreens. Gardening: Grow Beautiful Morning Glories Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Hydroelectric Energy: Power of Water Light & Plant Behavior By manipulating the light environment, scientists can influence plant growth, development and defense systems. This info helps optimize crop yields, improve plant quality and develop new strains. In herbology and traditional medicine, the light environment of a plant affects its chemical composition. Light can change the concentration of bioactive compounds responsible for its health properties. Growth & Development Light perception drives processes, such as germination and flowering. Seeds need specific light wavelengths, especially red light, to germinate properly. Flowering in many species is linked to light exposure. Long-day plants like spinach need at least 14 hours of light to flower. How Wind Turbines Create Electricity Compost: Teeming Metropolis of Life & Death Carbon Fixation: Environmental Heath & Ecology Spinach, botanical illustration Adaptive Mechanisms Plants have several adaptive strategies in response to light conditions. In dense forests, where sunlight is limited due to competition, plants can detect their neighbors through light signals. This prompts plants to modify growth patterns, improving their light access and survival chances. In forests, spruce often lose their lower branches to focus on canopy growth. Plants in Space: ISS Microgravity Gardening Herbology & Lore: Plantain Plant (Plantago) Edelweiss: Alpine Flower of True Love Logging road Some plants change color due to light as the day goes on. In blue morning glories the major anthocyanin is peonidin 3-(dicaffeylsophoroside)- 5-glucoside. It creates the colors for sun regulation and protection. Flowers are bright blue in the morning and intense purple when the sun is high, blocking harmful UV rays. The blossoms turn pink, with a lower concentration of anthocyanin, to allow more light as the sun dips down. Plants can synthesize defensive compounds, like phenolic compounds, in response to increased UV-B exposure. These adaptations are also barriers against herbivores and diseases. 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Scammony ( Convolvulus scammonia ) is a powerful purgative, used to treat constipation and other health problems. It's taken as resin, used in Unani healing traditions and ancient Roman medicinal wine. Dioscorides: Natural Medicine of Ancients Natural Health: Paracelsus & Hermetic Principles Alkahest: Alchemy Panacea & Solvent About Scammony Scammony is a perennial climbing plant of the Convolvulaceae family, the same family as morning glories. It's a type of bindweed, primarily known for its resin, a potent purgative substance extracted from the roots. Virgin scammony or scammonium is harvested from the living root and dried for use in traditional medicine. Due to lack of quality control, scammoniae resina is more standardized, obtained from the dry root by digestion with alcohol. 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine Chamomile - Herbology & Folklore Powder of Algaroth: Antimony Oxychloride Purgative A type of bindweed, scammony is related to morning glories In alchemical digestion a sealed flask of matter is put into a heat source. In ancient times this is often horse manure. Heat generated by microbial activity in the manure slowly cooks the flask contents. Digestion can be done in a fire-heated oven but temperature must be kept stable. The process is time-consuming. Many an apprentice labors six or more hours over the digestion flask if it's heated with flame. Today there are other options. Also called scammony gum, the resin is valued as a laxative. Besides treating constipation, laxatives are commonly used as purgatives to detoxify the body. Purging includes intense sweating, vomiting, urination and defecation, with medicines available to meet these needs. Scammony is also used for anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties. 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Renaissance Purgatives & Ancient Remedies Egyptian Blue Lotus: Visionary Beauty Scammony resin Habitat Scammony is native to the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia. It enjoys warmer climates of countries like Syria, Turkey, Greece and Iran. It takes 2-3 years for scammony to grow to full glory. Climate: Warm, dry summers and mild winters with annual rainfall of less than 300 mm. Soil Type: Well-drained, sandy, or loamy soil. Sunlight: Plenty of sunshine. Temperature: Scammony prefers temperatures between 20-30°C. It needs frost protection in colder months. It favors open areas and hillsides, with a preference for dry environments. It can be found in bushy waste areas. Scammony can grow as a ground vine but often climbs other plants. Celandine: Plant Toxins & Medicine Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Glutamates: Umami Flavors & Brain Cells Scammony root Scammonin (C34H56O16) The active ingredient in scammony resin is the glycoside scammonin. This complex compound causes the herb's strong purgative effects. When consumed, the resin is inactive until it moves from the stomach to the duodenum, where it comes in contact with bile. The taurocholate and glycocholate in bile create a chemical reaction to make a drastic gastrointestinal irritant. Phytochemical analysis of the root shows it contains 8% resin. Other components include beta-methyl-esculetin, dihydroxy cinnamic acid, ipuranol, sucrose, reducing sugar and starch. Soap & Medicine Herb of Ancients Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Rosemary: Immortal Essence & Balm of Kings Duodenum, the small intestine at the stomach Toxic Properties Scammony requires careful handling and dosage control. Doses over 5 grams can cause such symptoms as: Severe diarrhea Dehydration Electrolyte imbalance Abdominal cramping Ancient Uses of Scammony Relieves constipation: Scammony's extreme laxative action is a common remedy for constipation in ancient times. Expels parasites: Scammony is considered effective against roundworm and tapeworm, used as an anthelmintic. Balances humors: In Galenic medicine scammony is used to treat the believed imbalance of bodily fluids or humors , which is thought to cause a slew of different illnesses. Reduces fever: It's used as an antipyretic. Mugwort (Wormwood) Medicine & Herb Lore Broad Beans (Fava) - Bronze Age Crops Herbology & Lore: Stinging Nettle Four Humors top left clockwise: phlegm, yellow bile, black bile, blood Roman physician Dioscorides , a surgeon in Nero's army and author of De Materia Medica (50-70 AD), documents the use of scammony in wine. "The root of scammony is dug up at the time of harvest, then pounded finely and bound in a linen cloth. Throw fifteen teaspoons of it into six pints of must [fresh-pressed grape juice] for thirty days. It purges the bowels, expelling bile and phlegm." It's also an ingredient in a Greek variation of the Roman drink posca. Posca is a mix of water and wine vinegar imbibed by soldiers and peasants. The word becomes phoushka in the Greek Byzantine army by 6th century AD. Greek physician Aëtius uses a recipe for a "palatable and laxative phouska". The drink includes fennel seed, cumin, pennyroyal, anise, thyme, celery seed, scammony and salt added to oxykraton or diluted vinegar. Pretty Poisons: Holly, Yew, Mistletoe Polyphenols: Plants & the Environment Gum Arabic, Guar, Xanthan: Guide for Artists & Artisans Pink and white scammony An excerpt from King's American Dispensatory, 1898, by Harvey Wickes Felter, M.D., and John Uri Lloyd, Phr. M., Ph.D: "Scammony is usually given in the form of an emulsion with sugar or sweet almonds. But when triturated with milk it is considered a superior preparation, as follows: "Seven grains of pure scammony to be gradually triturated with 3 ounces of unskimmed milk, to which a few grains of ginger may he added, forms a safe purgative. Another form of using this gum-resin is that of biscuit. "A paste is made of scammony, 1 drachm; Venice soap, 5 grains; sugar, 9 grains; biscuit, in powder, 1 ounce; and a few drops of water. Mix together, divide into 2 biscuits, and let them dry; 1 biscuit acts energetically. The dose of powdered scammony is from 3 to 12 grains; of the pure resin, half this quantity. Its use is always contraindicated by intestinal inflammation." Herbs & Natural Remedies - Ancient Egypt Periwinkle: Magic & Medicine of Europe Elderberry Tree: Germanic Nature Lore Unani Medicine Unani medicine, or Unani Tibb, is a traditional healing system originating in ancient Greece with further Arab and Persian influences. It's practiced in South Asia and regions of the Middle East. Unani physicians prescribe Saqmunia or resin of scammony for treatment of various illnesses such as skin diseases, chronic headache, bilious fever, conjunctivitis and jaundice. It's also added to other herbal preparations. Saqmonia is used as a contraceptive for both male and female. A purgative drink is made by mixing of scammony and sugar in water. The drink is considered to expel all depositions and poisons. Flowers of Antimony: Pure Medieval Purgative Caraway Spice - Herbology & Folklore Five Major Proteins of Nature & Human Health Scammony Incense Scammony resin is incorporated into incense. It's categorized as a gum resin, similar to other resins like myrrh and frankincense, all with strong aromatic qualities. Facts about Scammony Adulteration Concerns: Due to its value, scammony is often adulterated with other substances. Botanical Beauty: Convolvulus scammonia is a visually appealing plant with delicate white, yellow or pink flowers, typical of the Convolvulaceae family. Cultural Importance: Scammony is highly regarded in the ancient world, often compared to the prized resin of the mastic tree for its medicinal qualities. Agrippina & Son: Poisonous Plots of Rome Hydroelectric Energy: Power of Water Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides incense is used in rituals, medicine, to scent the air and convey mood Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Hydroelectric power generates electricity with the energy of moving water, which is considered a renewable resource. Used for millennia to drive machinery, it now supplies electric power to an ever more crowded world. How Solar Panels Work How Wind Turbines Create Electricity Oil Wars: A Global Power Play About Hydropower Hydropower produces electricity using kinetic energy of water. A dam on a river forms a reservoir. Water collects and is released in controlled amounts. As water flows over the dam and through turbines, it converts kinetic energy into rotational and mechanical energy, to electric. Types of Hydropower Facilities Impoundment Facilities (Dams) These are the most common type, using a dam to create a large reservoir. They can store water and generate electricity on demand, providing a reliable source of power. Water Pollution: Eight Countries in Crisis Flooding of the Nile - Nature & Myth Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP) Run-of-River Facilities These use the natural flow of a river, without a large reservoir. Less injurious to the environment, they generate electricity depending on the river's flow rate but are also less predictable. Pumped Storage Hydropower These systems pump water uphill from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir during periods of low electricity demand, as at night, using surplus energy from other sources. When demand is high, the stored water is released to generate electricity. Ideonella sakaiensis : Plastic-Eating Bacteria Bioremediation: Organic Cleanup of Toxins Tardigrades (Water Bears): Extreme Survivors Process & Components Dam:  Not always necessary, a dam is constructed to create a reservoir, a large body of water. The dam enables controlled release of water. It creates a difference in water level (head), increasing the force of the water. Intake:  This is the opening in the dam or channel to direct water flow toward the powerhouse. Penstock:  A large pipe or tunnel carries the water from the reservoir or river to the turbine. When an object is in motion, it has kinetic energy, which can be converted into various forms of mechanical energy, like rotational motion or work. Mechanical energy includes both kinetic energy (the energy of motion) and potential energy (stored energy). How Spacecraft Produce Water for Astronauts How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Turbine (image below): The heart of the hydropower system. As water rushes through the penstock, it hits the turbine blades. Mechanical energy converts kinetic energy of the water into rotational energy. It's then transformed into electrical energy. Generator : Connected to the turbine, the generator uses electromagnetic induction to convert rotational energy into electrical energy. Mechanical energy spins a magnet (the rotor) in a stationary set of conductive wire windings (the stator). As the rotor turns, it alters the magnetic field in the stator, inducing an electric current flow in the wire. Transformer : Increases the voltage of the electricity so it can be efficiently transmitted over long distances through power lines. Outflow : Water exits the turbine and flows back into the river downstream. Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Abzu - Primal Waters of Creation Joyful Arrival of Hapi in Egypt Hydro & the Environment Hydroelectric dams can produce greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). Emissions are lower than those from fossil fuel power plants. The gases are released when organic matter like vegetation decomposes underwater in the reservoirs. While hydropower is generally considered a low-carbon energy source, emissions from reservoirs can tip the balance. In ancient Egypt, the flooding of the Nile brings fertile silt for crops and an abundance of aquatic life. Water is channeled into reservoirs for later use. The floods are a lifeline and lifestyle in Egypt for millennia. Modern Egypt has a different agenda. After construction of the Aswan High Dam in 1970 the floods stop. Today the Nile River is polluted with industrial toxins, garbage, and is slowly drying up due to climate change and unsustainable water management. How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health Victorian Health: Sea Water Hydrotherapy German Myth: Father Rhine River God Cleaning up the Nile Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Microhydro power is a type of sustainable energy production using water flow. Microhydro systems convert water flow into electricity with minimal environmental impact. Hydroelectric Energy: Power of Moving Water Lead Acid Batteries: Uses, Disposal, Pros & Cons Abzu - Primal Waters of Creation One type of setup How Microhydro Works Microhydro power uses the kinetic energy of moving water. Unlike large-scale hydroelectric dams, microhydro systems are the "run-of-river" type of water power. A microhydro system generating 5 kilowatts can supply power to several homes. The operational efficiencies of microhydro systems support clean energy production and reduce maintenance costs. How Spacecraft Produce Water for Astronauts How Wind Turbines Create Electricity Oil Wars: A Global Power Play engineer working on a microhydro turbine Microhydro Process Water Diversion: A small dam or weir diverts a portion of the river's flow into a pipeline or channel. Head and Penstock: The water flows through the pipeline (penstock) down to a lower elevation, creating "head," which is the vertical distance the water falls. This head is crucial for generating power. Turbine and Generator: The water's force spins a turbine, which is connected to a generator. The generator converts the mechanical energy of the spinning turbine into electricity. Return to the River: The water, having passed through the turbine, is then discharged back into the river, completing the cycle. Enki (Ea) God of Water & Creation Volatile Organic Compounds: Home & Away Biofuels: Creation & the Dark Side community power Unlike fossil fuel-based power plants, microhydro systems produce no direct emissions during the conversion process. Microhydro has several other environmental benefits. Renewable Resource: In many places water is a naturally replenishing resource. Minimal Reservoir Creation: Run-of-river systems require little to no reservoir creation, to minimize flooding and disruption to aquatic ecosystems. Less Noise Pollution: Compared to other power generation methods, microhydro minimizes noise pollution. Improved Water Quality: In some cases, microhydro systems can be designed to improve water quality by increasing oxygen levels as water passes through the turbine. Victorian Health: Sea Water Hydrotherapy Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health Economic Advantages High Efficiency: One reason for the growing interest in microhydro power is its efficiency. Microhydro systems continuously generate energy in differing water flow conditions. Technology behind the systems advances rapidly to improve turbine designs and energy conversion processes. Microhydro systems convert 50-70% of the energy from flowing water into usable electricity. In comparison, larger hydropower plants average 30-50% efficiency. A properly installed microhydro system can provide sufficient power for a small community, which may require just 10-15 kWh a day. Microhydro systems generate power immediately, reducing energy loss associated with storage. This benefits areas where electrical demand fluctuates through the day. Plant Health: Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria Creation of Magnetism in Rocks Plants in Space: ISS Microgravity Gardening Reliable Power Source: Reliability depends on the natural flow of water, which can be predicted with accuracy. Systems can generate electricity during varying water flow rates for a consistent power supply. The decentralized nature of microhydro setups enables localized power generation. This is especially suited for remote or rural areas, where traditional power grids may be unreliable. Cost: While initial investment can be significant, long-term operating costs are low. The absence of fuel costs and minimal maintenance requirements contribute to its cost-effectiveness. Installed systems can cost $1,000 to $5,000 per kilowatt of capacity. Once operational, they need minimal maintenance and can last for over 30 years at a fraction of the cost of traditional electricity. By using a renewable water source users are protected from the volatility of fossil fuel prices. Effects of Extreme Heat on the Human Body Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Mineral Oil: Technology & Ecology Energy Independence: Microhydro can empower communities to be more energy independent, reducing reliance on centralized power grids and fluctuating energy prices. Remote Power: It's great for off gird living and hard to reach areas. Environment: The "run-of-river" approach protects aquatic habitats and maintains ecological balance. In the Philippines, for instance, well-managed microhydro projects are shown to increase local biodiversity and improve water quality. 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Clean rooms are specialized environments to minimize contaminants like dust, microbes and other particles. They're perfectly controlled to regulate air quality, temperature, humidity and pressure. Space Aerosols: Weather, Health, Ecology Nanotechnology: Nanoscale Power & Progress MLI: Gold & Silver Foil on Spacecraft In semiconductor manufacturing, a single particle can ruin an entire batch of microchips. The global semiconductor market, valued at $626 billion+, relies on clean rooms for product integrity. Clean rooms are essential in nanotechnology , microbiology and many other fields. About Clean Rooms A clean room environment minimizes airborne particles, microbes and other contaminants. Control over air filtration, temperature, humidity and personnel access, creates a sterile space. Cleanliness level of a clean room is classified according to ISO 14644 standards. They specify the maximum allowable concentration of particles of a certain size within a cubic meter of air. Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Semiconductors: Materials, Methods & Markets Bioremediation: Organic Cleanup of Toxins semiconductors form the basis of microchips The lower the ISO class number, the cleaner the environment, ranging from ISO Class 1 to ISO Class 9. Clean rooms might be subject to further government requirements. Microchip Fabrication: Semiconductor manufacturing demands incredibly clean environments. Even microscopic dust particles can disrupt the etching and layering processes, leading to defective microchips. Drug Manufacturing: In sterile pharmaceutical production, clean rooms prevent the introduction of microorganisms that could contaminate drugs, potentially causing life-threatening infections in patients. Medical Device Assembly: The manufacturing of medical devices like implants and surgical tools requires scrupulous cleanliness to avoid introducing contaminants that could cause post-operative complications. Aerospace: Components for satellites and other aerospace systems are often assembled in clean rooms. The US Artemis II spaceship, scheduled to launch to orbit the moon in 2026, is being built in a clean room. Robots and their components are more often created in clean rooms. Even a little dust in the circuits during assembly can wreak havoc. Spacecraft Re-Entry: Atmosphere & Aerosols Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space Survival of Bacteria in the Extremes of Space Preparing & Maintaining the Clean Room Air Filtration Systems High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filters are used for air quality. The filters remove at least 99.97% of particles 0.3 micrometers in diameter. Ultra-Low Penetration Air (ULPA) filters offer more stringent filtration. Airflow patterns are carefully designed to prevent particle accumulation. Laminar or unidirectional airflow systems are preferred, ensuring a constant flow of filtered air to sweep contaminants away from critical areas. Room Design and Materials Clean room construction prioritizes smooth, non-shedding and non-porous materials. Walls and floors coated with epoxy or polyurethane prevent particle generation and facilitate cleaning. Seams and joints are sealed. Airlocks at entrances help minimize the transfer of contaminants when personnel move in and out. Pass-through chambers are used to transfer materials without compromising the room's integrity. Surfaces must be easy to clean and able to endure regular disinfection. Hospitals often use stainless steel, prized for durability and sterile potential, to construct surgical clean rooms. Earth's Atmosphere: Layers of Dynamic Design Carbon Steel: Origins, Composition & Uses Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP) surgery robots Personnel Humans are a constant source of contamination, leading to increased use of robotics. Clean room protocol defines attire including gowns, masks, gloves, hair and shoe covers, to contain shed skin cells and other particles. Strict hygiene practices like frequent hand washing and specialized gowning procedures are enforced. Limited access to and movement within the clean room also minimize introduction of contaminants. Cleaning & Disinfection Regular thorough cleaning and disinfection maintain clean room standards. Specific cleaning products remove particulate matter and microorganisms. Cleaning schedules are documented, and personnel trained in techniques. Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials Artificial Intelligence: Technology & Society Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Monitoring and Control Continuous monitoring ensures the clean room maintains its required cleanliness level. Particle counters measure concentration of airborne elements. Regular air and surface sampling can detect presence of microorganisms. Temperature, humidity, and pressure differentials are carefully monitored and controlled. Equipment failures or human errors can introduce contaminants. For instance, a minor drain problem in a clean room led can introduce significant contamination and work is lost. Environmental factors complicate clean room maintenance. Weather changes affect air conditioning systems and elevate humidity levels. Systems are constantly tested to improve clean room stability. Smart technology integrates sensors and data analytics to optimize clean room performance. Modular and adaptable clean room designs continue to develop and can be reconfigured as needed. Human Microchip Implants: Pros & Cons Genetic Engineering: Biotechnology of Change Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Chinese alchemy is already in practice in the early centuries BCE. Ancient texts like the Cantong qi explain the body is central to cosmological processes represented by the five agents of change, or Wuxing. Pill of Immortality: Chinese Alchemy Nüwa: Chinese Primordial Snake Goddess Anqi Sheng & the Elixir of Immortality Water Wheel with Bamboo By observing and nurturing the processes, practitioners aim for alignment and harmony with the Dao (Tao). Consequently, the traditional belief in Chinese alchemy focuses on promoting longevity and purifying spirit, mind, and body. This pursuit of health, longevity, and wisdom is explored through practices like Qigong and wuxingheqidao. Alchemical medicines or elixirs are consumed for various purposes, often associated with immortality. Magic of the Circle: Spirituality & Lore Immortal - Quest for the Elixir of Life Ambrosia: Divine Nectar & Immortal Gods The Eight Immortals Crossing the Sea - their longevity comes from the Peaches of Immortality Pao zhi is also known as Processing in Traditional Chinese Medicine. Pao zhi uses techniques like honey or wine frying, as well as roasting with substances like mercury, lead, and arsenic. Daoism consists of two main components. These are classical mystical Daojia, which originates with Laozi and Zhuangzi; and the popular, magical, and alchemical aspect known as Daojiao. Classical Daojia is more austere, while Daojiao is practiced by the people. Jade - Jadeite, Nephrite & Jade Roads Fuxi: Chinese Primordial Emperor God Women Scientists of the Ancient World Despite unclear beginnings there are sufficient similarities in concepts and practices of alchemy and the Daoist belief system to suggest this tradition originates with Laozi and Zhang Daoling. Refusing to serve the Emperor, Zhang Daoling retreats to the mountains. During this time, he encounters Laozi in deified form. Together they endeavor to develop the Elixir of Life, by formulating the principles necessary for creating such an elixir. Synchronicity: Psychology of Coincidence Alchemy & Psychology: Hidden Meanings Anima & Animus: Gender Archetypes Laozi warns him plagues, beasts, and the demons of the Three Offices and Six Heavens of the underworld are to be released upon humankind. Only 240,000 people will be chosen as survivors and "seed people" to populate the new age, the era of Great Peace. Zhang undertakes a mission to reform Chinese religion and stop animal sacrifices. He gains many followers. Unus Mundus One World: Psychology Spiritual Alchemy: Touching the Divine Wolfsbane (Aconitum) Ancient Poisons Founder of Daosim, Zhang Daoling is often shown riding a tiger The Chinese alchemical tradition aims for immortality. Early evidence of Chinese alchemy openly discussed is during the First Emperor period. The first Qin emperor unites the Warring States, and dies of the Elixir of Life . Western Han writer Huan Kuan (73-49 BCE) states modifying and ingesting forms of nature will bring immortality. This idea relates to primordial god Shennong, who teaches humans herbology. He has a transparent stomach and eats up to 70 experimental poisons a day. Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Quest for Immortality - Qin Shi Huang Shennong Primordial Farmer & Healer Shennong, also known as the Divine Farmer, munches on herbs Before Huan Kuan, the purpose of alchemy is to turn base metals to gold. It's in practice by 144 BCE, when the Emperor orders public execution for anyone making counterfeit gold. The reason for making fake gold originates in the quest for chrysopoeia. Alchemists posit they can come closer to the formula for real gold by making artificial gold first. Fake gold is a counterfeiter's dream. Gold - Precious Metal of the Sun Mandalas: Psychology & Art Therapy Depth Psychology: Search for Meaning The concept of yin-yang pervades Chinese alchemical theory. Metals are categorized as being male (for instance sulfur, sun) or female (mercury, moon). It has many similarities to Western alchemy - properties of elements; gold creation; longevity or immortality. Relating to eternal life, mercury is said to flow like rivers in the gardens of the First Qin Emperor's tomb. Mercury: Miracle Metal of Madness Baltic Amber - Gold of the North Quintessence: Elemental Life Force This first Western contact with China is an ancient Roman excursion c. 166 AD, just as the Greco-Roman Alexandrian school of alchemy rises into a Golden Age . By this time alchemy in China is already established. Prior to Taoist tradition, the Chinese have definitive notions of the natural world's processes and changes. The wu xing is fundamental to the practice of alchemy and life. These are the fire Chinese elements: Water, Fire, Earth, Metal and Wood. Alchemy: Four Elements + The One Egyptian Alchemy - Power of Eternity Yellow River Civilization: Ancient China Wu Xing (wuxing) - Five Phases or Elements Mutable and interchangeable, each element is capable of becoming another. The concept is integral, as belief in outer alchemy necessitates belief in the transformative powers of the natural elements. The cyclical balance of elements relates to interaction of yin-yang. The term waidan originates from the combination of wai (meaning outside or exterior) and dan , which refers to alchemical procedures involving the preparation of chemical elixirs. Chamomile - Herbology & Folklore Herbs & Natural Remedies - Ancient Egypt Colors of Alchemy: Rubedo Magnum Opus In Traditional Chinese Medicine, extracts of the rose are used to regulate Qi or life force. Elixirs use such ingredients as cinnabar , realgar, mercury, sulfur, lead , and arsenic , as well as animal and botanical products commonly used in Chinese herbology and Traditional Chinese medicine. Outer Alchemy: Waidan Waidan encompasses practices associated with the creation of elixirs often containing herbal or chemical components external to the body. This process is clandestine and complex. Soy Sauce: A Cultural Culinary Odyssey Arsenic: Murderous Metal & Miracle Cure Numerology: Number Meanings & Personality It involves secret oral instructions, establishing a laboratory, igniting and maintaining fires required for production. The practitioner must follow guidelines for isolation and purification, and engage in various rituals aimed at safeguarding the alchemist and workspace. Waidan may involve a specific diet which prohibits certain foods. The preparation of medicines and elixirs can be considered external practices or waidan because these activities take place outside the body. Rise of Pan: Fertility Goat God Péh₂usōn Magic Numbers: Roots of Numerology Sirius the Dog Star: Stellar Mythology Asian herbal health shop Ingestion of medicines, herbs, and pills leads to physical transformations inside the body. These are distinct from spiritual changes. Inner Alchemy: Neidan The term Neidan consists of two parts: Nei, referring to the inner aspect, and Dan, encompassing alchemy, elixir, and cinnabar (mercury). Neidan encompasses a range of practices including structured meditation, visualization, breathing and physical postures. Psychology: the Conscious Ego of Self Alchemy: Processes Used by Alchemists Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy The breathing techniques are designed to preserve jing, or "life essence," while the physical poses are intended to improve the circulation of qi, or "energy," throughout the body. Neidan incorporates concepts from Traditional Chinese Medicine to produce the elixir. Inner alchemy concentrates on purifying substances that are naturally found in the body, with a special emphasis on the "Three Treasures." Spagyria: Botanical Science of Alchemy Fairy Rings, Moon & Nature Magic Spiritual Magic - Numbers Three & Nine The three treasures are: Jing ("life essence"). Jing is inherent at birth and regulates the body's growth processes. It is believed that by following specific dietary and lifestyle practices, individuals can enhance their Jing, which they are born with in a set quantity. Qi ("energy" or "vital energy"). Qi energy results from the interaction of yin and yang. A healthy body is constantly circulating Qi. Shen ("spirit", "mind" or "spiritual energy"). Shen is the energy used in mental, spiritual and creative functions. Chinese Alchemical Elixir Poisoning Reishi or Lingzhi - Mushroom Magic Chun Yuyan & Death of Empress Xu The three treasures are linked to specific areas within the body where the alchemical transformation occurs. These include the key organs and energy focal points known as dantians. The lower dantian or abdominal region is the primary center where jing is transformed to qi The middle dantian or heart center governs the transformation of qi into shen The upper dantian or head center governs the transformation of shen back into wuji or infinite space. Collective Unconscious: Seeking the Whole Alchemy Symbols in Psychology Classic Elements & Concept of the One Chinese Medicines Medications can be used internally or externally. They can be taken to manage the aging process, and even to stave off death. The terms medicine and elixir are essentially interchangeable due to their broad impact on various health conditions. What distinguishes an elixir from a medicine is that many medicines were primarily made from natural ingredients such as herbs and animal products. Animal byproducts like dung or fur are used, but not the animals themselves. Ge Hong: Teachings Alchemy Medicine Archetypes - Personality & the Persona 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life While metal compounds are more effective in treating illnesses, herbs are preferred for their ease of combination and widespread availability. Common ingredients in medicinal preparations include Reynoutria or Asian knotweed, often found in longevity formulas. Others include asparagus, valued for strength-boosting properties; sesame, which helps prevent aging; and pine, with a wide range of applications. Mushrooms, particularly the Lingzhi (Ganoderma), are popular in Chinese alchemy. Reishi or Lingzhi - Mushroom Magic Is Cherry Laurel Poisonous? Honey Mead: Most Ancient Ambrosia Lingzhi (Ganoderma) or Reishi Mushroom Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Tardigrades are micro-animals also called water bears or moss piglets, often found in water drops on moss. Known for resilience, they can also happily survive in extreme environments deadly for most life forms. How Bacteria Survive a Nuclear Explosion Survival of Bacteria in the Extremes of Space How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health These tiny invertebrates are beloved by biologists and science students for their easy availability and ability to return to a state of life after being fully dehydrated and rehydrated. It's only one of their talents. Tardigrades are ancient creatures with history dating back over 500 million years, to the Cambrian period. They predate the dinosaurs and survive environmental upheaval and multiple mass extinctions. Yeast: Microbiology of Bread & Food Making Kimchi: Microbes, Acids & Fermentation Biofilm Communities: Metropolitan Microbes Cosmopolitan dwellers, tardigrades are found almost everywhere on Earth. They exist in icy peaks and deep ocean trenches, tropical rainforests and suburban back yards. They're most common in moist environments like moss, lichen, soil and leaf litter, where they can easily access water and nutrients. They're often present in the moisture film on plant leaves. Vermicompost: Composting with Worms Secret Life of Rust: Power of Bacteria Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life The plump, segmented body of a tardigrade is usually less than a millimeter long. The animals belong to phylum Tardigrada , or "slow stepper," describing their characteristic lumbering gaits. Under a microscope, they resemble eight-legged bears with little claws. Named Kleiner Wasserbär (Little Water Bear) by their discoverer, they have an innate charm contributing to their prevalence in popular culture. Their body structure features a tough cuticle to protect them like armor. When the going gets tough, Tardigrada enter a state of cryptobiosis. They essentially pause their metabolism. Acetate in Nature: Vital Functions & Health Spores & Yeast: Saccharomyces cerevisiae Predators of the Microworld: Vampirovibrio  & Lysobacter Basic Biology and Life Cycle A tardigrade has a simple body plan. Its a mouth is equipped with piercing stylets used to suck fluids from plant cells, algae, or even small invertebrates. Its digestive system consists of intestine and anus. It breathes through its skin. Tardigrades lack circulatory or respiratory systems. Reproduction in tardigrades can be sexual or asexual, depending on the species and environmental conditions. The life cycle of tardigrades consists of four stages: egg, larva, juvenile, and adult. Females lay eggs, which are fertilized or develop without fertilization. Fungal Biofilms: Ecology of Biofilm-Producing Molds Stylonychia: Wonderful World of Ciliates Cupriavidus metallidurans : Metal Eating Gold Making Bacterium Tardigrade eggs encased in a protective casing or cuticle The eggs are deposited in a protective casing, shielding them from environmental stresses while they develop. On hatching, the larvae look like miniature adults and molt several times before reaching maturity. Reproductive methods vary among species. While many use sexual reproduction, some can reproduce asexually through parthenogenesis, allowing them to thrive even in isolation. The life cycle of a tardigrade ranges from a few months to over a year. Super Alloys in Space Exploration Plutonium (Pu): Nuclear Weapons & Space Agriculture: Calvin Cycle in Photosynthesis tardigrade under electron microscope Secrets to Survival: Tun State Tardigrades enter a state of suspended animation called the "tun" state. When faced with conditions like dehydration, extreme temperatures, radiation, or lack of oxygen, the tardigrade retracts its head and legs. It shrivels up into a tiny, dehydrated ball, and reduces its metabolic activity to almost zero. Great Bear - Nature, Spirituality & Lore The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris tun state In this state, tardigrades can withstand: Extreme Temperatures: From near absolute zero (-273°C) to over 150°C (302°F). Extreme Pressure: Over 6 times the pressure found in the deepest ocean trenches. Radiation: Hundreds of times the lethal dose for humans. Dehydration: Years without water. Vacuum of Space: Exposure to the harsh conditions of outer space. During the European Space Agency’s FOTON-M3 mission in 2007, tardigrades are exposed to the stresses of outer space for ten days and most return unharmed. They soon produce viable embryos. Kotharat - Bronze Age Birth Goddesses Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes: Life Forms on Earth Microbial Reproduction: Mitosis & Meiosis European Space Agency conducts microbe experiments on the International Space Station They can also repair their own DNA after radiation damage. Exact mechanisms behind their survival abilities are largely unknown. They include proteins to protect DNA and cell structures. Synthesis of trehalose, a sugar which prevents crystallization during dehydration, is also considered a factor. Tardigrades in Popular Culture The impressive resilience of tardigrades has made them a popular subject in science fiction and popular culture. They appear across media, including documentaries, cartoons and video games. Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space Silicon (Si): Fueling the Robot Apocalypse Nickel (Ni): Metallurgy Facts & Folklore Ant-Man & Tardigrade - artist mockup 2016 Ant-Man: In the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Ant-Man uses a size-altering disc to grow a tardigrade to giant size, which he then rides. Star Trek: Discovery: The series features a tardigrade as a key component of a new starship propulsion system. "Adventure Time" features a character named Tardigrade, who embodies the creature’s tenacity and adaptability in the broad scope of overcoming life's challenges. Astrobiology Scientists enthuse about tardigrades in astrobiology. The resilience of tardigrades tweaks hope for the potential of life beyond Earth. What Robots Need to Function & Survive Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials How Solar Panels Work Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

One of the crystals known since ancient times, amethyst holds it own characteristics, magic and myth. Purple is hard to get ancient times, thus a desirable color for the flaunting of wealth. Sapphire Gemstones: Colors, Myths, Origins & Gemology Garnets - Gemstones of Blood and Life Alchemy: How to Make Emerald from Quartz Amethyst gem is clear quartz rock crystal with inclusions of iron or other material, causing absorption of yellow or green light. Purple, a mix of blue and red, is the reflected light the human eye beholds. Coloring can vary from pale to deep and intense, ranging from pinkish purple and purple blues to deep violet. This stunning stone relates to divinity and the divine connection. In spirituality it cleanses sources of blocked chakra energy and aids the flow of beneficial elements in spiritual or physical life. Amethyst is used in meditation to rise above mortal worries and achieve enlightenment. Seven Precious Stones of the Ancient World Rhinestones: Sparkling Treasures of the Rhine Natural Purple Dyes: Ancient & Medieval Amethyst Gemstone with facets in Teardrop Shape Use of amethyst is first recorded among the Egyptians, as a precious gem. It's found in royal tombs. An ancient amethyst mine is Wadi el-Hudi, a river valley in the south of Egypt, which can still be seen today. The name amethyst comes from the Greek meaning to "not intoxicate". Ancient Greeks and Romans believe amethyst protects its owner from drunkenness, and maintains clarity of thought. Amethyst is associated with Dionysus, Greek god of wine, theater and madness. Dionysus is equated with Roman Bacchus, fertility and wine god, in whose honor the Bacchanalia are held. Bacchanale, an orgiastic type of music, is named for this celebration. Amethyst brooches, rings and beads are popular among the wealthy. Stone carvers show off their skills, resulting in beautiful work of the period. Like its mother stone quartz, amethyst is a crystalline gem and hard to carve due to breakage. Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (YAG): Crystal Tech Asteria - Starry Gems of Myth & Magic Gold - Precious Metal of the Sun Carved Roman Pendant Going into battle the Romans wear or carry amethyst to keep the senses clear and maintain a calm state of mind. For those who clean up the battlefield after the main event, these little treasures are worth a fortune. In the Bronze Age amethyst is traded along the Amber Roads , the first trade routes of Europe. The main Amber Road is already in operation in the Early Bronze age and was used for many hundreds of years. Amber is only one of the countless items traded on the early Baltic routes, but it's the reason the routes (still) exist. Both carved and faceted items of amethyst command royal prices. Amethyst is a general protector against danger and dangerous situations. It's said to protect against burglars, robbers and thieves. Alchemy: Philosophers' Stone History & Lore Ruby, Rubies: Passion, Blood and Fire Baltic Amber - Gold of the North Theft - a common hobby in many parts of the world In keeping with the belief amethyst protects against drunkenness, artisans carve drinking vessels from the stone. The gemstone is highly valued and crafters are quick to take advantage of demand. Amethyst is used in jewelry, spirituality and as an item of trade. It's the birthstone of February. In Tibet, it's considered the gemstone of the Buddha. Until the 18th century, amethyst is one of the five cardinal, or most valuable, gemstones. Diamond, sapphire, ruby and emerald make up the rest of the group. In Roman times an amethyst amulet is worth a month of wages, or the price of a slave. In the 1700s new amethyst deposits were discovered in South America, and the gem goes from precious to semi-precious. Alchemy: Dyeing Stones to Look Like Gems Carnelian - Sunny Gems of the Ancient World Active Imagination: Creative Therapy Deep purple amethyst may show red or blue tones in the crystals. Again this is due to variations of reflected light. Although amethyst is not as valuable as once it was, the attraction of this gemstone is undeniable. Purple is a color of leaders and kings. In spirituality it represents magic of the night, clarity and personal charisma or allure. Purple amethyst boosts self-confidence and inner strength. When exposed to high temperatures amethyst can change from purple of shades of yellow resembling citrine. Heat alters the chemical compostion of amethyst. Placing the stone in bright sunlight might cause the color to fade altogether. Alternately, amethyst colors can be artificially lightened or darkened. If only part of the stone is exposed to heat, the result is ametrine, combination of purple amethyst with areas of gold, yellow or orange. Chalcedony Gems: Secrets of Silicon Dioxide Women Scientists of the Ancient World Depth Psychology: Search for Meaning Ametrine, Bolivia Collectors value natural crystal and colors. Size is not especially important since many stones carry large geodes. Amethyst is one of the stones, along with diamonds, rubies, emeralds and sapphires, which can be artificially created. Amethyst also occurs more rarely in pink. A lavender variety, Rose de France , has gained popularity due to intensive marketing practices. Amethyst of natural source with deep, vivid violet and purple colors is most desired by collectors. In magic, natural amethyst is recommended in shades from lavender to deep purples depending on purpose. The deeper the purple, the stronger the passion. Paler purples are conducive to harmony. In Victorian times a woman with loose morals is a purple harlot. A wealthy person is said to be 'in the purple'. 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Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (YAG, Y3Al5O12), is a synthetic crystal known for brilliance, scientific properties and versatility. From high-power lasers to phosphors in LED lighting, YAG is treasured on Earth and in space. Yttrium (Y): Rare Earth Element Super-Metal Rare Earth Elements (REEs): Science & Environment Lead Acid Batteries: Uses, Disposal, Pros & Cons Yttrium Aluminum Garnet is made up of yttrium, aluminum, and oxygen. Though synthetic it's part of the garnet family. YAG has a unique crystal structure and comprises various metal cations. The structural properties of YAG can incorporate a range of rare earth elements, adapting to multiple applications. The crystalline form increases YAG’s effectiveness in laser technology. De-Orbiting Satellites: Problems & Processes Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk Survival of Bacteria in the Extremes of Space Composition & Structure Elements yttrium (Y), aluminum (Al), and oxygen (O) form a specific crystal structure. It's a cubic garnet arrangement, giving characteristic hardness and optical transparency. This structured lattice provides sites where other elements can be readily incorporated as dopants, altering its properties. YAG can substitute rare earth ions like neodymium (Nd), erbium (Er), and ytterbium (Yb) in its lattice. An Nd:YAG laser has neodymium as a dopant, operating at a wavelength of 1064 nm, ideal for high-precision applications. Nanotechnology: Nanoscale Power & Progress Aluminum (Al): Metal to the Stars Garnets - Gemstones of Blood and Life YAG is used in laser eye treatment and surgery Properties of YAG High Hardness and Strength: YAG is known for its exceptional hardness and mechanical strength. This makes it resistant to scratching, wear, and thermal shock, making it suitable for harsh environments. High Refractive Index: Its high refractive index allows for efficient light manipulation, vital for applications involving lenses and optical fibers. High Thermal Conductivity: YAG effectively dissipates heat. It's used in for high-power laser systems where efficient heat management is crucial. Optical Transparency: Undoped YAG is transparent in a broad range of wavelengths, from ultraviolet to infrared of the electromagnetic spectrum. This makes it ideal for laser technology. Amethyst - Divine Purple Quartz Gemstone Plants in Space: ISS Microgravity Gardening Compost: Teeming Metropolis of Life & Death YAG can withstand high temperatures, often up to 2000 degrees Celsius, without losing its integrity. YAG has a hardness of 8.5 on the Mohs scale. Its strong cubic crystal structure makes it secure in demanding environments. Chemical Inertness: YAG is chemically inert, meaning it's resistant to corrosion and degradation in most environments. It's stable in acidic or alkaline conditions, suited for high-tech industrial uses. Dopability: The ability to incorporate various dopant ions into the YAG crystal structure is a significant feature. Doping with elements like neodymium (Nd), cerium (Ce), erbium (Er), and ytterbium (Yb) alters its optical and luminescent properties. Robots & Robotics in Modern Healthcare Laser Weapons in Modern Warfare Clean Rooms: Science & Technology Uses of YAG Lasers: Doped YAG crystals are the heart of many solid-state lasers. Nd:YAG lasers, for instance, are widely used in industrial cutting, welding, engraving, and medical procedures like laser eye surgery. Other dopants create lasers emitting different wavelengths for specific applications. YAG laser can treat cataracts and refractive errors. Ongoing research examines YAG's potential in dermatological treatments, such as skin resurfacing and scar removal. LED Lighting: YAG phosphors are essential components in white LED lighting. When doped with cerium (Ce:YAG), YAG converts blue light emitted by a blue LED chip into yellow light. This yellow light, combined with the original blue light, produces white light. Natural Glass Gemstones: Cataclysmic Fusion Sustainable Gardening: Compost & Old Beer Nuclear Energy: Power & Process Scintillators: Doped YAG crystals, especially Ce:YAG, are used as scintillators in high-energy physics, medical imaging, and non-destructive testing. When exposed to ionizing radiation, they emit light proportional to the radiation's intensity, allowing for detection and measurement. High-Power Optics: Undoped YAG is often employed for lenses, windows, and other optical components in high-power laser systems where precise light transmission and thermal management are important. Jewelry: In the gemstone market, synthetic YAG is as a popular alternative to traditional gemstones. Its brilliance and color varieties are great for rings, pendants, with durability and hardness for everyday wear. Spark Plugs: YAG is sometimes used in the production of spark plugs due to its high melting point and resistance to damage. Pioneering German Women - Bertha Benz Akitu Festival: Springtime in Mesopotamia Plants in Space: ISS Microgravity Gardening Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Yttrium (Y), a silvery transition metal, is a member of the rare earth elements (REEs). It's a favored component in technologies, from vibrant television screens to the heat shields of spacecraft. Rare Earth Elements (REEs): Science & Environment Super Alloys in Space Exploration Lead Acid Batteries: Uses, Disposal, Pros & Cons Yttrium Yttrium is important because it can form compounds with many other elements, creating advanced materials needed for modern technology. Yttrium is vital in the manufacture of superalloys used in jet engines. Cosmic Origins Yttrium is heavier than iron. It's created in the hearts of dying stars through nuclear fusion reactions. Primarily, the s-process (slow neutron-capture process) during late stages of stellar evolution creates yttrium. In the s-process, atomic nuclei slowly absorb neutrons. This is followed by beta decay, ultimately building heavier elements like yttrium. Garnets - Gemstones of Blood and Life Sulfuric Acid: Creation, Properties, Health NOx: Air Pollution & Tropospheric Ozone blue stars (young), orange stars (old) and nebula When stars reach their final stages, they expel the elements into space through stellar winds or supernova explosions, seeding the universe. Over time matter contributes to the formation of planets including Earth. Yttrium is usually extracted from rare earth minerals like xenotime and monazite. These minerals contain a range of rare earth elements and the extraction process is complex. Extraction involves mining the ore, Chemical methods are applied to isolate yttrium. Process often includes grinding the ore into fine powder, using various acids or solvents to extract the metal. It's then refined to pure yttrium. Ozone Gas (O3) & the Ozone Layer Electric Vehicles (EVs): Creation & Operation Fossil Fuels: Ecology & Economy Sulfuric acid is often used to leach yttrium from other components Discovery & Naming Discovery of yttrium is in 1794 when chemist Johan Gadolin isolates a new oxide. It comes from a mineral found in a quarry near the town of Ytterby, Sweden. The mineral is later named gadolinite in his honor. Anders Gustav Ekeberg, in 1797, confirms this oxide contains a previously unknown element, which he names yttrium, after the town of Ytterby. Ytterby is abundant in REE discoveries. Four elements (yttrium, ytterbium, terbium, and erbium) are named after it. Ethanol Biofuel: Methods, Pros & Cons Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Bioremediation: Organic Cleanup of Toxins Ytterby mine plaque Scientific Properties & Characteristics Atomic Number: 39 Atomic Weight: 88.90585 u Melting Point: 1526°C (2779°F) Boiling Point: 3341°C (6046°F) Density: 4.47 g/cm³ Crystal Structure: Hexagonal close-packed Reactivity: Yttrium is a relatively reactive metal, readily reacting with oxygen to form yttrium oxide (Y₂O₃). It also reacts with water and acids. Isotopes: Yttrium-89 is the only naturally occurring and stable isotope. Numerous radioactive isotopes, ranging from yttrium-76 to yttrium-88 and yttrium-90 to yttrium-107, have been artificially produced. These radioactive isotopes have varying half-lives and are used in medical and industrial applications. Electron Configuration: [Kr] 4d¹ LED Technology: Yttrium garnets are important in creating high-efficiency light-emitting diodes (LEDs) for energy-efficient lighting. Yttrium’s thermal and electrical conductivity, stability, and resistance to oxidation make it ideal for high-temperature applications. Yttrium's inclusion in Yttrium Iron Garnet (YIG) materials increases their magnetic properties, widely used in microwave devices. Microwave devices include radars, attenuators, filters, circulators, isolators, phase shifters, power limiters, switches, and microwave integrated circuits. Volatile Organic Compounds: Home & Away Ethanol Biofuel: Methods, Pros & Cons Machine Learning (ML) Form & Function Uses on Earth and in Space Yttrium-Stabilized Zirconia (YSZ): This is yttrium's most common use. YSZ is created by adding yttrium oxide to zirconia (zirconium dioxide), which stabilizes the zirconia crystal structure at raised temperatures. The ceramic material can withstand high heat. It's suitable for thermal protection in spacecraft. YSZ is used in thermal barrier coatings of spacecraft, which endure temperatures over 1500°C in re-entry. YSZ is also used in High-Temperature Ceramics: Applications include fuel cell components, oxygen sensors and furnace linings. Dental Implants: Its biocompatibility and strength make it a good material for dental implants. Artificial Intelligence: Technology & Society Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health Plutonium (Pu): Nuclear Weapons & Space Lasers: Yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG), doped with neodymium (Nd:YAG) or erbium (Er:YAG), is used as a gain medium in solid-state lasers. These lasers are used in Medicine: Surgical procedures and cosmetic treatments. Industry: Cutting, welding, and marking materials. Superconductors : Yttrium is used in high heat superconductors like YBCO (Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide). These function in MRI machines and quantum computers. They conduct electricity without resistance at high temperatures. Vehicle Emissions: Environment & Society Earth's Atmosphere: Layers of Dynamic Design Human Microchip Implants: Pros & Cons Red Phosphors Television Screens & Displays: Providing the red component in cathode ray tube (CRT) and other types of displays, although their use is diminishing with the rise of LED and OLED technologies. LED Lighting: Certain yttrium compounds enhance the color rendering index of LED lamps. Medical Radioactive yttrium-90 is used in Radioimmunotherapy: Treating certain types of cancer. Liver Cancer Treatment: Yttrium-90 microspheres are used in selective internal radiation therapy (SIRT) to send radiation directly to liver tumors. FSO: Wireless Transmission By Light Beam Phytoplankton: Environment & Human Health Earth Communication: Satellites, Spacecraft & Astronauts Liver & other organs Market Value & Supply The price of yttrium oxide fluctuates depending on market conditions and purity levels. Price ranges from $20 to $50 / kg. The demand for yttrium is driven by its use in various high-tech applications. For instance, demand for yttrium in hybrid car batteries has surged. Sustainable mining practices for rare earth elements are important, as they become increasingly popular in green technologies. Countries with the Most Yttrium Reserves Yttrium is fairly abundant in the Earth's crust. Economically viable deposits are concentrated in a few countries including China, Vietnam, Australia, Brazil, Russia and India. Plants in Space: ISS Microgravity Gardening Gardening: Grow Beautiful Morning Glories Environment: Lithium-ion Battery Recycling Koala: Australia has many rare earth life forms, and rare earth elements Facts about Yttrium Yttrium is never found as a free element in nature. It always occurs in combination with other elements, primarily in minerals like monazite and xenotime. Isotopes: The most stable isotope of yttrium is Yttrium-89, accounting for almost all naturally occurring yttrium. Other isotopes, like Yttrium-90, are artificially produced and radioactive. Medical: especially suited for bone repair and dental applications, due to compatibility with biological tissues. Yttrium's "rare earth" designation isn't because of its scarcity but rather the difficulty and cost associated with separating it from other similar elements. Nuclear: Yttrium is used in some nuclear reactors for its neutron-absorbing capabilities, improving reactor safety. Industrial Uses: Apart from high-tech applications, yttrium is utilized in manufacturing metal alloys, welding, and even in the production of glass and ceramics. Melanin Pigment: Form & Function in Nature Effects of Extreme Heat on the Human Body Carbon-14 Diamond Battery: Nuclear Power Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top