Search Results

Hydroelectric power generates electricity with the energy of moving water, which is considered a renewable resource. Used for millennia to drive machinery, it now supplies electric power to an ever more crowded world. How Solar Panels Work How Wind Turbines Create Electricity Oil Wars: A Global Power Play About Hydropower Hydropower produces electricity using kinetic energy of water. A dam on a river forms a reservoir. Water collects and is released in controlled amounts. As water flows over the dam and through turbines, it converts kinetic energy into rotational and mechanical energy, to electric. Types of Hydropower Facilities Impoundment Facilities (Dams) These are the most common type, using a dam to create a large reservoir. They can store water and generate electricity on demand, providing a reliable source of power. Water Pollution: Eight Countries in Crisis Flooding of the Nile - Nature & Myth Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP) Run-of-River Facilities These use the natural flow of a river, without a large reservoir. Less injurious to the environment, they generate electricity depending on the river's flow rate but are also less predictable. Pumped Storage Hydropower These systems pump water uphill from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir during periods of low electricity demand, as at night, using surplus energy from other sources. When demand is high, the stored water is released to generate electricity. Ideonella sakaiensis : Plastic-Eating Bacteria Bioremediation: Organic Cleanup of Toxins Tardigrades (Water Bears): Extreme Survivors Process & Components Dam:  Not always necessary, a dam is constructed to create a reservoir, a large body of water. The dam enables controlled release of water. It creates a difference in water level (head), increasing the force of the water. Intake:  This is the opening in the dam or channel to direct water flow toward the powerhouse. Penstock:  A large pipe or tunnel carries the water from the reservoir or river to the turbine. When an object is in motion, it has kinetic energy, which can be converted into various forms of mechanical energy, like rotational motion or work. Mechanical energy includes both kinetic energy (the energy of motion) and potential energy (stored energy). How Spacecraft Produce Water for Astronauts How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Turbine (image below): The heart of the hydropower system. As water rushes through the penstock, it hits the turbine blades. Mechanical energy converts kinetic energy of the water into rotational energy. It's then transformed into electrical energy. Generator : Connected to the turbine, the generator uses electromagnetic induction to convert rotational energy into electrical energy. Mechanical energy spins a magnet (the rotor) in a stationary set of conductive wire windings (the stator). As the rotor turns, it alters the magnetic field in the stator, inducing an electric current flow in the wire. Transformer : Increases the voltage of the electricity so it can be efficiently transmitted over long distances through power lines. Outflow : Water exits the turbine and flows back into the river downstream. Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Abzu - Primal Waters of Creation Joyful Arrival of Hapi in Egypt Hydro & the Environment Hydroelectric dams can produce greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). Emissions are lower than those from fossil fuel power plants. The gases are released when organic matter like vegetation decomposes underwater in the reservoirs. While hydropower is generally considered a low-carbon energy source, emissions from reservoirs can tip the balance. In ancient Egypt, the flooding of the Nile brings fertile silt for crops and an abundance of aquatic life. Water is channeled into reservoirs for later use. The floods are a lifeline and lifestyle in Egypt for millennia. Modern Egypt has a different agenda. After construction of the Aswan High Dam in 1970 the floods stop. Today the Nile River is polluted with industrial toxins, garbage, and is slowly drying up due to climate change and unsustainable water management. How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health Victorian Health: Sea Water Hydrotherapy German Myth: Father Rhine River God Cleaning up the Nile Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Microhydro power is a type of sustainable energy production using water flow. Microhydro systems convert water flow into electricity with minimal environmental impact. Hydroelectric Energy: Power of Moving Water Lead Acid Batteries: Uses, Disposal, Pros & Cons Abzu - Primal Waters of Creation One type of setup How Microhydro Works Microhydro power uses the kinetic energy of moving water. Unlike large-scale hydroelectric dams, microhydro systems are the "run-of-river" type of water power. A microhydro system generating 5 kilowatts can supply power to several homes. The operational efficiencies of microhydro systems support clean energy production and reduce maintenance costs. How Spacecraft Produce Water for Astronauts How Wind Turbines Create Electricity Oil Wars: A Global Power Play engineer working on a microhydro turbine Microhydro Process Water Diversion: A small dam or weir diverts a portion of the river's flow into a pipeline or channel. Head and Penstock: The water flows through the pipeline (penstock) down to a lower elevation, creating "head," which is the vertical distance the water falls. This head is crucial for generating power. Turbine and Generator: The water's force spins a turbine, which is connected to a generator. The generator converts the mechanical energy of the spinning turbine into electricity. Return to the River: The water, having passed through the turbine, is then discharged back into the river, completing the cycle. Enki (Ea) God of Water & Creation Volatile Organic Compounds: Home & Away Biofuels: Creation & the Dark Side community power Unlike fossil fuel-based power plants, microhydro systems produce no direct emissions during the conversion process. Microhydro has several other environmental benefits. Renewable Resource: In many places water is a naturally replenishing resource. Minimal Reservoir Creation: Run-of-river systems require little to no reservoir creation, to minimize flooding and disruption to aquatic ecosystems. Less Noise Pollution: Compared to other power generation methods, microhydro minimizes noise pollution. Improved Water Quality: In some cases, microhydro systems can be designed to improve water quality by increasing oxygen levels as water passes through the turbine. Victorian Health: Sea Water Hydrotherapy Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health Economic Advantages High Efficiency: One reason for the growing interest in microhydro power is its efficiency. Microhydro systems continuously generate energy in differing water flow conditions. Technology behind the systems advances rapidly to improve turbine designs and energy conversion processes. Microhydro systems convert 50-70% of the energy from flowing water into usable electricity. In comparison, larger hydropower plants average 30-50% efficiency. A properly installed microhydro system can provide sufficient power for a small community, which may require just 10-15 kWh a day. Microhydro systems generate power immediately, reducing energy loss associated with storage. This benefits areas where electrical demand fluctuates through the day. Plant Health: Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria Creation of Magnetism in Rocks Plants in Space: ISS Microgravity Gardening Reliable Power Source: Reliability depends on the natural flow of water, which can be predicted with accuracy. Systems can generate electricity during varying water flow rates for a consistent power supply. The decentralized nature of microhydro setups enables localized power generation. This is especially suited for remote or rural areas, where traditional power grids may be unreliable. Cost: While initial investment can be significant, long-term operating costs are low. The absence of fuel costs and minimal maintenance requirements contribute to its cost-effectiveness. Installed systems can cost $1,000 to $5,000 per kilowatt of capacity. Once operational, they need minimal maintenance and can last for over 30 years at a fraction of the cost of traditional electricity. By using a renewable water source users are protected from the volatility of fossil fuel prices. Effects of Extreme Heat on the Human Body Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Mineral Oil: Technology & Ecology Energy Independence: Microhydro can empower communities to be more energy independent, reducing reliance on centralized power grids and fluctuating energy prices. Remote Power: It's great for off gird living and hard to reach areas. Environment: The "run-of-river" approach protects aquatic habitats and maintains ecological balance. In the Philippines, for instance, well-managed microhydro projects are shown to increase local biodiversity and improve water quality. How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health Yttrium (Y): Rare Earth Element Super-Metal Fossil Fuels: Ecology & Economy Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Clean rooms are specialized environments to minimize contaminants like dust, microbes and other particles. They're perfectly controlled to regulate air quality, temperature, humidity and pressure. Space Aerosols: Weather, Health, Ecology Nanotechnology: Nanoscale Power & Progress MLI: Gold & Silver Foil on Spacecraft In semiconductor manufacturing, a single particle can ruin an entire batch of microchips. The global semiconductor market, valued at $626 billion+, relies on clean rooms for product integrity. Clean rooms are essential in nanotechnology , microbiology and many other fields. About Clean Rooms A clean room environment minimizes airborne particles, microbes and other contaminants. Control over air filtration, temperature, humidity and personnel access, creates a sterile space. Cleanliness level of a clean room is classified according to ISO 14644 standards. They specify the maximum allowable concentration of particles of a certain size within a cubic meter of air. Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Semiconductors: Materials, Methods & Markets Bioremediation: Organic Cleanup of Toxins semiconductors form the basis of microchips The lower the ISO class number, the cleaner the environment, ranging from ISO Class 1 to ISO Class 9. Clean rooms might be subject to further government requirements. Microchip Fabrication: Semiconductor manufacturing demands incredibly clean environments. Even microscopic dust particles can disrupt the etching and layering processes, leading to defective microchips. Drug Manufacturing: In sterile pharmaceutical production, clean rooms prevent the introduction of microorganisms that could contaminate drugs, potentially causing life-threatening infections in patients. Medical Device Assembly: The manufacturing of medical devices like implants and surgical tools requires scrupulous cleanliness to avoid introducing contaminants that could cause post-operative complications. Aerospace: Components for satellites and other aerospace systems are often assembled in clean rooms. The US Artemis II spaceship, scheduled to launch to orbit the moon in 2026, is being built in a clean room. Robots and their components are more often created in clean rooms. Even a little dust in the circuits during assembly can wreak havoc. Spacecraft Re-Entry: Atmosphere & Aerosols Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space Survival of Bacteria in the Extremes of Space Preparing & Maintaining the Clean Room Air Filtration Systems High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filters are used for air quality. The filters remove at least 99.97% of particles 0.3 micrometers in diameter. Ultra-Low Penetration Air (ULPA) filters offer more stringent filtration. Airflow patterns are carefully designed to prevent particle accumulation. Laminar or unidirectional airflow systems are preferred, ensuring a constant flow of filtered air to sweep contaminants away from critical areas. Room Design and Materials Clean room construction prioritizes smooth, non-shedding and non-porous materials. Walls and floors coated with epoxy or polyurethane prevent particle generation and facilitate cleaning. Seams and joints are sealed. Airlocks at entrances help minimize the transfer of contaminants when personnel move in and out. Pass-through chambers are used to transfer materials without compromising the room's integrity. Surfaces must be easy to clean and able to endure regular disinfection. Hospitals often use stainless steel, prized for durability and sterile potential, to construct surgical clean rooms. Earth's Atmosphere: Layers of Dynamic Design Carbon Steel: Origins, Composition & Uses Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP) surgery robots Personnel Humans are a constant source of contamination, leading to increased use of robotics. Clean room protocol defines attire including gowns, masks, gloves, hair and shoe covers, to contain shed skin cells and other particles. Strict hygiene practices like frequent hand washing and specialized gowning procedures are enforced. Limited access to and movement within the clean room also minimize introduction of contaminants. Cleaning & Disinfection Regular thorough cleaning and disinfection maintain clean room standards. Specific cleaning products remove particulate matter and microorganisms. Cleaning schedules are documented, and personnel trained in techniques. Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials Artificial Intelligence: Technology & Society Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Monitoring and Control Continuous monitoring ensures the clean room maintains its required cleanliness level. Particle counters measure concentration of airborne elements. Regular air and surface sampling can detect presence of microorganisms. Temperature, humidity, and pressure differentials are carefully monitored and controlled. Equipment failures or human errors can introduce contaminants. For instance, a minor drain problem in a clean room led can introduce significant contamination and work is lost. Environmental factors complicate clean room maintenance. Weather changes affect air conditioning systems and elevate humidity levels. Systems are constantly tested to improve clean room stability. Smart technology integrates sensors and data analytics to optimize clean room performance. Modular and adaptable clean room designs continue to develop and can be reconfigured as needed. Human Microchip Implants: Pros & Cons Genetic Engineering: Biotechnology of Change Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Chinese alchemy is already in practice in the early centuries BCE. Ancient texts like the Cantong qi explain the body is central to cosmological processes represented by the five agents of change, or Wuxing. Pill of Immortality: Chinese Alchemy Nüwa: Chinese Primordial Snake Goddess Anqi Sheng & the Elixir of Immortality Water Wheel with Bamboo By observing and nurturing the processes, practitioners aim for alignment and harmony with the Dao (Tao). Consequently, the traditional belief in Chinese alchemy focuses on promoting longevity and purifying spirit, mind, and body. This pursuit of health, longevity, and wisdom is explored through practices like Qigong and wuxingheqidao. Alchemical medicines or elixirs are consumed for various purposes, often associated with immortality. Magic of the Circle: Spirituality & Lore Immortal - Quest for the Elixir of Life Ambrosia: Divine Nectar & Immortal Gods The Eight Immortals Crossing the Sea - their longevity comes from the Peaches of Immortality Pao zhi is also known as Processing in Traditional Chinese Medicine. Pao zhi uses techniques like honey or wine frying, as well as roasting with substances like mercury, lead, and arsenic. Daoism consists of two main components. These are classical mystical Daojia, which originates with Laozi and Zhuangzi; and the popular, magical, and alchemical aspect known as Daojiao. Classical Daojia is more austere, while Daojiao is practiced by the people. Jade - Jadeite, Nephrite & Jade Roads Fuxi: Chinese Primordial Emperor God Women Scientists of the Ancient World Despite unclear beginnings there are sufficient similarities in concepts and practices of alchemy and the Daoist belief system to suggest this tradition originates with Laozi and Zhang Daoling. Refusing to serve the Emperor, Zhang Daoling retreats to the mountains. During this time, he encounters Laozi in deified form. Together they endeavor to develop the Elixir of Life, by formulating the principles necessary for creating such an elixir. Synchronicity: Psychology of Coincidence Alchemy & Psychology: Hidden Meanings Anima & Animus: Gender Archetypes Laozi warns him plagues, beasts, and the demons of the Three Offices and Six Heavens of the underworld are to be released upon humankind. Only 240,000 people will be chosen as survivors and "seed people" to populate the new age, the era of Great Peace. Zhang undertakes a mission to reform Chinese religion and stop animal sacrifices. He gains many followers. Unus Mundus One World: Psychology Spiritual Alchemy: Touching the Divine Wolfsbane (Aconitum) Ancient Poisons Founder of Daosim, Zhang Daoling is often shown riding a tiger The Chinese alchemical tradition aims for immortality. Early evidence of Chinese alchemy openly discussed is during the First Emperor period. The first Qin emperor unites the Warring States, and dies of the Elixir of Life . Western Han writer Huan Kuan (73-49 BCE) states modifying and ingesting forms of nature will bring immortality. This idea relates to primordial god Shennong, who teaches humans herbology. He has a transparent stomach and eats up to 70 experimental poisons a day. Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Quest for Immortality - Qin Shi Huang Shennong Primordial Farmer & Healer Shennong, also known as the Divine Farmer, munches on herbs Before Huan Kuan, the purpose of alchemy is to turn base metals to gold. It's in practice by 144 BCE, when the Emperor orders public execution for anyone making counterfeit gold. The reason for making fake gold originates in the quest for chrysopoeia. Alchemists posit they can come closer to the formula for real gold by making artificial gold first. Fake gold is a counterfeiter's dream. Gold - Precious Metal of the Sun Mandalas: Psychology & Art Therapy Depth Psychology: Search for Meaning The concept of yin-yang pervades Chinese alchemical theory. Metals are categorized as being male (for instance sulfur, sun) or female (mercury, moon). It has many similarities to Western alchemy - properties of elements; gold creation; longevity or immortality. Relating to eternal life, mercury is said to flow like rivers in the gardens of the First Qin Emperor's tomb. Mercury: Miracle Metal of Madness Baltic Amber - Gold of the North Quintessence: Elemental Life Force This first Western contact with China is an ancient Roman excursion c. 166 AD, just as the Greco-Roman Alexandrian school of alchemy rises into a Golden Age . By this time alchemy in China is already established. Prior to Taoist tradition, the Chinese have definitive notions of the natural world's processes and changes. The wu xing is fundamental to the practice of alchemy and life. These are the fire Chinese elements: Water, Fire, Earth, Metal and Wood. Alchemy: Four Elements + The One Egyptian Alchemy - Power of Eternity Yellow River Civilization: Ancient China Wu Xing (wuxing) - Five Phases or Elements Mutable and interchangeable, each element is capable of becoming another. The concept is integral, as belief in outer alchemy necessitates belief in the transformative powers of the natural elements. The cyclical balance of elements relates to interaction of yin-yang. The term waidan originates from the combination of wai (meaning outside or exterior) and dan , which refers to alchemical procedures involving the preparation of chemical elixirs. Chamomile - Herbology & Folklore Herbs & Natural Remedies - Ancient Egypt Colors of Alchemy: Rubedo Magnum Opus In Traditional Chinese Medicine, extracts of the rose are used to regulate Qi or life force. Elixirs use such ingredients as cinnabar , realgar, mercury, sulfur, lead , and arsenic , as well as animal and botanical products commonly used in Chinese herbology and Traditional Chinese medicine. Outer Alchemy: Waidan Waidan encompasses practices associated with the creation of elixirs often containing herbal or chemical components external to the body. This process is clandestine and complex. Soy Sauce: A Cultural Culinary Odyssey Arsenic: Murderous Metal & Miracle Cure Numerology: Number Meanings & Personality It involves secret oral instructions, establishing a laboratory, igniting and maintaining fires required for production. The practitioner must follow guidelines for isolation and purification, and engage in various rituals aimed at safeguarding the alchemist and workspace. Waidan may involve a specific diet which prohibits certain foods. The preparation of medicines and elixirs can be considered external practices or waidan because these activities take place outside the body. Rise of Pan: Fertility Goat God Péh₂usōn Magic Numbers: Roots of Numerology Sirius the Dog Star: Stellar Mythology Asian herbal health shop Ingestion of medicines, herbs, and pills leads to physical transformations inside the body. These are distinct from spiritual changes. Inner Alchemy: Neidan The term Neidan consists of two parts: Nei, referring to the inner aspect, and Dan, encompassing alchemy, elixir, and cinnabar (mercury). Neidan encompasses a range of practices including structured meditation, visualization, breathing and physical postures. Psychology: the Conscious Ego of Self Alchemy: Processes Used by Alchemists Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy The breathing techniques are designed to preserve jing, or "life essence," while the physical poses are intended to improve the circulation of qi, or "energy," throughout the body. Neidan incorporates concepts from Traditional Chinese Medicine to produce the elixir. Inner alchemy concentrates on purifying substances that are naturally found in the body, with a special emphasis on the "Three Treasures." Spagyria: Botanical Science of Alchemy Fairy Rings, Moon & Nature Magic Spiritual Magic - Numbers Three & Nine The three treasures are: Jing ("life essence"). Jing is inherent at birth and regulates the body's growth processes. It is believed that by following specific dietary and lifestyle practices, individuals can enhance their Jing, which they are born with in a set quantity. Qi ("energy" or "vital energy"). Qi energy results from the interaction of yin and yang. A healthy body is constantly circulating Qi. Shen ("spirit", "mind" or "spiritual energy"). Shen is the energy used in mental, spiritual and creative functions. Chinese Alchemical Elixir Poisoning Reishi or Lingzhi - Mushroom Magic Chun Yuyan & Death of Empress Xu The three treasures are linked to specific areas within the body where the alchemical transformation occurs. These include the key organs and energy focal points known as dantians. The lower dantian or abdominal region is the primary center where jing is transformed to qi The middle dantian or heart center governs the transformation of qi into shen The upper dantian or head center governs the transformation of shen back into wuji or infinite space. Collective Unconscious: Seeking the Whole Alchemy Symbols in Psychology Classic Elements & Concept of the One Chinese Medicines Medications can be used internally or externally. They can be taken to manage the aging process, and even to stave off death. The terms medicine and elixir are essentially interchangeable due to their broad impact on various health conditions. What distinguishes an elixir from a medicine is that many medicines were primarily made from natural ingredients such as herbs and animal products. Animal byproducts like dung or fur are used, but not the animals themselves. Ge Hong: Teachings Alchemy Medicine Archetypes - Personality & the Persona 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life While metal compounds are more effective in treating illnesses, herbs are preferred for their ease of combination and widespread availability. Common ingredients in medicinal preparations include Reynoutria or Asian knotweed, often found in longevity formulas. Others include asparagus, valued for strength-boosting properties; sesame, which helps prevent aging; and pine, with a wide range of applications. Mushrooms, particularly the Lingzhi (Ganoderma), are popular in Chinese alchemy. Reishi or Lingzhi - Mushroom Magic Is Cherry Laurel Poisonous? Honey Mead: Most Ancient Ambrosia Lingzhi (Ganoderma) or Reishi Mushroom Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Tardigrades are micro-animals also called water bears or moss piglets, often found in water drops on moss. Known for resilience, they can also happily survive in extreme environments deadly for most life forms. How Bacteria Survive a Nuclear Explosion Survival of Bacteria in the Extremes of Space How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health These tiny invertebrates are beloved by biologists and science students for their easy availability and ability to return to a state of life after being fully dehydrated and rehydrated. It's only one of their talents. Tardigrades are ancient creatures with history dating back over 500 million years, to the Cambrian period. They predate the dinosaurs and survive environmental upheaval and multiple mass extinctions. Yeast: Microbiology of Bread & Food Making Kimchi: Microbes, Acids & Fermentation Biofilm Communities: Metropolitan Microbes Cosmopolitan dwellers, tardigrades are found almost everywhere on Earth. They exist in icy peaks and deep ocean trenches, tropical rainforests and suburban back yards. They're most common in moist environments like moss, lichen, soil and leaf litter, where they can easily access water and nutrients. They're often present in the moisture film on plant leaves. Vermicompost: Composting with Worms Secret Life of Rust: Power of Bacteria Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life The plump, segmented body of a tardigrade is usually less than a millimeter long. The animals belong to phylum Tardigrada , or "slow stepper," describing their characteristic lumbering gaits. Under a microscope, they resemble eight-legged bears with little claws. Named Kleiner Wasserbär (Little Water Bear) by their discoverer, they have an innate charm contributing to their prevalence in popular culture. Their body structure features a tough cuticle to protect them like armor. When the going gets tough, Tardigrada enter a state of cryptobiosis. They essentially pause their metabolism. Acetate in Nature: Vital Functions & Health Spores & Yeast: Saccharomyces cerevisiae Predators of the Microworld: Vampirovibrio  & Lysobacter Basic Biology and Life Cycle A tardigrade has a simple body plan. Its a mouth is equipped with piercing stylets used to suck fluids from plant cells, algae, or even small invertebrates. Its digestive system consists of intestine and anus. It breathes through its skin. Tardigrades lack circulatory or respiratory systems. Reproduction in tardigrades can be sexual or asexual, depending on the species and environmental conditions. The life cycle of tardigrades consists of four stages: egg, larva, juvenile, and adult. Females lay eggs, which are fertilized or develop without fertilization. Fungal Biofilms: Ecology of Biofilm-Producing Molds Stylonychia: Wonderful World of Ciliates Cupriavidus metallidurans : Metal Eating Gold Making Bacterium Tardigrade eggs encased in a protective casing or cuticle The eggs are deposited in a protective casing, shielding them from environmental stresses while they develop. On hatching, the larvae look like miniature adults and molt several times before reaching maturity. Reproductive methods vary among species. While many use sexual reproduction, some can reproduce asexually through parthenogenesis, allowing them to thrive even in isolation. The life cycle of a tardigrade ranges from a few months to over a year. Super Alloys in Space Exploration Plutonium (Pu): Nuclear Weapons & Space Agriculture: Calvin Cycle in Photosynthesis tardigrade under electron microscope Secrets to Survival: Tun State Tardigrades enter a state of suspended animation called the "tun" state. When faced with conditions like dehydration, extreme temperatures, radiation, or lack of oxygen, the tardigrade retracts its head and legs. It shrivels up into a tiny, dehydrated ball, and reduces its metabolic activity to almost zero. Great Bear - Nature, Spirituality & Lore The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris tun state In this state, tardigrades can withstand: Extreme Temperatures: From near absolute zero (-273°C) to over 150°C (302°F). Extreme Pressure: Over 6 times the pressure found in the deepest ocean trenches. Radiation: Hundreds of times the lethal dose for humans. Dehydration: Years without water. Vacuum of Space: Exposure to the harsh conditions of outer space. During the European Space Agency’s FOTON-M3 mission in 2007, tardigrades are exposed to the stresses of outer space for ten days and most return unharmed. They soon produce viable embryos. Kotharat - Bronze Age Birth Goddesses Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes: Life Forms on Earth Microbial Reproduction: Mitosis & Meiosis European Space Agency conducts microbe experiments on the International Space Station They can also repair their own DNA after radiation damage. Exact mechanisms behind their survival abilities are largely unknown. They include proteins to protect DNA and cell structures. Synthesis of trehalose, a sugar which prevents crystallization during dehydration, is also considered a factor. Tardigrades in Popular Culture The impressive resilience of tardigrades has made them a popular subject in science fiction and popular culture. They appear across media, including documentaries, cartoons and video games. Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space Silicon (Si): Fueling the Robot Apocalypse Nickel (Ni): Metallurgy Facts & Folklore Ant-Man & Tardigrade - artist mockup 2016 Ant-Man: In the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Ant-Man uses a size-altering disc to grow a tardigrade to giant size, which he then rides. Star Trek: Discovery: The series features a tardigrade as a key component of a new starship propulsion system. "Adventure Time" features a character named Tardigrade, who embodies the creature’s tenacity and adaptability in the broad scope of overcoming life's challenges. Astrobiology Scientists enthuse about tardigrades in astrobiology. The resilience of tardigrades tweaks hope for the potential of life beyond Earth. What Robots Need to Function & Survive Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials How Solar Panels Work Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

One of the crystals known since ancient times, amethyst holds it own characteristics, magic and myth. Purple is hard to get ancient times, thus a desirable color for the flaunting of wealth. Sapphire Gemstones: Colors, Myths, Origins & Gemology Garnets - Gemstones of Blood and Life Alchemy: How to Make Emerald from Quartz Amethyst gem is clear quartz rock crystal with inclusions of iron or other material, causing absorption of yellow or green light. Purple, a mix of blue and red, is the reflected light the human eye beholds. Coloring can vary from pale to deep and intense, ranging from pinkish purple and purple blues to deep violet. This stunning stone relates to divinity and the divine connection. In spirituality it cleanses sources of blocked chakra energy and aids the flow of beneficial elements in spiritual or physical life. Amethyst is used in meditation to rise above mortal worries and achieve enlightenment. Seven Precious Stones of the Ancient World Rhinestones: Sparkling Treasures of the Rhine Natural Purple Dyes: Ancient & Medieval Amethyst Gemstone with facets in Teardrop Shape Use of amethyst is first recorded among the Egyptians, as a precious gem. It's found in royal tombs. An ancient amethyst mine is Wadi el-Hudi, a river valley in the south of Egypt, which can still be seen today. The name amethyst comes from the Greek meaning to "not intoxicate". Ancient Greeks and Romans believe amethyst protects its owner from drunkenness, and maintains clarity of thought. Amethyst is associated with Dionysus, Greek god of wine, theater and madness. Dionysus is equated with Roman Bacchus, fertility and wine god, in whose honor the Bacchanalia are held. Bacchanale, an orgiastic type of music, is named for this celebration. Amethyst brooches, rings and beads are popular among the wealthy. Stone carvers show off their skills, resulting in beautiful work of the period. Like its mother stone quartz, amethyst is a crystalline gem and hard to carve due to breakage. Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (YAG): Crystal Tech Asteria - Starry Gems of Myth & Magic Gold - Precious Metal of the Sun Carved Roman Pendant Going into battle the Romans wear or carry amethyst to keep the senses clear and maintain a calm state of mind. For those who clean up the battlefield after the main event, these little treasures are worth a fortune. In the Bronze Age amethyst is traded along the Amber Roads , the first trade routes of Europe. The main Amber Road is already in operation in the Early Bronze age and was used for many hundreds of years. Amber is only one of the countless items traded on the early Baltic routes, but it's the reason the routes (still) exist. Both carved and faceted items of amethyst command royal prices. Amethyst is a general protector against danger and dangerous situations. It's said to protect against burglars, robbers and thieves. Alchemy: Philosophers' Stone History & Lore Ruby, Rubies: Passion, Blood and Fire Baltic Amber - Gold of the North Theft - a common hobby in many parts of the world In keeping with the belief amethyst protects against drunkenness, artisans carve drinking vessels from the stone. The gemstone is highly valued and crafters are quick to take advantage of demand. Amethyst is used in jewelry, spirituality and as an item of trade. It's the birthstone of February. In Tibet, it's considered the gemstone of the Buddha. Until the 18th century, amethyst is one of the five cardinal, or most valuable, gemstones. Diamond, sapphire, ruby and emerald make up the rest of the group. In Roman times an amethyst amulet is worth a month of wages, or the price of a slave. In the 1700s new amethyst deposits were discovered in South America, and the gem goes from precious to semi-precious. Alchemy: Dyeing Stones to Look Like Gems Carnelian - Sunny Gems of the Ancient World Active Imagination: Creative Therapy Deep purple amethyst may show red or blue tones in the crystals. Again this is due to variations of reflected light. Although amethyst is not as valuable as once it was, the attraction of this gemstone is undeniable. Purple is a color of leaders and kings. In spirituality it represents magic of the night, clarity and personal charisma or allure. Purple amethyst boosts self-confidence and inner strength. When exposed to high temperatures amethyst can change from purple of shades of yellow resembling citrine. Heat alters the chemical compostion of amethyst. Placing the stone in bright sunlight might cause the color to fade altogether. Alternately, amethyst colors can be artificially lightened or darkened. If only part of the stone is exposed to heat, the result is ametrine, combination of purple amethyst with areas of gold, yellow or orange. Chalcedony Gems: Secrets of Silicon Dioxide Women Scientists of the Ancient World Depth Psychology: Search for Meaning Ametrine, Bolivia Collectors value natural crystal and colors. Size is not especially important since many stones carry large geodes. Amethyst is one of the stones, along with diamonds, rubies, emeralds and sapphires, which can be artificially created. Amethyst also occurs more rarely in pink. A lavender variety, Rose de France , has gained popularity due to intensive marketing practices. Amethyst of natural source with deep, vivid violet and purple colors is most desired by collectors. In magic, natural amethyst is recommended in shades from lavender to deep purples depending on purpose. The deeper the purple, the stronger the passion. Paler purples are conducive to harmony. In Victorian times a woman with loose morals is a purple harlot. A wealthy person is said to be 'in the purple'. Natural Glass Gemstones: Cataclysmic Fusion Angel of Violet Light: Magnum Opus Alchemy Elderberry Tree: Germanic Nature Lore In the Purple Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (YAG, Y3Al5O12), is a synthetic crystal known for brilliance, scientific properties and versatility. From high-power lasers to phosphors in LED lighting, YAG is treasured on Earth and in space. Yttrium (Y): Rare Earth Element Super-Metal Rare Earth Elements (REEs): Science & Environment Lead Acid Batteries: Uses, Disposal, Pros & Cons Yttrium Aluminum Garnet is made up of yttrium, aluminum, and oxygen. Though synthetic it's part of the garnet family. YAG has a unique crystal structure and comprises various metal cations. The structural properties of YAG can incorporate a range of rare earth elements, adapting to multiple applications. The crystalline form increases YAG’s effectiveness in laser technology. De-Orbiting Satellites: Problems & Processes Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk Survival of Bacteria in the Extremes of Space Composition & Structure Elements yttrium (Y), aluminum (Al), and oxygen (O) form a specific crystal structure. It's a cubic garnet arrangement, giving characteristic hardness and optical transparency. This structured lattice provides sites where other elements can be readily incorporated as dopants, altering its properties. YAG can substitute rare earth ions like neodymium (Nd), erbium (Er), and ytterbium (Yb) in its lattice. An Nd:YAG laser has neodymium as a dopant, operating at a wavelength of 1064 nm, ideal for high-precision applications. Nanotechnology: Nanoscale Power & Progress Aluminum (Al): Metal to the Stars Garnets - Gemstones of Blood and Life YAG is used in laser eye treatment and surgery Properties of YAG High Hardness and Strength: YAG is known for its exceptional hardness and mechanical strength. This makes it resistant to scratching, wear, and thermal shock, making it suitable for harsh environments. High Refractive Index: Its high refractive index allows for efficient light manipulation, vital for applications involving lenses and optical fibers. High Thermal Conductivity: YAG effectively dissipates heat. It's used in for high-power laser systems where efficient heat management is crucial. Optical Transparency: Undoped YAG is transparent in a broad range of wavelengths, from ultraviolet to infrared of the electromagnetic spectrum. This makes it ideal for laser technology. Amethyst - Divine Purple Quartz Gemstone Plants in Space: ISS Microgravity Gardening Compost: Teeming Metropolis of Life & Death YAG can withstand high temperatures, often up to 2000 degrees Celsius, without losing its integrity. YAG has a hardness of 8.5 on the Mohs scale. Its strong cubic crystal structure makes it secure in demanding environments. Chemical Inertness: YAG is chemically inert, meaning it's resistant to corrosion and degradation in most environments. It's stable in acidic or alkaline conditions, suited for high-tech industrial uses. Dopability: The ability to incorporate various dopant ions into the YAG crystal structure is a significant feature. Doping with elements like neodymium (Nd), cerium (Ce), erbium (Er), and ytterbium (Yb) alters its optical and luminescent properties. Robots & Robotics in Modern Healthcare Laser Weapons in Modern Warfare Clean Rooms: Science & Technology Uses of YAG Lasers: Doped YAG crystals are the heart of many solid-state lasers. Nd:YAG lasers, for instance, are widely used in industrial cutting, welding, engraving, and medical procedures like laser eye surgery. Other dopants create lasers emitting different wavelengths for specific applications. YAG laser can treat cataracts and refractive errors. Ongoing research examines YAG's potential in dermatological treatments, such as skin resurfacing and scar removal. LED Lighting: YAG phosphors are essential components in white LED lighting. When doped with cerium (Ce:YAG), YAG converts blue light emitted by a blue LED chip into yellow light. This yellow light, combined with the original blue light, produces white light. Natural Glass Gemstones: Cataclysmic Fusion Sustainable Gardening: Compost & Old Beer Nuclear Energy: Power & Process Scintillators: Doped YAG crystals, especially Ce:YAG, are used as scintillators in high-energy physics, medical imaging, and non-destructive testing. When exposed to ionizing radiation, they emit light proportional to the radiation's intensity, allowing for detection and measurement. High-Power Optics: Undoped YAG is often employed for lenses, windows, and other optical components in high-power laser systems where precise light transmission and thermal management are important. Jewelry: In the gemstone market, synthetic YAG is as a popular alternative to traditional gemstones. Its brilliance and color varieties are great for rings, pendants, with durability and hardness for everyday wear. Spark Plugs: YAG is sometimes used in the production of spark plugs due to its high melting point and resistance to damage. Pioneering German Women - Bertha Benz Akitu Festival: Springtime in Mesopotamia Plants in Space: ISS Microgravity Gardening Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Yttrium (Y), a silvery transition metal, is a member of the rare earth elements (REEs). It's a favored component in technologies, from vibrant television screens to the heat shields of spacecraft. Rare Earth Elements (REEs): Science & Environment Super Alloys in Space Exploration Lead Acid Batteries: Uses, Disposal, Pros & Cons Yttrium Yttrium is important because it can form compounds with many other elements, creating advanced materials needed for modern technology. Yttrium is vital in the manufacture of superalloys used in jet engines. Cosmic Origins Yttrium is heavier than iron. It's created in the hearts of dying stars through nuclear fusion reactions. Primarily, the s-process (slow neutron-capture process) during late stages of stellar evolution creates yttrium. In the s-process, atomic nuclei slowly absorb neutrons. This is followed by beta decay, ultimately building heavier elements like yttrium. Garnets - Gemstones of Blood and Life Sulfuric Acid: Creation, Properties, Health NOx: Air Pollution & Tropospheric Ozone blue stars (young), orange stars (old) and nebula When stars reach their final stages, they expel the elements into space through stellar winds or supernova explosions, seeding the universe. Over time matter contributes to the formation of planets including Earth. Yttrium is usually extracted from rare earth minerals like xenotime and monazite. These minerals contain a range of rare earth elements and the extraction process is complex. Extraction involves mining the ore, Chemical methods are applied to isolate yttrium. Process often includes grinding the ore into fine powder, using various acids or solvents to extract the metal. It's then refined to pure yttrium. Ozone Gas (O3) & the Ozone Layer Electric Vehicles (EVs): Creation & Operation Fossil Fuels: Ecology & Economy Sulfuric acid is often used to leach yttrium from other components Discovery & Naming Discovery of yttrium is in 1794 when chemist Johan Gadolin isolates a new oxide. It comes from a mineral found in a quarry near the town of Ytterby, Sweden. The mineral is later named gadolinite in his honor. Anders Gustav Ekeberg, in 1797, confirms this oxide contains a previously unknown element, which he names yttrium, after the town of Ytterby. Ytterby is abundant in REE discoveries. Four elements (yttrium, ytterbium, terbium, and erbium) are named after it. Ethanol Biofuel: Methods, Pros & Cons Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Bioremediation: Organic Cleanup of Toxins Ytterby mine plaque Scientific Properties & Characteristics Atomic Number: 39 Atomic Weight: 88.90585 u Melting Point: 1526°C (2779°F) Boiling Point: 3341°C (6046°F) Density: 4.47 g/cm³ Crystal Structure: Hexagonal close-packed Reactivity: Yttrium is a relatively reactive metal, readily reacting with oxygen to form yttrium oxide (Y₂O₃). It also reacts with water and acids. Isotopes: Yttrium-89 is the only naturally occurring and stable isotope. Numerous radioactive isotopes, ranging from yttrium-76 to yttrium-88 and yttrium-90 to yttrium-107, have been artificially produced. These radioactive isotopes have varying half-lives and are used in medical and industrial applications. Electron Configuration: [Kr] 4d¹ LED Technology: Yttrium garnets are important in creating high-efficiency light-emitting diodes (LEDs) for energy-efficient lighting. Yttrium’s thermal and electrical conductivity, stability, and resistance to oxidation make it ideal for high-temperature applications. Yttrium's inclusion in Yttrium Iron Garnet (YIG) materials increases their magnetic properties, widely used in microwave devices. Microwave devices include radars, attenuators, filters, circulators, isolators, phase shifters, power limiters, switches, and microwave integrated circuits. Volatile Organic Compounds: Home & Away Ethanol Biofuel: Methods, Pros & Cons Machine Learning (ML) Form & Function Uses on Earth and in Space Yttrium-Stabilized Zirconia (YSZ): This is yttrium's most common use. YSZ is created by adding yttrium oxide to zirconia (zirconium dioxide), which stabilizes the zirconia crystal structure at raised temperatures. The ceramic material can withstand high heat. It's suitable for thermal protection in spacecraft. YSZ is used in thermal barrier coatings of spacecraft, which endure temperatures over 1500°C in re-entry. YSZ is also used in High-Temperature Ceramics: Applications include fuel cell components, oxygen sensors and furnace linings. Dental Implants: Its biocompatibility and strength make it a good material for dental implants. Artificial Intelligence: Technology & Society Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health Plutonium (Pu): Nuclear Weapons & Space Lasers: Yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG), doped with neodymium (Nd:YAG) or erbium (Er:YAG), is used as a gain medium in solid-state lasers. These lasers are used in Medicine: Surgical procedures and cosmetic treatments. Industry: Cutting, welding, and marking materials. Superconductors : Yttrium is used in high heat superconductors like YBCO (Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide). These function in MRI machines and quantum computers. They conduct electricity without resistance at high temperatures. Vehicle Emissions: Environment & Society Earth's Atmosphere: Layers of Dynamic Design Human Microchip Implants: Pros & Cons Red Phosphors Television Screens & Displays: Providing the red component in cathode ray tube (CRT) and other types of displays, although their use is diminishing with the rise of LED and OLED technologies. LED Lighting: Certain yttrium compounds enhance the color rendering index of LED lamps. Medical Radioactive yttrium-90 is used in Radioimmunotherapy: Treating certain types of cancer. Liver Cancer Treatment: Yttrium-90 microspheres are used in selective internal radiation therapy (SIRT) to send radiation directly to liver tumors. FSO: Wireless Transmission By Light Beam Phytoplankton: Environment & Human Health Earth Communication: Satellites, Spacecraft & Astronauts Liver & other organs Market Value & Supply The price of yttrium oxide fluctuates depending on market conditions and purity levels. Price ranges from $20 to $50 / kg. The demand for yttrium is driven by its use in various high-tech applications. For instance, demand for yttrium in hybrid car batteries has surged. Sustainable mining practices for rare earth elements are important, as they become increasingly popular in green technologies. Countries with the Most Yttrium Reserves Yttrium is fairly abundant in the Earth's crust. Economically viable deposits are concentrated in a few countries including China, Vietnam, Australia, Brazil, Russia and India. Plants in Space: ISS Microgravity Gardening Gardening: Grow Beautiful Morning Glories Environment: Lithium-ion Battery Recycling Koala: Australia has many rare earth life forms, and rare earth elements Facts about Yttrium Yttrium is never found as a free element in nature. It always occurs in combination with other elements, primarily in minerals like monazite and xenotime. Isotopes: The most stable isotope of yttrium is Yttrium-89, accounting for almost all naturally occurring yttrium. Other isotopes, like Yttrium-90, are artificially produced and radioactive. Medical: especially suited for bone repair and dental applications, due to compatibility with biological tissues. Yttrium's "rare earth" designation isn't because of its scarcity but rather the difficulty and cost associated with separating it from other similar elements. Nuclear: Yttrium is used in some nuclear reactors for its neutron-absorbing capabilities, improving reactor safety. Industrial Uses: Apart from high-tech applications, yttrium is utilized in manufacturing metal alloys, welding, and even in the production of glass and ceramics. Melanin Pigment: Form & Function in Nature Effects of Extreme Heat on the Human Body Carbon-14 Diamond Battery: Nuclear Power Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Spacecraft re-entering Earth's atmosphere must navigate intense heat and friction. Primary defenses against burning up include heat shields, design, trajectory and controlled deceleration. Spacecraft Graveyard of the South Pacific Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk How Spacecraft Produce Water for Astronauts Spacecraft travel at speeds of 25,000 km/h (16,000 mph) on reentry. Friction between spacecraft and air molecules generates heat of 1650°C (3000°F). Some materials, like tungsten , can take the heat but most burn up. Ballistic missiles also leave the earth's atmosphere and re-enter. At the beginning a missile's trajectory well defined. In heavier layers of atmosphere it's increasingly influenced by gravity and aerodynamic drag. Heat Shields The heat shield is positioned on the leading end of the spacecraft. This protective layer bear the brunt of friction and resulting heat. Ablative Shields: As the shield encounters extreme temperatures, the outer layer vaporizes, carrying heat away from the spacecraft. Apollo spacecraft used a phenolic resin-based material, which carbonized and vaporized. Such shields were used on the Vostok, Voskhod, Mercury, Gemini and Apollo spacecraft, and are currently used by deep-space Orion (NASA), and Soyuz, a series of Russian craft from the 1960s to present day. Carbon phenolic is the most used heat shield in spacecraft today. De-Orbiting Satellites: Problems & Processes CubeSats: Science, Technology & Risky Business Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back Reusable Heat Shields: Space Shuttle orbiters, before discontinuation, use shields made from thousands of ceramic tiles. The lightweight tiles radiate heat away from the spacecraft. Details: Much of the orbiter's exterior is air trapped within nearly pure silica fibers. This refractory insulation absorbs and redirects heat back into the atmosphere. These tiles are coated with silicon borides and borosilicate glass, with darker tiles on the lower surface. Lighter tiles are on the tail, parts of the upper wing, crew cabin surfaces, and the exterior of the payload bay doors. The nose cap, nose landing gear doors, and leading edges are made of reinforced carbon-carbon, which is rayon infused with graphite-filled resins and coated with silicon carbide. Upper, white areas not covered by tiles are mainly made from either Nomex felt coated with silicon-rich elastomer or beta cloth, which is woven silica fibers covered in Teflon. Missiles keep their warheads in a re-entry vehicle to protect them from burnup. The craft uses different shield types depending on its manufacture. Blunt Body Shape A spacecraft has blunt, rounded front. The shape makes a shockwave ahead of the vehicle to compress and heat the air before it contacts the spacecraft itself. Heat is concentrated in the air around the shockwave, not directly on the shield. Solar Panels & Batteries in Space How Spacecraft Produce Water for Astronauts Lithium (Li): Science, Health & Uses Trajectory Management Mission planners calculate the re-entry trajectory to optimize safety and control. Factors include: Atmospheric Conditions: density and composition of the atmosphere varies depending on altitude and weather. Target Landing Site: trajectory must be precisely calculated to be sure the spacecraft lands in the designated zone. "Angle of Attack" The angle at which the spacecraft enters the atmosphere is called the angle of attack, and it's carefully controlled. A steeper angle causes faster deceleration and higher heat. Shallower angles enable a slower descent. Controlled Deceleration Slowing down the spacecraft reduces kinetic energy. Atmospheric Braking: This uses the atmosphere to slow the spacecraft. By adjusting the angle of attack and using the heat shield to manage resulting friction, spacecraft can gradually shed velocity. Parachutes: Once the spacecraft slows sufficiently, parachutes are deployed to further reduce speed. Multiple parachutes are often used, often starting with a smaller drogue parachute to stabilize the vehicle. Different sets of parachutes are deployed at various altitudes. The Soyuz spacecraft deploys its primary parachutes at about 10 km (6 mi) above the Earth's surface, and stabilizes descent with smaller chutes. Before launch of the craft, engineers use wind tunnels and computer simulations to replicate extreme conditions of reentry. The tests continually refine spacecraft designs and heat shield materials. Genetic Engineering: Biotechnology of Change Nanorobots: Micro Robotic Tech, Ecology, Health Top 5 Countries of the Global Space Race Orion spaceship heat shield for Artemis II mission Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Lead acid batteries are found in electric vehicles, backup power systems, golf carts, factory forklifts and more. A notable variation is the silver-calcium battery. Sulfuric Acid: Creation, Properties, Health Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy White Lead Toxic Beauty, Art, Ancient Production 12 V lead-acid battery About Lead-Acid Batteries A lead-acid battery is rechargeable. It works through chemical reactions among lead, lead oxide, and sulfuric acid to store and release electrical energy. Lead acid batteries are known for high surge current capabilities. This is great when a burst of power is needed, as in starting a car. They're favored for efficient energy storage and delivery. Lead acid batteries are made of lead dioxide as the positive plate, sponge lead as the negative plate, and diluted sulfuric acid as the electrolyte. Divine Water: Sulfuric Acid in Alchemy Ozone Gas (O3) & the Ozone Layer Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Lead Acid Battery Components Positive Electrode (Anode): This is composed of lead dioxide (PbO2) paste coated on a lead grid. During discharge, the lead dioxide reacts with sulfuric acid. Negative Electrode (Cathode): Made of spongy metallic lead (Pb), it's also coated on a lead grid. During discharge, the lead reacts with sulfuric acid. Electrolyte: A solution of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) diluted with water, it facilitates chemical reactions between the electrodes. Separator: A porous, non-conductive material prevents direct contact between the positive and negative plates, protecting from short circuits while allowing ion flow. Container (Case): A durable enclosure, usually made of plastic, houses and protects the components. Terminals: Positive and negative terminals connect the battery to an external circuit. Environment: Lithium-ion Battery Recycling Carbon-14 Diamond Battery: Nuclear Power Solar Panels & Batteries in Space lead (Pb) Creation Process Lead and lead dioxide electrodes are prepared and immersed in an electrolyte solution. As the battery charges, chemical reactions convert lead sulfate back to lead dioxide and sponge lead. The average battery supports over 1,200 charge and discharge cycles. Grid Casting: Lead alloy grids are cast, providing a framework for the active materials. Paste Application: Lead dioxide paste (for the positive electrode) and spongy lead paste (for the negative electrode) are applied to the grids. Curing: The pasted grids undergo a curing process to strengthen the bond between the paste and the grid. NOx: Air Pollution & Tropospheric Ozone Vehicle Emissions: Environment & Society Radioactive Gas: Radon (Rn) Noble & Deadly some components are created or treated in clean rooms to avoid particulate contamination Plate Formation: The plates are formed through a chemical process of "formation" or "charging." It converts the lead pastes to active materials: lead dioxide at the positive plate and spongy lead at the negative. Assembly: The positive and negative plates are interleaved with separators, and these "cell groups" are placed into the battery container. Electrolyte Filling: The battery is filled with sulfuric acid electrolyte. Sealing and Testing: The battery is sealed, tested for voltage and capacity and ready for distribution. Electric Vehicles (EVs): Creation & Operation Ethanol Biofuel: Methods, Pros & Cons Water Pollution: Eight Countries in Crisis lead-acid battery components Uses of Lead-Acid Batteries Automotive: Starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) systems in cars, trucks, and motorcycles. These batteries are used in up to 99% of all vehicles manufactured. Backup Power: Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS) for computers and critical equipment, data centers, emergency lighting, and alarm systems. Renewable Energy: They store energy generated by solar panels and wind turbines. Industrial Equipment: Forklifts, golf carts, mobility scooters and other electric vehicles use lead-acid batteries. Telecommunications: They provide backup power for communication systems. How Wind Turbines Create Electricity Fossil Fuels: Ecology & Economy Silver (Ag): Ancient Trade to Modern Tech communications tower Lead-Acid Battery Disposal Lead-acid batteries contain lead, a heavy metal, and highly corrosive sulfuric acid. These can cause environmental contamination and health risks. Recycling: The vast majority of lead-acid batteries are recycled. Lead and other valuable materials are recovered and reused in new batteries or other products. Authorized Collection Centers: Batteries should be taken to authorized collection centers or recycling facilities. Many auto parts stores and battery retailers offer battery recycling programs. Landfill Bans : Regions enforce laws to prohibit disposing of lead acid batteries in landfills due to environmental hazards. Biofuels: Creation & the Dark Side Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Landfill Silver-Calcium Batteries Silver-calcium batteries are a specialized type of lead-acid battery. The lead grids are alloyed with silver oxide (Ag2O) and calcium (Ca). This gives several advantages. Reduced Water Loss: Calcium reduces water loss due to self-discharge and overcharging, making the battery maintenance-free or low-maintenance. Improved Corrosion Resistance: Silver resists corrosion, extending the battery's lifespan. Enhanced Performance: Silver can improve cold cranking performance, especially beneficial in colder climates. Silver-calcium batteries are more expensive than standard lead-acid batteries. They're used for high-demand functions as in military and aerospace systems. What Robots Need to Function & Survive Algae in Glass Houses: Diatomaceous Earth How Solar Panels Work Pros & Cons of Lead Acid Batteries Pros High Surge Current: Excellent for applications requiring large bursts of power. Relatively Inexpensive: Generally more affordable than newer battery technologies like lithium-ion. Lead acid batteries are generally less expensive to produce, costing around 30-50% less than lithium-ion alternatives. Well-Established Technology: Mature technology with a long history of reliable performance. High Recyclability: Lead-acid batteries are highly recyclable, reducing environmental impact with over 95% of components being recyclable. Robots & Robotics in Modern Healthcare Artisan Perfumery: Four Degrees of Fragrance Build a Basic Robot: Method & Materials Cons Heavy Weight: Lead makes them heavier than alternative battery types. Lower Energy Density: They store less energy for their size and weight compared to lithium-ion batteries. Environmental Concerns: Contain lead and sulfuric acid, requiring careful disposal and recycling. Shorter Lifespan: Compared to some newer technologies, their lifespan can be limited, especially with deep cycling. Solar Wind: Supersonic Tempest from the Sun Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk Golf carts on the course Facts About Lead Acid Batteries The lead-acid battery is invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté. As the first rechargeable battery technology, lead acid batteries open the way for modern battery innovations. Lead-acid battery technology has remained largely unchanged for over a century. The recycling rate for lead-acid batteries is one of the highest of any consumer product. Although commonly referred to as a "12-volt battery," a standard lead-acid car battery actually consists of six individual cells, each producing 2.1 volts Lead acid batteries make up 30% of the global battery market share. The emergence of valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA) batteries or sealed batteries introduces maintenance-free options, safer and easier to use. Plant Health: Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria Lithium (Li): Science, Health & Uses Electrolytes: Vital Minerals of Human & Environmental Health EVs use lead-acid batteries for ignition and backup power Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Sulfuric acid is a powerful chemical compound. A colorless, thick liquid with a sharp smell, it's often called the King of Acids due to its highly corrosive nature. Uses include batteries, drain cleaners and as a solvent. Divine Water: Sulfuric Acid in Alchemy Nitric Acid: Aqua Fortis the Acid Queen NOx: Air Pollution & Tropospheric Ozone Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is a mineral acid. It's also used in lead-acid batteries, popular despite the rise of lithium ion . A colorless to slightly yellow viscous liquid, it's soluble in water and vigorously releases heat on mixing. The exothermic reaction is an important consideration when handling and diluting the acid. Sulfuric acid is highly corrosive, thus effective as a solvent. Acid-Producing Bacteria in Sulfuric Acid Creation Volatile Organic Compounds: Home & Away Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 Decomposition sulfuric acid is the most common cause of deterioration of concrete structures How Sulfuric Acid is Created The most common industrial method for producing sulfuric acid is the Contact Process. This method oxidizes sulfur dioxide (SO₂) to sulfur trioxide (SO3), which is dissolved in water to produce sulfuric acid. 1. Production of Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): Sulfur is burned in air or oxygen to produce SO2. Alternatively, SO2 can be obtained from roasting sulfide ores. 2. Conversion of Sulfur Dioxide to Sulfur Trioxide (SO₃): The SO2 is then passed over a vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) catalyst to convert it to SO3. Carefully control of temperature maximizes yield of SO3. 3. Absorption of Sulfur Trioxide in Sulfuric Acid: SO3 is absorbed into concentrated sulfuric acid (98-99%) to form oleum (H2S2O7), also known as fuming sulfuric acid. Secret Lives of Sulfuric Acid Bacteria Oxidation: Metabolism & Molecular Action Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris oleum Microbes Producing Sulfuric Acid Sulfur-oxidizing bacteria like Thiobacillus thiooxidans  and Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans , can produce sulfuric acid. The bacteria derive energy by oxidizing sulfur compounds like elemental sulfur, sulfides, and thiosulfates. This process generates sulfuric acid as a byproduct. It can contribute to acid mine drainage and the bioleaching of metals from ores. In areas of acid mine drainage pH drops to below 4, decimating aquatic life. Oleum is diluted with water to make the desired concentration of sulfuric acid. This process can produce millions of tons of sulfuric acid annually, meeting the high demand. Science of Alchemy: Hydrochloric Acid Peracetic Acid: Origin, Reactions, Hazards Iron III Acetate - Formula, Production, Use Occurrence in Nature Sulfuric acid can occur naturally. It's found in volcanic emissions, as a component of acid rain, and in some mineral deposits. Sulfur-eating microbes also contribute to its natural formation. Due to its strong affection for water, sulfuric acid in pure form is rare. It can appear in geological formations. Acid rain happens when sulfur dioxide from both natural and man-made sources reacts with atmospheric moisture. Acid rain has decreased in many parts of world due to emissions controls. Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Bioremediation: Organic Cleanup of Toxins Science of Onion Tears: Demystifying Acids Discovery Exact date of discovery is debated. Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), an 8th-century Persian alchemist, is often credited with its initial discovery. In the 16th century, alchemist Basil Valentine studies its production. Large-scale production methods of the 18th century are still used today, improved by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and others. Historical Precedents The Mesopotamians have no name for "sulfuric acid" as a specific chemical, but they know vitriols. From these hydrated sulfates sulfuric acid can be derived. The Sumerians classify different types of vitriols based on color. This carries over into later alchemy. Although the Romans don't have commercially produced sulfuric acid, they use sulfur, an essential component in the production of sulfuric acid. Romans use sulfur for such purposes as fire for pyrotechnics. They also apply it as an insecticide and in some medical mixtures. The Romans know burning sulfur produces a choking gas. This, when combined with moisture, can form sulfuric acid. Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides Scheele's Green: History's Most Toxic Pigment Kimchi: Microbes, Acids & Fermentation crystalline sulfur (S) Scientific Properties & Characteristics Strong Acid: Sulfuric acid is a strong diprotic acid, meaning it can donate two protons (H+) in water. This contributes significantly to its reactivity. With a density of 1.84 g/cm³, it's over 1.8 times heavier than water. Powerful Solvent: It's a powerful solvent due to its high polarity and strong hydrogen bonding capabilities. It can dissolve many substances other solvents cannot. Metals resistant to sulfuric acid corrosion include lead , tungsten , tantalum,  platinum , gold , silver , iridium and zirconium. Some of these metals dissolve in aqua regia , a mix of hydrochloric and nitric acid . Hygroscopic: Sulfuric acid is hygroscopic, readily absorbing moisture from the air. It's used as a drying agent in some applications. Citric Acid: Nature, Health & Science Acetogenesis in Nature & Human Health Lactic Acid: Nature & the Human Body gold flakes Dehydrating Agent: Sulfuric acid removes water molecules from other compounds and can cause charring. Concentrated sulfuric acid reacts with sugar to form a blackened carbon mass. Oxidizing Agent: At high concentrations and temperatures, sulfuric acid is an oxidizing agent. It can accept electrons from other substances. Viscosity: The concentrated form is a viscous liquid due to strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding. It has a thick, syrup-like consistency. Sulfuric acid's solvent abilities are in its strong acidic nature, enabling it to dehydrate materials efficiently. In oil refining, sulfuric acid helps separate impurities from hydrocarbons. In metal processing, it strips away oxide layers to prepare surfaces for further treatment. Water treatment facilities use it to neutralize alkaline waste. Ozone Gas (O3) & the Ozone Layer Ethanol Biofuel: Methods, Pros & Cons Acetate in Nature: Vital Functions & Health oil refinery Corrosiveness of Sulfuric Acid Corrosiveness of sulfuric comes comes from strong acidity and ability to dehydrate and oxidize organic materials. High concentrations of hydrogen ions (H+) attack materials to break chemical bonds. Dehydration further amplifies corrosive action, especially on organic tissues. Sulfuric acid reacts vigorously with metals, minerals, and organic materials. It can also dissolve polycarbonates, but not Teflon. Sulfuric Acid & the Human Body Sulfuric acid is dangerous to human health. Skin contact creates severe burns, tissue damage and scarring. Ingestion causes internal burns, corrosion of mouth, throat and stomach, organ damage and death. Inhalation of sulfuric acid fumes causes respiratory irritation, pulmonary edema and permanent lung damage. Handle sulfuric acid with extreme caution. Use personal protective equipment (PPE) like gloves, goggles and respirators. Acetic Acid: Food, Health & Science Vehicle Emissions: Environment & Society Secret Life of Rust: Power of Bacteria Sulfuric Acid in Chemical Warfare While sulfuric acid itself isn't a typical nerve agent or specifically designed chemical weapon, it can be used as such. It inflicts severe burns and disfigurement, incapacitating and killing victims. Sulfuric acid as a weapon is a violation of human rights and international law. Sulfuric Acid: Robots & Machines Sulfuric acid can damage robots and machines. The acid corrodes metal components, damages electronic circuitry, degrade plastic or rubber parts and melts silicone. Specialized robots designed for hazardous environments are constructed with materials resistant to acid corrosion. Industries handling sulfuric acid use stainless steel or other acid-resistant materials in equipment. Living Metals & Genders in Ancient Alchemy Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas stainless steel Stainless steel is not impermeable and can be dissolved with sulfuric acid gradually. The rate and extent of corrosion depend on factors like acid concentration, type of stainless steel and temperature.  Highly concentrated sulfuric acid can dissolve silver but the reaction is slow, more so at low temperatures. Reaction of silver and concentrated sulfuric acid produce silver sulfate (Ag2SO4) and hydrogen gas.  Lead-Acid Batteries Despite increasing popularity of lithium-ion, lead-acid batteries are favored in automotive and industrial settings. They're low-cost and reliable. Lead-acid batteries are best suited to low speeds and short distances, such as in golf carts, forklifts and neighborhood electric vehicles. They're used as auxiliary batteries in hybrid and electric vehicles. Lithium Ion Batteries on Earth & in Space Carbon-14 Diamond Battery: Nuclear Power Leap to Flames: Why Did Empedocles Jump into Mount Etna? forklift Lead-acid batteries are recycled with over 90% efficiency. They're dismantled to their constituent parts: lead, plastic and acid. The lead is melted, purified, and formed into ingots to make new batteries. Plastic casing is transformed into pellets, which can be reused in new cases or other plastic items. Acid is recycled, neutralized or transformed to sodium sulfate, a drying agent, detergent filler and laxative.  Uses of Sulfuric Acid Fertilizer production: A major application is in the production of phosphate fertilizers. It is essential in producing phosphoric acid, a foundation of many fertilizers. Petroleum refining: Used as a catalyst in various refining processes, it's especially favored for producing high-octane fuels through alkylation. Chemical synthesis: Sulfuric acid is a key reactant in production of chemicals including detergents, plastics, and synthetic fibers. Organic Polymers: Ecology & Natural Health Magnetotactic Bacteria: Magnetic Microbes Nanotechnology: Nanoscale Power & Progress Metal processing: It's used in pickling (cleaning) metals, refining, and in the extraction of metals from ores. Battery production: Sulfuric acid is the electrolyte in lead-acid batteries, helping power millions of vehicles. Wastewater treatment: It's used to adjust pH and remove certain contaminants. Drain cleaning: It's effective but very dangerous. Melanin Pigment: Form & Function in Nature Why Apples Turn Brown: Science & Nature Amino Acids: Optimal Body Health & Energy Facts about Sulfuric Acid Production of sulfuric acid is often used as an indicator of a country's industrial strength. Millions of tons of sulfuric acid are produced worldwide per year, making it one of the most manufactured chemicals. Sulfuric acid is sometimes referred to as "oil of vitriol," a name going back to early alchemy. The planet Venus has clouds of sulfuric acid droplets. Some onions release weak sulfuric acid when cut, making eyes sting and water. In diluting sulfuric acid, always add the acid to water. Adding water to acid causes eruptive splashing and boiling due to the exothermic reaction. Sulfuric acid is a major component in production of titanium dioxide, a pigment used in paint, plastics, cosmetics and paper. Plants in Space: ISS Microgravity Gardening Lactobacillus: Nature of Lactic Acid Bacteria Space Aerosols: Weather, Health, Ecology Titanium white is a favorite artists' paint color Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Acidophillium and Acidobacillus ferroxidens bacteria thrive in harmful conditions. These microscopic sulfuric acid-producing bacteria use sulfur for energy, enabling them to flourish in places most life would perish. Acid-Producing Bacteria in Sulfuric Acid Creation Reduction in Chemistry: Gaining Electrons Biofilm: Metropolitan Microbes of People & Planet Sulfur fumes, vapors Bacteria including Acidophillium spp. , Acidobacillus ferroxidens , Thiothrix, and Beggiatoa spp . survive and prosper in sulfuric acid environments. They maintain internal pH levels despite surrounding acidity. By using specific enzymes and transport proteins, they can eject protons from their cells to counterbalance the external acidic conditions. They live comfortably where other organisms would perish. Divine Water: Sulfuric Acid in Alchemy Flowers of Sulfur (Brimstone): Creation & Uses Metal to Rust: Unseen Organisms in Action Acidobacillus ferroxidens - also makes rust Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans - above - (basonym Thiobacillus ferrooxidans ) can be isolated from iron-sulfur minerals such as pyrite deposits. It oxidizes iron and sulfur as energy sources to support autotrophic growth, and producing ferric iron and sulfuric acid. First isolated from soil, acid-loving bacteria are also observed to cause biogenic sulfide corrosion of concrete sewer pipes. They alter hydrogen sulfide in sewage gas to make sulfuric acid. Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Soot & Lampblack: Beauty, Art and Medicine Antimony (Stibnite, Kohl) Ancient Metal of Science & Beauty Acidobacillus ferroxidens  is popular in bioleaching, a method to extract metals from ore using microbes. This species is often associated with acid mine drainage. A. ferroxidens  has a robust metabolism. It uses iron ions as electron donors, contributing to the mobilization of valuable metals like copper and gold from ores. These bacteria are happy in pH levels as low as 1.5. Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 Decomposition Hydrogen Peroxide: Chemistry, Production, Risks Peracetic Acid: Origin, Reactions, Hazards happy microbes Acidophillium survives highly acid environments with a pH of 3 or below. These bacteria are often found in sulfuric acid-rich areas such as metal mines, acidic hot springs, and regions of industrial pollution. Classed as acidophiles , these organisms not only tolerate, but require acidic conditions for their growth. Certain species within the Acidophillium genus live in environments with a pH as low as 1.0, a super strong acid. Talc (Magnesium Silicate): Beauty, Art & Industry Etch Carnelian Beads Like It's Indus Valley 2500 BCE Catalase: Unseen Enzymes Essential to Life These bacteria are often found in settings where acid waters emerge, such as metal-rich mine drainage environments. Acidophillium  species easily adapt to biogeochemical cycling in extreme habitats. Acidophillium bacteria oxidize reduced sulfur compounds such as sulfides to produce sulfuric acid. This lowers the pH of their surroundings. Iron III Acetate - Formula, Production, Use Digestion & Horse Manure: Alchemy Process Rotten Egg Sulfur Smell: Microbial Processes Conversely, Acidobacillus ferroxidens generates sulfuric acid as a byproduct during iron oxidation. The production of sulfuric acid helps survival, as high acidity inhibits the growth of less resilient organisms. This gives Acidophillium and Acidobacillus ferroxidens a competitive edge in their ecosystems. They both have high-status jobs as acid producers and facilitators of metal bioleaching. Human Methane: Meet the Microbes of Flatulence Methanogens: Microbes of Methane Production White Lead Toxic Beauty, Art, Ancient Production rust In nature, Acidophillium and Acidobacillus ferroxidens are important to nutrient cycling in ecosystems with high sulfur content. Their metabolic actions maintain nutrient balances supporting many life forms. Industrially, Acidobacillus ferroxidens is used in bioleaching, especially for metals such as copper and gold. This bioprocess is an alternative to extract metals from low-grade ores. Bioleaching helps reduce mining waste. Alchemy: Circulation & the Pelican Phantasy Heavy Metals Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Chromium & Arsenic Arsenic Trioxide: Paint Pigment & Pesticide Facts About Sulfuric Acid Bacteria Extreme Survivors: The bacteria thrive in environments with a pH lower than 2. Microbial Fuel: Both Acidophillium  and Acidobacillus  species have potential in microbial fuel cells, where their metabolic processes can generate electricity. Ecosystem Builders: The bacteria aid in mineral formation, contributing to the development of biogeochemical ecosystems. Research and Innovation: These bacteria are subjects of intense research, with scientists exploring their potential applications in waste treatment, sustainable mining practices and biotechnology. Environmental Indicators: The presence of these bacteria often signals the geochemistry of their environment. They're biological markers for acid mine drainage and sulfur-rich ecosystems. Lactic Acid Bacteria: Nature to Modern Uses Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses Microbial Alchemy: Fermentation, Digestion, Putrefaction Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top