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Nitrogen fixation is essential for life on Earth. Despite nitrogen being the most abundant gas in our atmosphere, it exists mainly in inert form. This is a problem for living organisms who need nitrogen to build proteins, nucleic acids and other vital molecules. Microbe pH Levels: Acidophiles, Neutrophiles & Alkaliphiles Spores & Yeast: Saccharomyces cerevisiae Malevolent Microfungi: Hazards of Health & Home Nitrogen makes up about 78% of the Earth's atmosphere. Nitrogen fixation converts atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into forms living organisms can use. These are mainly ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate (NO3-) for soil health and environmental prosperity. Nitrogen is integrated into biological molecules, supporting growth and development. While some plants can take up nitrogen from the soil and decomposing organic matter, many depend on nitrogen-fixing organisms. Science of Onion Tears: Demystifying Acids First Life on Earth: Microbes & Stromatolites GI Yeast Hunter: Bacteroides thetaiotomicron Rhizobium bacteria The Mechanism of Nitrogen Fixation in Soil Nitrogen fixation in soil is primarily done by prokaryotic bacteria. The bacteria occupy the rhizosphere, the soil close to plant roots. They form symbiotic relationships with plants, especially legumes such as peas, beans and clover. Symbiotic bacteria include  Rhizobium , Bradyrhizobium , and Frankia spp . When a seed germinates, it releases chemicals to attract Rhizobium bacteria in the soil. The bacteria enter the root hairs, leading to the formation of specialized nodules. Calcite: Metal-Eating Bacteria to Coral Reefs Acid-Producing Bacteria in Sulfuric Acid Creation Bdellovibrio : Lifestyles of Predatory Bacteria Roots with nodules Inside these nodules, nitrogen fixation occurs, producing ammonia that is converted into essential nutrients like amino acids for the plant. In exchange, the bacteria receive carbohydrates and a protective environment from the plant. In fixation the microbes produce the enzyme nitrogenase. It breaks the strong triple bond of atmospheric nitrogen, facilitating the conversion of nitrogen into ammonia. The process of fixation enriches the soil by increasing its nitrogen content, which is crucial for plant growth. Nitrogen is a major component of amino acids, proteins and nucleic acids, essential for the metabolic processes within plants. Uric Acid: Kidney Stones & Peeing on Plants Calcium (Ca): Earth Metal of Structure & Strength Ammonia: Formation, Hazards & Reactions Once nitrogen is fixed by bacteria, plants absorb the compounds through their roots. After uptake, it's incorporated into biomolecules such as proteins, enzymes, and chlorophyll for healthy growth and energy production. In addition to symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria, free-living bacteria such as Azotobacter , Clostridium , and some cyanobacteria are involved in nitrogen fixation. These microbes can fix nitrogen independently in soil or aquatic systems without direct association with plant roots. By promoting healthy plant growth, nitrogen-fixing bacteria contribute to enhanced crop yields, agricultural sustainability, and soil health. The nitrogen fixed by these bacteria is used by the host plant and released into soil after plant decomposition, taken up by plants nearby. Heliozoa: Microscopic Sun Animalcules Rotten Egg Sulfur Smell: Microbial Processes Hair Loss: 9 Natural Cures of Physician Dioscorides Evolution of Nitrogen Fixation: From Ancient Earth to Modern Agriculture The origins of nitrogen fixation date back to the early climates of Earth, around 3.5 billion years ago, when atmospheric conditions are very different. Early organisms like anaerobic bacteria and archaea develop the ability to fix nitrogen in an oxygen-depleted atmosphere. With time, these organisms promote the evolution of life due to enrichment of soils with usable nitrogen. As terrestrial ecosystems evolved, symbiotic relationships between plants and nitrogen-fixing bacteria became established. The Devonian period, c. 400 million years ago, is a time of transformation as terrestrial plants begin to thrive. The relationship between plants and nitrogen-fixing bacteria becomes more pronounced during this time, with legumes and allies especially contributing to soil fertility. Metal to Rust: Unseen Organisms in Action Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Broad Beans (Fava) - Bronze Age Crops Botanical illustration of broad bean (fava) an early agricultural favorite With the growth of agriculture c.10,000 years ago, humans know the power of nitrogen fixation for crop cultivation, even if not the exact process. Practices such as crop rotation and intercropping with legumes are fundamental for soil fertility in sustainability. By incorporating legumes in crop rotation, farmers and gardeners today can reduce reliance on synthetic nitrogen fertilizers while enhancing soil health. This approach can lower fertilizer costs by up to 40% and minimize environmental issues associated with chemical fertilizers. Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment Cyanobacteria: Nutrients & Bacterial Blooms Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production chemicals Facts about Nitrogen Fixation Legumes Have Superpowers : Some leguminous plants, like soybeans, peanuts, and clovers, can fix significant amounts of nitrogen, making them vital in crop rotation systems to enhance soil fertility. Global Impact : About 140 million tons of nitrogen are biologically fixed every year, boosting the fertility of ecosystems worldwide. Industrial Impact : The Haber-Bosch process, developed in the early 20th century, is used in synthetic production of fertilizers, significantly boosting food production across the globe. It also raises concerns about environmental impacts, such as soil degradation and water pollution. It is energy-intensive, using 1-2% of the world’s energy supply. Biological Diversity : Cyanobacteria, often called blue-green algae, are ancient nitrogen fixers intrumental in oxygenating the atmosphere and shaping the trajectory of life on Earth. Sea Life: Nitrogen fixation isn’t just terrestrial. Some aquatic systems, particularly oceans, are populated by cyanobacteria, influencing marine ecosystems and contributing to the global nitrogen cycle. Future Prospects : Research is advancing toward genetically engineering crops with enhanced nitrogen-fixing abilities, potentially reducing reliance on chemical fertilizers and promoting more sustainable agricultural practices. Symbiosis Diversity : Nitrogen-fixing relationships are not exclusive to legumes; non-leguminous plants such as alders and some grasses also interract with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine Etch Carnelian Beads Like It's Indus Valley 2500 BCE Biofilm Communities: Metropolitan Microbes This is where it all begins Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Flavonoids are natural compounds with color enhancement properties, a plant protection arsenal and health benefits to humans. A large class of phenols, flavonoids are vital to ecosystems and sensory experiences in life. Phenols: Effects on Health & Environment Flavonoids: the Big Five of Aroma, Flavor & Color Esters: Nature's Fragrance & Flavor Makers ripe juicy red apples It's a jungle out there. Flavonoids are a group of polyphenolic compounds or phenols found predominantly in plants. They create the vibrant colors of many fruits, vegetables, and flowers and are integral to plant survival. Flavonoids are abundant in plants, fruits, and seeds. They contribute color, fragrance, and taste characteristics. They make food more appealing and flavors more tempting. They can also create bitterness or toxic effects. Several subclasses of flavonoids exist, including flavanols, flavones, isoflavones, flavanones, and anthocyanins. Each subclass has its distinct features. Phenols: Nature's Creations in Daily Life Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Five Sugars: Glucose, Maltose, Fructose, Sucrose, Lactose a touch of finesse Creation of Flavonoids in Nature Plants synthesize flavonoids in a series of biochemical processes. They're formed primarily in response to environmental stressors such as UV light, pathogen attacks, herbivore overgrazing or temperature changes. They're created in the phenylpropanoid pathway, a primary metabolic route of plants. The amino acid phenylalanine converts into flavonoids through enzyme-driven processes. Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Phenols: Powerful Compounds of Nature Ethyl Acetate: Scent of Flowers, Wine & Fruits citrus is high in flavonoids Phenylpropanoid Pathway : This initial phase involves the conversion of phenylalanine into cinnamic acid through the action of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL). Further enzymatic reactions lead to the production of different flavonoid structures. Diversity of Structures : There are more than 6,000 types of flavonoids, but they can be broadly categorized into several classes, including flavonols, flavones, flavanones, catechins, isoflavones, and anthocyanins. Each subclass has its own unique physiological roles and health benefits. Hanseniaspora : Wild Lovers of Sweet Grapes Terroir in Wine & Food: Expression of Place Cherish the Chocolate: Sweet Fermentation chocolate truffles Color Contribution : One of the most notable features of flavonoids is their contribution to the pigmentation of plants, especially in fruits and flowers. Anthocyanins, for example, impart red, purple, and blue hues, helping attract pollinators and seed dispersers. Anthocyanins give berries their red or blue colors. The hue shifts based on acidity of the soil. An acidic environment (pH < 7) causes red colors, and alkaline conditions produce blue shades. Starch: Power of Plants & Human Energy Foodborne Fungi and Mold: Facts & Dangers Soap & Medicine Herb of Ancients Functions of Flavonoids in Nature Protection Against Consumers: Many flavonoids act as deterrents to herbivores due to bitter taste or potential toxicity. These properties are also found in phenols. Flavonoids can have antibacterial and antifungal properties to protect plants from pathogens. UV Protection: Flavonoids absorb UV light, acting as natural sunscreen for plants. They prevent DNA damage and help plants survive in sun-strong environments. Pollinator Attraction : Colors and aromas produced by flavonoids and phenol compounds attract different pollinators. Yeast & Vineyard Microbes: Flavors of Wine Lactic Acid: Natural Process & Human Health Women Scientists of the Ancient World Facts About Flavonoids Culinary Benefits : Flavonoids contribute to the flavor, aroma, and color of foods. Cultural Significance : Some traditional medicines historically use flavonoid-rich plants. Natural Colorants : Flavonoids extracted from fruits and flowers are used in food manufacturing as colorants. Bioavailability : Flavonoids vary in bioavailability, meaning not all are absorbed equally by the body. Cooking or processing can influence their effectiveness, enhancing or diminishing their properties. Human Health : Flavonoids often have antioxidant or anti-inflammatory properties, and may help improve health functions. Potash: Agriculture, Plant & Garden Health 12 Days of Zagmuk: Chaos & the King Flavors of Coffee: From Harvest to Homestead green tea has higher flavonoid concentration than black or oolong teas Flavonoids are abundant in food. Some sources include: Berries  (strawberries, blueberries, blackberries) - rich in anthocyanins. Citrus Fruits  (oranges, lemons) - high in flavanones. Tea  (green and black) - abundant in flavonols. Dark Chocolate  - significant amounts of flavonoid compounds, particularly catechins and flavanols. Onions  and Apples  - good sources of quercetin and other flavonoids. Red Wine  - is attributed various cardiovascular benefits due to to its high flavonoid content. Hildegard von Bingen: Nature, Music & Beer Gingerbread Houses: German Folklore Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Wine making starts with selecting the ripest grapes and follows through various stages of fermentation, aging and bottling. Here's an overview of the winemaking process from harvest to table. Yeast & Vineyard Microbes: Flavors of Wine Terroir in Wine & Food: Expression of Place 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine 1. The Harvest Wine making process begins with the harvest, careful picking of ripe grapes. Winemakers meticulously monitor sugar levels, acidity, and tannin development to determine the perfect moment for harvest. This is where the terroir, the unique combination of soil, climate, and topography, truly shines. Grapes must be picked at just the right moment when sugars balance perfectly with acidity, defining the wine's quality. Glauber: Preparation of a Golden Spirit of Wine Noble Rot: Secret of Sumptuous Sweet Wines Wine God Liber: Liberty & Liberal Libation Harvesting methods vary. For premium wines, hand-harvesting is often preferred. Harvesters selectively pick only the best grapes. In Bordeaux, France, harvesters make multiple trips to get the ripest grapes. In regions like Champagne, grapes are also hand-picked. This helps preserve integrity of the fruit and prevents premature crushing, which can release unwanted tannins. Machine harvesting is faster and cheaper but can damage the unripened grapes. Ethyl Acetate: Scent of Flowers, Wine & Fruits Hanseniaspora : Wild Lovers of Sweet Grapes Fructose (Fruit Sugar): Sweetest Saccharide vineyard in France 2. Crushing and Pressing: Releasing the Juice Once harvested, the grapes are transported to the winery for crushing and pressing. The goal is to extract the juice while separating it from the skins, seeds, and stems. Traditionally, this is done by foot. Some wineries still crush grapes by foot. This method, called "pigeage," is popular in Rioja, Spain. Today, most wineries use mechanical crushers to gently break the grape skins, releasing the juice or "must." Next comes the pressing, whereby the juice is separated from skins and seeds. Tannins: Complex Astringents of Nature Tartrate Crystals: Secrets of Tartaric Acid Ethyl Alcohol: Science of Solvents & Booze Different types of presses exist, from the traditional basket press to modern pneumatic presses. The pressure applied during this stage influences the final product. Lower pressure results in higher quality juice, while higher pressure can extract more tannins and color, ideal for red wines. A delicate white wine like Sauvignon Blanc needs a gentle press to avoid harsh flavors from skins. The resulting juice varies widely. Red wines are usually fermented with the skins to extract color and flavor, while white wines are typically pressed to separate the juice before fermentation. Brettanomyces : Favorite Artisan Wild Yeast Five Food Acids: Citric, Acetic, Malic, Tartaric & Lactic German Myth: Father Rhine River God 3. Fermentation In fermentation, yeast converts natural sugars in the grape juice to alcohol and carbon dioxide. It can be done using natural wild yeasts on the grapes or by adding cultured yeast for greater control. The fermentation process can last anywhere from a few days to several weeks, depending on type of wine and desired alcohol level. Temperature stability is important during fermentation. Saccharomyces cerevisiae : Queen of Yeasts Phenols: Nature's Creations in Daily Life Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life ... warm Winemakers monitor temperature and sugar levels. Some wines go through malolactic fermentation, a secondary fermentation. This softens the wine by converting sharp malic acid into softer lactic acid. This technique is often used in Chardonnay production. It adds depth and complexity to the wine. The sugar content in grapes can vary by as much as 25% based on the vineyard’s climate and soil composition. This variability significantly affects the alcohol content of the finished wine. Yeast Fermentation: Nature, Brewing & Food Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides Esters & Phenols in Brewing, Perfumes, Food Making 4. Aging and Maturation After fermentation, the wine is aged and matured. The flavors develop, soften, and integrate. Wines can be aged in stainless steel tanks, oak barrels or even amphorae (clay vessels) for the ancient Greco-Roman touch. Oak barrel aging imparts flavors of vanilla, spice, and toast to the wine. The type of oak, the level of toast, and the age of the barrel all contribute to the final flavor profile. Yeast & Fermentation: the Crabtree Effect Acetic Acid: Food, Health & Science Sucrose: Double Sugar of Science & Cuisine A bold Cabernet Sauvignon benefits from aging in new oak barrels to develop complexity and structure. Duration of aging varies from a few months to several years. Light wines like Beaujolais Nouveau are made for early enjoyment and may be released weeks after harvest. Not all wines improve with long aging. Up to 70% of white wines are best consumed within a year or two of bottling. Galactose: Simple Sugar of Nature & Health The Probiotic Yeast: Saccharomyces boulardii Three Types of Amylase in Digestion & Fermentation 5. Clarification and Stabilization: Preparing for Bottling Before bottling, the wine undergoes clarification and stabilization. This process removes any unwanted particles and ensures the wine is stable and clear. Clarification includes Racking: transferring the wine from one vessel to another, leaving sediment behind. Fining: adding substances like egg whites or bentonite clay to bind with particles Filtration: passing the wine through a filter to remove any remaining solids. Stabilization prevents unwanted changes in the wine after bottling, such as tartrate crystals forming or secondary fermentation occurring. German House Spirits: Beer Donkey (Bieresel) Mannose: Simple Sugar of Nature & Health Homeostasis: Internal Balance of the Body white and red tartaric acid crystals or "wine diamonds" 6. Bottling As the aging period wraps up, it's time for bottling. Before this step, wines might be filtered and blended to achieve the perfect balance of flavors. At this time winemakers decide whether to add sulfites. These preserve the wine and prevent oxidation. Sulfites are usually not the reason for red wine hangovers. Histamines and tannins are the ones who cause the suffering. Maillard Reaction: Science & Flavor in Browning Food Wort: Sweet Temptation for Beer-Making Yeast How Yeast Transforms Sugars to Booze The closure used can influence the wine's aging potential. Corks remain the traditional choice, although screw caps are becoming increasingly popular, especially for wines meant to be consumed young. After bottling, some wines may undergo further aging in the bottle. This allows the flavors to further integrate and soften. For smaller producers, the bottling process can still be manual, ensuring minimal intervention and preserving the wine’s character. Corks allow a small amount of air in, good for aging, while screw caps keep wine fresh. Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment Fermentation Energy: Yeast & Lactic Acid Bacteria Phytoplankton: Environment & Human Health Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Fructose is a simple sugar, a member of the carbohydrate family. It's found especially in fruits and honey. Fructose is known for sweetness 2x more intense than that of glucose. It's beloved by humans and the environment. Glucose in Nature: Ecology & Environment Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper Yeast & Fermentation: the Crabtree Effect Blue-agave syrup contains 56% fructose Fructose or fruit sugar is a monosaccharide, able to be fermented, or combined with other sugars such as glucose to form sucrose. Its sweetness makes it desirable in many foods and drinks. Fructose is created through photosynthesis in plants. Plants turn sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into glucose, the primary energy source. Some glucose converts to fructose with action of the enzyme glucose isomerase. Fermentable & Non-Fermentable Sugars Maltose: Sweet Delight of Brewing & Energy Apples: Nature, Spirituality & Folklore Apples are high in fructose For plants, fructose has several advantages. Attracting Pollinators: The sweetness of fructose attracts pollinators such as bees and butterflies. These are indispensable to plant reproduction, as they facilitate transfer of pollen from one flower to another. Seed Dispersal: Fructose-rich fruits entice animals to consume them. Fruit like mangoes and apples increase fructose content as they ripen, making them more appealing. This encourages animals to consume the fruits and aids in seed dispersal, promoting plant propagation. Amazing Yeast: Feeding, Breeding & Biofilms Amylase: Starch to Sugar Enzyme of Digestion & Fermentation Honey Mead: Most Ancient Ambrosia Energy: Plants like fruits and root vegetables store fructose as an energy reserve for growth and development. Fructose provides quick energy to organisms. Bees prefer nectar high in fructose, which enables them to quickly replenish energy after foraging. Fructose is found in glycosides, compounds within the cell sap of fruits and flowers. Glycosides help maintain osmotic balance and can provide energy for developing seeds. Sucrose: Double Sugar of Science & Cuisine Glycolysis: Biochemistry of Holistic Health Structures of Starch: Amylose & Amylopectin In addition, fructose can be derived from sucrose by enzymatic hydrolysis. In industrial processes, sucrose is broken down into glucose and fructose using the enzyme invertase, the same used by yeasts. This becomes high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS). The sweetener is used in many processed foods. Australian honey is rich in this sugar naturally, with 36-50% fructose and 28-36% glucose. Carbohydrates: Sugars of Nature & Health Five Sugars: Glucose, Maltose, Fructose, Sucrose, Lactose Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Properties of Fructose Sweetness: Fructose is approximately 1.5 times sweeter than sucrose (table sugar) and 2.5 times sweeter than glucose. This intense sweetness makes it an attractive ingredient in processed foods. Water Solubility: Fructose is highly soluble in water, allowing it to be easily transported within plants and readily incorporated into various food products. Solubility contributes to its sweetness and makes it easily absorbed by the digestive system. Mannose: Simple Sugar of Nature & Health Homeostasis: Internal Balance of the Body Amygdalin: Bitter Almonds & the Cyanogenic Compound Hygroscopicity: Fructose readily absorbs moisture from the air, which can contribute to the soft texture of baked goods and candies. Keto Sugar: Unlike glucose, which is an aldose sugar, fructose is a ketose sugar. This structural difference affects how it's metabolized in the body. An aldose includes an aldehyde (CHO) group of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. A ketose has a ketone (CO) group, made of carbon and oxygen. Fermentable Sugar:  Fructose can be fermented by various microorganisms, leading to the production of alcohol and carbon dioxide. This property is used in the brewing and baking industries. Fermenting 200 g fructose can yield 92 g ethanol. Maillard Reaction: Science & Flavor in Browning Food Wort: Sweet Temptation for Beer-Making Yeast How Yeast Transforms Sugars to Booze Polysaccharide Partnerships Sucrose: Fructose combines with glucose to form sucrose, the common table sugar used worldwide. Inulin: Plants like Jerusalem artichokes, garlic, leeks and chicory root store energy as inulin, a polysaccharide composed of fructose chains. Inulin is a dietary fiber with prebiotic properties. It's a carbohydrate reserve in many plants, especially in roots and tubers. Levulin:  This polysaccharide is produced through the breakdown of fructose and has potential as a source for biofuels. Sugars D-Galactose & L-Galactose: Nutrition Five Food Acids: Citric, Acetic, Malic, Tartaric & Lactic Lactic Acidosis: Harmful Levels of Lactic Acid Microbial Consumption and Fermentation Fructose is readily digestible by many microbes, both in the human GI tract and the environment. This makes it an important carbon source for many microorganisms. In humans, fructose is absorbed in the small intestine and metabolized in the liver. Unlike glucose, which can be quickly used by cells, fructose needs specific transport mechanisms and enzymes for metabolism. In the environment, microbial communities readily use fructose as a carbon source, enhancing carbon cycling in ecosystems. This process promotes soil health and contributes to maintaining the balance of microorganisms vital for plant growth. Cherish the Chocolate: Sweet Fermentation Pan: Wild Rustic God of Music & Flocks Gingerbread Houses: German Folklore Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Sugars provide energy and influence bodily functions. They're essential to the growth of all living organisms. Simple carbohydrates, sugars are fermentable and non-fermentable depending on their absorbency. Maltose: Sweet Delight of Brewing & Energy Amazing Yeast: Feeding, Breeding & Biofilms Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Sugars consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They're categorized as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides . Fermentable sugars are those which can undergo fermentation. In fermentation, microorganisms like yeast and bacteria consume sugars and excrete acid, gases, or alcohol. In contrast, non-fermentable sugars do not undergo this process and travel through the digestive tract unchanged. Three Types of Amylase in Digestion & Fermentation Five Types of Resistant Starch: Fiber & Health Polysaccharides: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose human digestive tract Common examples of fermentable sugars are glucose, fructose, sucrose, and maltose. These sugars are important to growth of plants in nature, and food, brewing and beverage production in human lifestyles. Poor digestion or unbalanced food habits can cause physical and mental health problems. Fermentable sugars are prevalent in a variety of foods such as: Fruits : Apples, pears and grapes are rich in fermentable sugars. Dairy : Lactose in milk is a significant fermentable sugar. Up to 68% of people are lactose intolerant. Sweeteners : Honey and agave syrup contain high amounts of fructose. Hanseniaspora : Wild Lovers of Sweet Grapes Pan: Wild Rustic God of Music & Flocks Lactase: Nutrition & the Milk Sugar Enzyme Honeycomb Non-fermentable sugars occur largely in plant-based foods. Common sources include: Whole Grains : Barley, oats, and whole wheat provide plenty of fiber. Legumes : Beans and lentils contain resistant starch. Vegetables : Leafy greens, broccoli, and carrots help increase fiber intake. In brewing, winemaking and baking, yeast strains consume fermentable sugars, and create ethanol and carbon dioxide, along with esters . These put the booze in brews, bubbles in bread and flavors in fermentation. Beer: Malting & Mashing in Grain Fermentation Kakia: Greek Goddess of Vice & Abominations Mugwort (Wormwood) Medicine & Herb Lore Fermentable sugars are readily used by the body for energy. Glucose is quickly absorbed into the bloodstream. Humans produce maltase, the enzyme to break down maltose to glucose; and yeasts already have it. When consumed by humans, these sugars are absorbed quickly and cause blood glucose levels to rise. Glucose is the body's primary energy source, supplying about 70% of the brain's energy needs. Amylase: Starch to Sugar Enzyme of Digestion & Fermentation Honey Mead: Most Ancient Ambrosia Ephedra - Oldest Medical Stimulant Herb Non-fermentable sugars are carbohydrates resistant to fermentation by yeast or bacteria. Non-fermentable sugars include polysaccharides like cellulose , resistant starch and sugar alcohols like sorbitol and mannitol. While these sugars can be digested and absorbed by the human body, they don't participate in fermentation processes. Non-fermentable sugars have different functions in health and nutrition. Song of the Loreley - Lethal Beauty Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper Saccharomyces cerevisiae : Queen of Yeasts Rice cooked, cooled overnight and reheated has more resistant starch than just-cooked rice Dietary fibers fall under the category of non-fermentable sugars. They regulate digestive health, help bowel movements, prevent constipation, and contribute to a feeling of fullness, an aid in weight management. While they do not provide the same quick energy burst as fermentable sugars, non-fermentable sugars maintain overall health and wellness. These sugars remain intact as they move through the digestive tract. Starch: Power of Plants & Human Energy SCOBY & Mother of Vinegar: Cultured Cuisine 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Legumes, source of non-fermentable sugars Non-fermentable sugars are able to help regulate blood sugar, increase feelings of fullness, and maintain intestinal health. Fermentable sugars feed trillions of beneficial digestive tract bacteria. This fermentation process generates short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which are needed for gastrointestinal (GI) health. However, excess sugar intake can cause abdominal pain, gas and bloating. The primary difference between fermentable and non-fermentable sugars is in metabolic paths and applications. Fermentable sugars make energy. Non-fermentable sugars have health benefits like digestive support. Phytic Acid: Mother Nature's Nutrient Secrets Seven Trace Minerals: Nature's Little Helpers Power of Pepsin: Potent Digestive Enzymes fermentable sugar - energy for humans, plants and microbes Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Acetobacter bacteria are a group of acetic acid bacteria species integral to natural processes such as turning wine to vinegar. Their favorite food is ethanol or ethyl alcohol , the intoxicating element of booze, which they process and excrete as vinegar. They also enjoy plant sugars. Acetic Acid: Vinegar 🜊 in Ancient Alchemy Bacteria: Unseen Driving Force Behind All Life Acetic Acid: Nature, Microbes & Health Acetobacter acetic acid bacteria These microscopic allies are vital in various fermentation processes and have a rich history with human civilization. They're the primary component of the esteemed Mother of Vinegar ( Mycoderma aceti ) . This is a gelatinous growth from which more vinegar can be made, like sourdough starter. It's similar to SCOBY , Symbiotic Culture of Bacteria and Yeast, used to make Kombucha or fermented tea. Sucrose: Double Sugar of Science & Cuisine Spirit of Wine of the Wise: Alchemy Recipe Irrwurz or Mad Root: German Folklore kombucha SCOBY Origins & History Acetobacter bacteria are first identified in the 1860s during the study of vinegar production. The name " Acetobacter " derives from the Latin words “ aceto ” (vinegar) and “ bacter ” (rod). They're not the only vinegar bacteria but they often have a starring role. Historically, these bacteria have been used for thousands of years across different cultures. Ancient civilizations like the Egyptians and Romans use acetic acid in preservation and as a condiment. Acidosis & Body Fluid Acid Levels: Human Health Acetic Acid: Food, Health & Science Five Food Acids: Citric, Acetic, Malic, Tartaric & Lactic Mother of Vinegar in the Bottle - some vinegars are sold with "mothers" already starting Today, the beneficial bacteria have a niche for creating vinegar, one of the oldest fermented products known to humanity. Though a bane to vintners they are a flourishing interest in the micro-brew vinegar industry, producing specialty vinegars from fruit and other sugars. Life Cycle & Reproduction Acetobacter bacteria reproduce through binary fission, a straightforward method of cell division. In optimal conditions, a single Acetobacter cell can divide every 20-30 minutes, leading to rapid population growth. They thrive in aerobic conditions, meaning they need the presence of oxygen to metabolize ethanol and convert it into acetic acid. This metabolic conversion contributes not only to vinegar production but also to many fermented foods like cocoa and lambic beer. Cherish the Chocolate: Sweet Fermentation Glucose in Nature: Ecology & Environment Structures of Starch: Amylose & Amylopectin Action in Natural Processes Acetobacter bacteria are especially important in the fermentation process. When fruits, for example, ferment and release alcohol, Acetobacter is attracted to the ethanol produced. They help break down organic matter to facilitate nutrient cycling in ecosystems. They also contribute to the aromas and flavors of various products, enhancing biodiversity in microbial communities within food and beverages. Other consumables made with bacteria include yogurt, cheese and food additives such as xanthan gum . Acetate in Nature: Vital Functions & Health Gum Arabic, Guar, Xanthan: Guide for Artists & Artisans Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Xanthan Gum - made by bacteria How to Attract Acetic Acid Bacteria Create a sugary environment : Mix water with sugar or fruit juices to create a medium favorable for fermentation. Add alcohol : Introducing a small amount of ethanol can effectively attract these bacteria. They're most likely to show up if the ethanol emerges from yeast fermentation, which is why apple cider vinegar is considered "twice-fermented", by yeast followed by AAB. Provide oxygen : Since Acetobacter thrive in oxygen-rich environments, cover the fermentation container with a breathable material like cheesecloth to allow airflow. Maintain warmth : Keep the environment warm (70-85 °F or 21-30 °C ) for optimal growth conditions. Create Artisan Apple Cider Vinegar Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides Lactic Acid Bacteria: Team Players of Fermentation mature Mother of Vinegar - it can range from whitish to maroon or liver-red For acetic acid bacteria, providing a suitable environment with access to ethanol and oxygen is key. These bacteria introduced into the fermentation process use their unique abilities to produce vinegar and enhance flavor for distinct creations. They produce an impressive Mother. Lifespan of Vinegar Bacteria The lifespan of acetic acid bacteria varies based on environmental conditions. In ideal conditions, Acetobacter can live for weeks to months. Factors such as temperature, availability of nutrients, and oxygen levels can significantly influence their longevity. When acetic acid bacteria die, they undergo natural decomposition process. Dead bacteria release enzymatic and organic compounds, enriching the substrate with nutrients for other microorganisms. Decomposition is vital for ecological balance and promoting new growth. Rabbit Fever Plague & Warfare: Hittites Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Red & White Tartar: Wine Salts of Alchemy Facts About Acetobacter Bacteria Aerobic : Acetobacter requires oxygen to thrive, contrasting with many bacteria that prefer anaerobic conditions. Diverse species : There are several species of Acetobacter , each adapted to specific substrates and environmental conditions. Health benefits : When properly fermented, vinegar made with Acetobacter contains antioxidants and can provide health benefits, including improved digestion and blood sugar regulation. Environmental impact : Acetobacter bacteria contribute to organic matter decomposition, ultimately assisting in maintaining soil health and ecosystem functionality. Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Fulminating Gold: Blowing It Up in Alchemy Vinegar Eels: Life Cycle & Survival in Vinegar Vinegar Eels could show up for a visit Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

The Crabtree effect causes yeasts like Saccharomyces cerevisiae to produce alcohol in an oxygenated habitat under osmotic pressures from high environmental glucose levels. Usually, yeast would produce water. Brettanomyces : Favorite Artisan Wild Yeast Amazing Yeast: Feeding, Breeding & Biofilms ATP: Nature of Energy & Vital Functions It generates ethanol in anaerobic conditions. These are the rules, but Saccharomyces cerevisiae doesn't always play by the rules. Under certain conditions, this yeast prefers making booze. Fermentation in anaerobic settings lets S. cerevisiae  convert glucose into CO2 and ethanol quickly. This pathway is for rapid energy production, giving the yeast an advantage in competitive environments. Glycolysis: Biochemistry of Holistic Health Food Pathogens: Family Health & Safety Cornstarch: Cuisine, Beauty, Cleaning Uses During aerobic respiration via the TCA cycle, S. cerevisiae  typically produces more biomass for a higher energy yield per glucose molecule. It uses this energy to grow strong and prosper. Many brewers aerate the yeast in the wort before starting the fermentation process. Oxygenation allows microbes to form more robust colonies with lots of energy. Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld Krausen (Kräusen): Bubbles of Brewing Success Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Saccharomyces cerevisiae S. cerevisiae  can produce about 2.5 g of ethanol per liter of yeast per hour under optimal conditions with elevated glucose levels. The Crabtree effect illustrates flexibility of cellular metabolism influenced by available nutrients. It's not the only yeast to show this phenomenon but it's plentiful and easy to study. Others include species of Saccharomyces , Schizosaccharomyces , Debaryomyces, Brettanomyces , Torulopsis, Nematospora, and Nadsonia . Sucrose: Double Sugar of Science & Cuisine Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice a whitish film of wild yeast covers harvested grapes - this is often used to start fermentation The Citric Acid, TCA or Krebs Cycle Under normal aerobic conditions, most yeasts prefer to generate energy through the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) or Krebs cycle. In this process, glucose is broken down into pyruvate, which enters the TCA cycle. End products are ATP , carbon dioxide and water. This efficient pathway results in significant biomass production. When the external glucose concentration is elevated, S. cerevisiae turns from a respiration-focused organism to one favoring fermentation even in oxygen. The Probiotic Yeast: Saccharomyces boulardii Hanseniaspora : Wild Lovers of Sweet Grapes Homeostasis: Internal Balance of the Body This phenomenon prioritizes ethanol production over biomass accumulation. It works to transform glucose into ethanol and carbon dioxide instead of using resources for energy-efficient aerobic respiration. The artificial dominance of fermentation shown by the Crabtree effect shows the yeast's strategy to prioritize quick energy generation even when oxygen is available. In this way the yeast monopolizes sugar sources. Or maybe the acetic acid bacteria are hungry ... SCOBY & Mother of Vinegar: Cultured Cuisine Acetic Acid: Nature, Microbes & Health Five Major Proteins of Nature & Human Health acetic acid bacteria love the ethanol yeasts produce Mechanism of Action The Crabtree effect represses respiration and enhances the fermentation pathway. The switch is a calculated strategy for survival and proliferation in environments where both sugar and competition are abundant. Key enzymes in glycolysis, such as hexokinase and phosphofructokinase, are upregulated when high levels of glucose are detected. Concurrently, the activity of enzymes involved in the TCA cycle is downregulated. This leads carbon catabolite repression and corresponding increase in the fermentation pathway. Various transcription factors and signaling pathways, including those sensing nutrient levels, are influential. Phenols: Powerful Compounds of Nature Ethyl Acetate: Scent of Flowers, Wine & Fruits Calcium (Ca): Earth Metal of Structure & Strength This metabolic choice is not random. It's an adaptive response to ensure survival in sugary environments. Fermentation helps S. cerevisiae thrive. The yeast can rapidly use available sugars, fermenting them into alcohol. Proteins like Snf1 kinase and Mig1 transcription factor feature in this process. They regulate metabolic pathways, to shut down less favorable options and prompt the yeast to reach the decision to ferment. Structures of Starch: Amylose & Amylopectin Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Enzymes: Marvels of Nature & Human Health Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Biofilms are prosperous microbial communities, complex networks of microorganisms including bacteria, fungi and algae. Their secretions, extracellular polymeric substances, are the glue holding them all together. Polysaccharides: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose Biofilm Communities: Metropolitan Microbes Amazing Yeast: Feeding, Breeding & Biofilms EPSs are high molecular weight natural polymers secreted by microorganisms. Made of different secretions and materials, they influence the composition, structure, and functionality of biofilms. These substances help create a structural basis for biofilms. A significant portion of the microbial world thrives in biofilms. Without EPS, a biofilm disintegrates, leaving its inhabitants vulnerable. Fermentable & Non-Fermentable Sugars Fungal Biofilms: Ecology of Biofilm-Producing Molds & Yeasts Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment EPSs are made up of biomolecules such as polysaccharides , proteins , lipids, nucleic acids and minerals. Polysaccharides These complex carbohydrates are often the major structural component of EPS. They provide the skeleton of the structure, and contribute to the biofilm's overall manifestation. Different species of bacteria, algae, and yeast produce distinct polysaccharides. Each biofilm has unique properties. Some bacteria produce cellulose , a robust polysaccharide for rigidity. Streptococcus LAB: Lactic Acid Bacteria Catalase: Unseen Enzymes Essential to Life Cyanobacteria: Nutrients & Bacterial Blooms cellulose magnified Alginate, secreted by the marine bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa , is known for its ability to enhance the viscosity of biofilms. This helps nutrient retention and microbial interaction in densely populated environments. Proteins Proteins contribute to the EPS matrix in both structural and enzymatic ways. They can hold EPS components together, or include enzymes to break down nutrients and degrade toxins in biofilm environments. Phytoplankton: Environment & Human Health Science of Onion Tears: Demystifying Acids The Microscope: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Some proteins facilitate cell adhesion to surfaces, an important step in biofilm formation, as well as the daily life of immotile cells. Proteins also work as signaling molecules. In yeasts, glycoproteins in EPSs enable cell-to-cell communication, promoting biofilm development. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae 70% of genes in this communication are regulated by glycoproteins. Diatoms: Glass-Making Algae Crucial to Life Nitric Acid: Aqua Fortis the Acid Queen Heavy Metals Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Chromium & Arsenic Saccharomyces cerevisiae biofilm formation Nucleic Acids Both DNA and RNA are routinely found in EPS matrices. While their exact functions are still being investigated, they are believed to contribute to the biofilm's genetic diversity and stability. DNA released from lysed or decomposing cells can be taken up by other members of the biofilm. This contributes to horizontal gene transfer and adaptation. Sodium Silicate: Alchemy of Water Glass Pyrometallurgy: Ancient Processes of Modern Alchemy Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses Lipids & Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) Lipids provide a hydrophobic barrier within the EPS matrix, helping maintain the biofilm's hydration levels to prevent desiccation. LPS is primarily associated with gram-negative bacteria. Gram negative bacteria include Escherichia coli and Proteus spp. LPS can contribute to the biofilm's charge and interaction with the surrounding environment and adhesion to surfaces. Radioactive Gas: Radon (Rn) Noble & Deadly Escherichia coli (E. coli): The Good Bacteria Ammonium (NH+4): Nitrogen Needs of Plants E. coli (CDC image) Minerals Depending on the environment, EPS can also incorporate minerals like calcium, iron, or phosphate. These minerals can contribute to the biofilm's rigidity, serve as nutrients, or even provide protection against harsh conditions like UV radiation. Additionally, nucleic acids, particularly extracellular DNA (eDNA), enhance the structural stability and provide nutrients for microorganisms during stress. For example, eDNA in bacterial biofilms contributes to up to 20% of the total biofilm mass, highlighting its significance in microbial ecology. These diverse components enable EPSs to perform functions such as maintaining biofilm shape and protecting from antimicrobial forces. Sucrose: Double Sugar of Science & Cuisine Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper Glycolysis: Biochemistry of Holistic Health Desulfovibrio desulfuricans sulfur reducing bacteria biofilm EPS: Protection and Survival The presence of this complex EPS matrix profoundly impacts the life of the microorganisms within the biofilm. Structural Support The EPS matrix provides a cohesive framework holding the microbial community together, allowing cells to remain in close proximity and cooperate in essential metabolic processes. EPSs significantly enhance the stability of biofilms. Biofilms formed by Staphylococcus aureus  have great strength due to a robust EPS matrix. The matrix acts as a barrier against antibiotics and host immune responses. Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation Similarly, biofilms created by Candida albicans , a common yeast, use EPSs for stability. The polysaccharide-rich matrix organizes yeast cells and protects against host immune defenses. In aquatic ecosystems, algal biofilms use EPSs to retain moisture and create habitats for other microorganisms. The polysaccharide secretions stabilize the biofilm and provide a nutrient reservoir. Protection Survival is the name of the game. EPS is a physical barrier against environmental stresses. It shields microbes from desiccation, UV radiation, changes in pH and chemicals like disinfectants and antibiotics. Predators of the Microworld: Vampirovibrio  & Lysobacter Amino Acids: Optimal Body Health & Energy How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health In aquatic environments the EPS matrix adapts to and protects against physical disruptions, such as water turbulence. Biofilms by Synechococcus , a genus of photosynthetic cyanobacteria, endure high flow rates. EPSs shield microbial communities from predation by protozoa. For instance, Pseudomonas fluorescens  biofilms develop a thick EPS layer to deter grazing by predatory protozoa. In antibiotic resistance, the dense matrix limits antibiotic diffusion. This is a problem in healthcare settings, where most biofilm-related infections occur. Up to 65% of bacterial infections in hospitals are associated with biofilms. Pectin: Nature's Polysaccharide Gelatin Seven Probiotics: Human Digestive Health 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Nutrient Capture EPS is a nutrient trap, capturing and concentrating essential resources from the surrounding environment, ensuring a steady supply of food for the biofilm inhabitants. Cell-to-Cell Communication EPS facilitates communication between cells within the biofilm. Signaling molecules, such as quorum sensing molecules, can diffuse through the EPS matrix, coordinating gene expression and behaviors within the community. 10 Ancient Spices of Trade, Health & Beauty Copper (Cu) Effects on Human & Plant Health Glycerin (Glycerol): Darling of Cosmetics, Health & Science Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a notorious bacterium which produces a robust EPS matrix in the lungs of cystic fibrosis patients, contributing to chronic infections that are very difficult to treat. Streptococcus mutans , a primary cause of dental caries, forms biofilms on teeth. Its EPS enables it to withstand flushing actions of saliva and metabolize sugars to produce acids corrosive to tooth enamel. Many algal species, especially marine diatoms, form extensive biofilms on ship hulls and other submerged surfaces. The EPS produced by these microalgae causes significant economic losses in the shipping industry. Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine tourist industry has picked up ... Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Green algae are simple life forms with amazing impact on the environments of Earth. Algae can be grown at home for microscopy, biology research, nutrition, fishkeeping and personal interest, creating a water garden of delights. Here are basics for successful algae cultivation. Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment Biofilm Communities: Metropolitan Microbes Catalase: Unseen Enzymes Essential to Life Healthy Algae Growth Cultivating green algae at home can be an engaging and enriching experience. As interest in sustainable living and eco-friendly practices grows, scientists are turning attention to green algae, one of the least complex yet most significant organisms on the planet. There are many reasons for cultivating algae at home, from developing certain pure strains and specimens to using it in cuisine to adventures in microscopy. If a water source is near, natural river or pond water can be used if simply searching for animalcules . Rotifers (Rotifera): Animalcules Under the Microscope Lactic Acid Bacteria: Nature to Modern Uses Arsenic Trioxide: Paris Green Paint Pigment & Pesticide Two microscopic rotifers, harmless to humans - there are over 2000 species, many yet to be discovered About Green Algae Green algae is neither plant nor animal. It belongs to the group Protista, which includes both microscopic and larger organisms. They share some traits with plants, such as the vital ability to perform photosynthesis, and a few species are even motile, gliding through hidden realms. Algae do not have the true roots, stems, or leaves. They carry chlorophyll, the pigment giving plants their green color. This allows them to photosynthesize and produce their own food, but they lack the complex structures and systems of true plants. Some common types of green algae include Chlamydomonas  and Chlorella . Chlamydomonas is a motile unicellular algae, meaning it can move on its own, while Chlorella is found in small colonies. Chlorella contains 60% protein by weight as a popular health supplement. Diatoms: Glass-Making Algae Crucial to Life Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides Lab-grown algae, Chlorella culture (credit: Caroline Léna Becker) Origins of Algae Algae have been on Earth for about 3 billion years, before land plants. They originate in the ancient oceans and promote development of atmospheric oxygen levels. Their evolution happens in a variety of aquatic settings, including oceans, freshwater lakes and wet soil. Through photosynthesis, green algae release oxygen as a byproduct, enriching the planet's oxygen supply and forming the foundation of aquatic food webs. Today, algae can be found in environments ranging from ponds and streams to water pipe leaks to the open ocean. Algae reproduce both sexually and asexually. For example, under optimal conditions, a single algae cell can split into hundreds of new cells within a few days. Rapid reproduction allows them to adapt quickly and prosper in times of change. Algae in Glass Houses: Diatomaceous Earth Yarrow (Achillea) Magic & Medicine Vorticella: Mysterious Microscopic Pond Life Algae is a participant in environmental biofilms Purpose of Algae in Environment and Ecosystem Oxygen Production : Through photosynthesis, green algae contribute significantly to the Earth's oxygen supply, making them vital for the survival of aerobic organisms. They're primary producers converting sunlight into energy through photosynthesis. This process provides a basic energy source for the food chain. Base of the Food Chain : Algae are a primary food source for numerous aquatic organisms including fish, zooplankton, and invertebrates. They form the basis of marine and freshwater food webs. In a healthy aquatic ecosystem, it's estimated one gram of algae can support over 1,000 grams (2.2 lb) of fish. Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Sodium Silicate: Alchemy of Water Glass Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses Algae are nutritious for baby herbivorous fish Carbon Sequestration : Algae absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and oceans, helping to reduce climate change effects. They may sequester up to 2 billion tons of carbon each year globally, emphasizing their role in controlling greenhouse gases. Water Quality Improvement : Algae can filter pollutants and excess nutrients from water, improving the overall health of aquatic ecosystems. How to Grow Green Algae at Home Cultivating green algae at home is a straightforward and rewarding activity. If you want specific type of algae, get it from a reputable source. Otherwise the green algae will form on its own. Containers : Use clear containers such as glass aquariums, glass jars or plastic bottles to allow optimal light penetration. Clean the containers well to avoid any outside contamination. Glass ware can be boiled (low boil) before use, which is done in making wine, pickles or preserves. Diana's Tree: Silver Crystals of Lunar Caustic B. Linens Bacterium: Big Cheese of B.O. Fungal Biofilms: Ecology of Biofilm-Producing Molds Water : Distilled or dechlorinated water works well. Tap water may contain chlorine, which can inhibit growth. Chlorine is the nemesis of algae. Rainwater is a natural growing medium for algae. Water temperature between 20-25°C (68-77°F) is ideal. Most green algae prefer temperatures between 20°C to 30°C (68°F to 86°F). If using commercial algae add it to the water as per manufacturers' directions. Light Source : Algae thrive in bright, indirect sunlight or under LED grow lights. They love light and should receive around 12-16 hours of it daily. Nutrients : Green algae need nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Use aquatic plant fertilizers or organic supplements.   10 Ancient Spices of Trade, Health & Beauty Copper (Cu) Effects on Human & Plant Health Glycerin (Glycerol): Darling of Cosmetics, Health & Science Plants growing in laboratory Add a sprinkle of baking soda to help alkalinize the water. Algae prefers a pH level of 8.2 - 8.7, which is quite alkaline. Litmus paper evaluates water pH. It's used to monitor swimming pool water quality and important if it's necessary to sustain balanced aquatic environments. After a few days, visual growth should appear. Regularly check the water's pH and nutrient levels, adjusting as necessary to maintain a thriving environment. Once the algae have multiplied, harvest them using fine mesh or siphon methods. Always leave some algae to ensure ongoing growth. Optimal Conditions for Algae Growth To create an ideal environment for algae growth: Light : Position your containers where they'll receive ample light but avoid direct sunlight, which can overheat water. Avoid sudden changes in water temperature. Iodine (I): Origin, Properties, Uses & Facts Human Methane: Meet the Microbes of Flatulence White Lead Toxic Beauty, Art, Ancient Production Algae Farm Water Aeration : Gentle aeration helps circulate nutrients and increases oxygen availability, promoting algae growth. Use an aquarium air pump for best results, or regularly refresh with some clean water. If water starts to stagnate, acidity level rises and mold can set in. pH Level : Algae generally prefer a slightly alkaline pH (around 7-8). Adjust if necessary with baking soda (alkaline) or vinegar (acidic). Chlorine (Cl): Properties, Hazards & Uses Lake Van: Fate of a Primeval Salt Lake Ethyl Alcohol: Science of Solvents & Booze sodium bicarbonate Carbon dioxide (CO2) is vital for photosynthesis, so a steady supply will enhance growth. Sodium bicarbonate or baking soda produces CO2 in water. Algae can capture and use the atmospheric CO2 as well. Human breath expels about 5% CO2, which is one reason plants seem to flourish more when people talk to them. Microbes Living in Green Algae Green algae do not live alone. In nature they interact with organisms large and small, including bacteria and protozoa , to help maintain their environment. Aspergillus Flavus Mold: Origins, Behavior, Dangers Food Pathogens: Family Health & Safety Lye (NaOH): Caustic Soda for Soap & Glass These microbes can play supporting roles in the ecosystem: Bacteria : Some bacteria form symbiotic relationships with algae, aiding in nutrient absorption, or release nutrients into the water to algae growth. They also decompose organic matter, contributing to nutrient cycling. Protozoa : These unicellular organisms can consume algae, playing a role in regulation, but they can also be used as indicators of water quality. They help balance populations to prevent overgrowth. Paramecium bursaria , a familiar aerobic free-moving ciliate in water, is famous for its symbiotic relationship with algae. P. bursaria contains hundreds of algae. They break down nutrients for the ciliate, who gives them protection and a free ride. Fungi : Some fungi establish symbiotic relationships with algae, aiding in nutrient uptake and providing protection. Copper and silver are natural fungicides and microbicides. Copper especially is renowned for its ability to kill bacteria which cause infection in humans. It's also effective against the bacteria causing " rotten egg " sulfur smell. Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine Copper coins - people used to toss them into wells to get a wish from the resident spirit or nixie Consumers of Green Algae Green algae are a crucial food source for many organisms, including: Herbivorous Fish : Fish species, such as tilapia and goldfish, commonly graze on algae. Invertebrates : Snails, clams, and certain types of aquatic insects feed on algae. Zooplankton : Small aquatic animals play a significant role in the food web by consuming algae and converting them into biomass for larger predators. Humans: Common bipedal mammals with omnivorous or vegetarian diets. Algae Hazards While many types of algae are harmless, certain conditions can lead to harmful algal blooms (HABs), which produce toxins harmful to aquatic life and humans. Therefore, it’s essential to monitor the growth of algae in a fishpond at home or larger scale in industry and farming. Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Mordants - Essential Ancient Dye Techniques 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Algae blooms in nature can cause: Oxygen Depletion : Large blooms can consume oxygen in the water, creating dead zones where aquatic life cannot survive. Toxins : Certain harmful algae, like blue-green algae or cyanobacteria, produce toxins affecting wildlife and humans. They can cause serious health issues if ingested or if they come in contact with skin. Swimming in bioluminescent algae or infection by these algae can cause severe damage to liver or nerve cells. Red & White Tartar: Wine Salts of Alchemy Oil-Dwelling Microbes: Bacteria, Yeast, Fungi Colorful World of Bacteria - Color Producers bioluminescent algae is beautiful, but toxic to humans and pets Facts About Green Algae Diversity : Green algae include thousands of species, from microscopic phytoplankton to large, visible forms like sea lettuce. Applications : Biotechnological applications include using green algae for biofuels, animal feed, and wastewater treatment. Oxygen Contribution : Algae are vital to producing oxygen. Estimates suggest they contribute 50% or more of the Earth's oxygen supply. Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld Iodine (I): Origin, Properties, Uses & Facts Copper (Cu): Ruddy Metal of Myth & Magic Oxygen tank for diving Aquascaping : Green algae can also be used in aquascaping to create visually appealing aquatic environments in tanks. Color Spectrum : Though often called "green algae," they can show red, brown, or blue colors based on species and environmental conditions. Clear Water Indicator : In algae cultivation, clear water can signify healthy growth but may also suggest nutrient depletion. Nutritional "Superfood" : Certain algae types, like spirulina and chlorella, are lauded for high protein content and essential vitamins, making them excellent dietary supplements. Vinegar Eels: Life Cycle & Survival in Vinegar Spirit of Wine of the Wise: Alchemy Recipe Chlorine (Cl): Properties, Hazards & Uses Algae on a roof enjoying the abundance of sunlight Cultivating green algae at home is an intriguing hobby, and provides valuable insights into ecology and sustainability. 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Sucrose, commonly known as table sugar, is a disaccharide or double sugar of glucose and fructose. Most sucrose eaten by humans comes from sugar beets and sugarcane. The process begins with photosynthesis . Fermentable & Non-Fermentable Sugars Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper Glycolysis: Biochemistry of Holistic Health sugar cubes - glucose & fructose In photosynthesis, plants convert sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into glucose. Glucose is then combined with fructose to form sucrose. To extract sucrose, sugarcane and sugar beet sap is harvested and purified. In large exporters like Brazil, which produces about 40% of the world’s sugar, mechanical harvesters collect sugarcane. The juice is extracted and crystallized, transforming raw sap in to familiar refined table sugar. Structures of Starch: Amylose & Amylopectin Five Sugars: Glucose, Maltose, Fructose, Sucrose, Lactose Carbohydrates: Sugars of Nature & Health sugarcane processing - waste, or bagasse, is used in animal feed, paper and fueling boilers of sugar mills The bond between glucose and fructose is created through a dehydration reaction, in which a molecule of water is removed. When plants produce glucose, some is converted into fructose. Monosaccharides glucose and fructose are the basic sugars of most fruit. Sucrose appears as white crystals with about 4 calories / gram. Sucrose is found naturally in a wide variety of plants. Besides the prime sources sugar beets and sugarcane, it forms in fruit like pineapples, peaches, oranges, cherries and apples. Five Types of Resistant Starch: Fiber & Health Mannose: Simple Sugar of Nature & Health Cherish the Chocolate: Sweet Fermentation sugar beet illustration Vegetables like carrots and sweet potatoes get their flavors from sucrose. Honey, produced by bees from nectar, contains a significant amount of this carbohydrate. In nature, sucrose is an essential energy storage form. Plants store energy and use it during periods of low light, sprouting and growth, or unfavorable conditions. Plants also store sugar energy as polysaccharides like starch. Sucrose molecules are efficient ways to package and transport energy. From the leaves where photosynthesis occurs they travel throughout the plant to the roots and other tissues. Galactose: Simple Sugar of Nature & Health Flavonoids: the Big Five of Aroma, Flavor & Color Ethyl Acetate: Scent of Flowers, Wine & Fruits carrots Sucrose is less reactive than its individual components, glucose and fructose, making it a stable and readily available energy source for growth, reproduction, and other vital processes. Many animals, including humans, rely on sucrose as an energy source. A medium apple can contain about 10 grams of sucrose. High in fiber, apples are largely undigestible until they reach the colon. The sugars feed the digestive microbes and fortify intestinal cell walls. As humans consume sucrose, it's broken back down to glucose and fructose through the action of the enzyme, sucrase, produced in the small intestine. Maltose: Sweet Delight of Brewing & Energy Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment How Yeast Transforms Sugars to Booze Glucose enters the bloodstream as a main source of energy for cells. Fructose is metabolized primarily in the liver. While both provide calories, their metabolic pathways differ. Once glucose enters the bloodstream, it fuels bodily functions and can be stored as glycogen for later use. Fructose can either be converted to glucose or stored as fat. Lactase: Nutrition & the Milk Sugar Enzyme Sugars D-Galactose & L-Galactose: Nutrition Amylase: Starch to Sugar Enzyme of Digestion & Fermentation Sucrose is a fermentable sugar. This property is used in production of booze and baked goods. When yeast consumes sucrose, the enzyme invertase breaks it down to glucose and fructose. Yeast absorbs the sugars, releasing byproducts carbon dioxide and water in aerobic respiration, and CO2 and ethanol in anaerobic respiration or fermentation. In baking and brewing both are part of the process. Glucose: Essential Functions in Human Health Cellulose: Plant Fibers of Structure & Strength Yeast Enzymes: Maltase, Invertase & Zymase Sucrose in Cuisine Sucrose's most well-known benefit lies in its ability to sweeten and preserve food and beverages. It enhances flavors and adds texture. Highly concentrated sugar solutions have antimicrobial properties. Yeast for example loves sugars but will die in too high a concentration. Most bacteria dislike high sugar content. Baking : Sucrose is active in the Maillard Reaction . For instance, in cookies, sucrose helps achieve a crispy texture, and browning through caramelization, which develops deeper flavors. Wort: Sweet Temptation for Beer-Making Yeast Create Artisan Apple Cider Vinegar Saccharomyces cerevisiae : Queen of Yeasts cookies of sugar and spice Confectionery : The high solubility of sucrose allows it to create smooth and creamy textures in candies and chocolates. It also acts as a preservative, extending the shelf life of these treats. Beverages : From adding sweetness to your morning coffee to creating refreshing summer drinks, sucrose is a versatile ingredient that enhances the flavor profile of countless beverages. Preservation : Sucrose, in high concentrations, acts as a natural preservative by reducing water activity, inhibiting microbial growth, and extending the shelf life of jams, jellies, and other foods. Science of Alchemy: Simple Distillation Process Yeast, Humans & Aerobic Respiration of Cells Krausen (Kräusen): Bubbles of Brewing Success In candy-making, sucrose is used for sweetness and structure as in hard candies and chocolates. No matter what shape it takes, sucrose is the main component of sugar-based candies. Other Uses Pharmaceuticals: Sucrose is used as a coating for pills to improve their palatability and protect them from degradation. Cosmetics: Sucrose can be found in some skincare products as a humectant, helping to attract and retain moisture. Industrial Applications: Sucrose can be used in the production of biofuels and other industrial chemicals. Pectin: Nature's Polysaccharide Gelatin Seven Probiotics: Human Digestive Health 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life The term "sugar" is originally used only for sucrose. It's historically a luxury item and used sparingly. Over time, the term has become more general, encompassing sweet carbohydrates in general. Sucrose functions in plant communication. When under stress, such as from pests, some plants can release sucrose to signal other parts of themselves, or their neighbors, to prepare defenses. Apples: Nature, Spirituality & Folklore Honey Bees (Apidae): Nature & Myth Secrets of Xanthan Gum for Artists & Chefs ancient human defenses, using plants Candy canes come from 17th century Cologne, Germany. A local candy maker is commissioned to create treats for children to keep them quiet during Christmas Eve Mass. He makes sugar sticks with hooked ends to resemble shepherd's crooks, to associate them with the nativity and Christmas. Today they're a widespread tradition. 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Yeast is a single-celled organism of kingdom Fungi. Immotile yet dynamic and adept, these microbes are a treat to scientists for their unique cellular abilities, such as communication and biofilm production. In microbiology yeast has been genetically altered and partly synthesized. Feed the Yeast: Nutrients for Microbe Health Spores & Yeast: Saccharomyces cerevisiae Five Sugars: Glucose, Maltose, Fructose, Sucrose, Lactose An ancient being, yeast emerges on Earth several hundred million years ago. It's a microscopic eukaryote , a group whose cells have a true nucleus. This covers life forms from single celled organisms like yeast to the complexity of a human body with 30 trillion cells. While Saccharomyces cerevisiae  is the most commonly known species, others like Candida , Brettanomyces , and Kluyveromyces  also have significant impact to natural processes and consumers. Varied metabolic capabilities and adaptability contribute to this diversity. Wild Yeast: Microbes Acting Naturally Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes: Life Forms on Earth Yeast: Potent Power of the Active Microworld Saccharomyces cerevisiae budding - the brown spots are "bud scars" left by previous yeast buds. Yeast is often studied in microbiology due to its simple cellular structure and complex biochemical pathways. It's a model organism for understanding the functions of eukaryote cells. Yeast has many processes to survive in diverse competitive environments. Structure of a Yeast Cell Components of yeast cells have specific functions. Capsule The capsule of a yeast cell is made mainly of polysaccharides and has mechanisms to synergize and confer protection to yeast cells. It protects against hostile cells, desiccation, and helps adherence to surfaces. Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld Yeast & Mold: Ancient Fungi, Modern World Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Parts of a Yeast Cell Cell Wall The outermost layer of the yeast cell wall is primarily made of chitin and glucan, providing structural support and protection. It acts as a barrier against environmental stresses, such as changes in osmotic pressure, and is crucial for cell shape. Cell Membrane (Cytoplasmic Membrane) Beneath the cell wall is the cell plasma membrane, a lipid bilayer. The membrane controls what enters and exits the cell. It is vital for nutrient absorption. It contains proteins to facilitate transport and communication between individual cells. In killer yeast strains, signals between cells activate toxins to target weak or non-species yeast cells. Killer yeast is one aspect of the normally beneficial Saccharomyces cerevisiae and can destroy a batch of beer or wine. Oil-Dwelling Microbes: Bacteria, Yeast & Mold Hildegard von Bingen: Nature, Music & Beer Cupriavidus metallidurans : Metal Eating Gold Making Bacterium Nucleus The nucleus holds the cell's genetic material (DNA) and controls cellular activities. Surrounded by a nuclear envelope, it's the site of transcription, where RNA is synthesized from DNA. It contains the genetic instructions to create proteins and other vital components. Cytoplasm This gel-like substance fills the cell and contains various organelles, enzymes, and nutrients. It is the site for metabolic activities. For instance, yeast converts sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide during fermentation. Mitochondria Known as the powerhouse of the cell, mitochondria generate energy through cellular respiration, converting glucose and oxygen into ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which drives cellular functions. Yeast can generate ATP seventeen times more efficiently than most bacteria. Amoebae: Microbial Predators on the Move Malevolent Microfungi: Hazards of Health & Home Killer Yeast: Assassins of the Microworld Wild yeast on grapes: it colonizes ripe fruit ready for fermentation. Vacuoles Yeast cells contain large vacuoles to store nutrients, waste products, and ions critical for survival. They help maintain osmotic balance through turgor pressure, and contribute to cell growth by holding materials the cell can use later. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) and Golgi Apparatus These organelles are involved in synthesis and transport of proteins and lipids. The rough ER has ribosomes for protein synthesis; the smooth ER is involved in lipid production. The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for secretion or delivery to other organelles. Honey Mead: Most Ancient Ambrosia Song of the Loreley - Lethal Beauty Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper Nutrient Absorption and Communication A yeast cell primarily absorbs food through its plasma membrane using facilitated diffusion and active transport. Glucose, the main energy source, is taken up by specific transport proteins in the cell membrane. . Once inside the cell, glucose undergoes glycolysis, breaking down into pyruvate, which is then used in cellular respiration to produce ATP. Saccharomyces cerevisiae spp can consume up to 90% of sugars available in its environment during fermentation. Pyrococcus furiosus : Extremophile of Vulcano Microbial Reproduction: Mitosis & Meiosis Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Yeast cells communicate through chemical signaling. They release signaling molecules, such as pheromones to coordinate behavior in biofilm formation. This communication allows yeast to sense environmental changes and adapt accordingly. Yeast cells share information about nutrient availability, which influences colony formation. Studies show that yeast can coordinate their behavior, with over half the cells in a colony responding to nutrient signals to enhance survival and growth. Yeast: Microbiology of Bread & Food Making How Yeast Transforms Sugars to Booze Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Colonization and Biofilm Creation Yeast is an expert colonizer. When conditions are favorable, yeast can reproduce rapidly, dispersing spores to sprout, or budding off new cells. This adaptability enables it to exploit diverse environments, from sugar and starches, which it converts to sugar. Wild yeast is often seen as a whitish film on fruit such as grapes, plums, raspberries and blueberries when the fruits are ripe and ready to ferment. Wild yeast and grape juice create the first wine and this process is cultivated by early people. Biofilm Communities: Metropolitan Microbes GI Yeast Hunter: Bacteroides thetaiotomicron Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris honey is a favorite edible of yeasts, but must be hydrolyzed first The earliest known use of wild yeast is in honey mead dating to the Neolithic agricultural revolution c. 7800 BCE. Sedentary conditions of agriculturalists and proliferation of flowers in regions previously covered by ice make early bee keeping a productive art. Yeast is present in the nectar of flowers. It arrives in bee hives on little bee feet. In the hive it dwells among the cells by the honey reservoir. If honey reaches a certain water content level the yeast can access its sugars. Biofilm formation Yeast cells are also engineers. They can adhere to surfaces and each other, creating a complex, structured community encased in a protective matrix of extracellular polymeric substance (EPS). Seven Probiotics: Human Digestive Health Mysteries of Bona Dea: Women's Rites in Ancient Rome 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine yeast producing biofilm Biofilms can be helpful or harmful to humans. For instance, wild yeast biofilms help in natural colonization and fermentation, and rarely cause harm. On the other hand, pathogenic Candida spp can create biofilms shielding cells from antifungal treatments. The biofilm provides protection from environmental stresses and fosters anaerobic conditions of fermentation. It enhances nutrient absorption and facilitates communication between cells. The building of yeast biofilms is a marvel even ancient Romans would envy. Kakia: Greek Goddess of Vice & Abominations Methanogens: Microbes of Methane Production Bacteria & Archaea: Differences & Similarities So what do they use for cement? Yeast cells are able to colonize a wide range of habitats. For instance, Candida albicans , a yeast commonly found in human bodies, can survive in varying pH levels from 4.0 to 9.0. Biofilms formed by Candida  species strongly resist antifungal treatments. Overall, yeast most enjoys a pH of 5.5. When yeast cells find themselves in a suitable habitat, they multiply rapidly. Some can double their population in 90 minutes. This fast growth helps outcompete other microorganisms and establish dominance in new territories. Fungal Biofilms: Ecology of Biofilm-Producing Molds & Yeasts Rotten Egg Sulfur Smell: Microbial Processes Colorful World of Bacteria - Color Producers Yeast send out false hyphae to seek new colonial opportunities. These are filamentous structures composed of living cells which assume a branching appearance, often seen extruding from established colonies, or even a single yeast cell. False hyphae involve cooperation of several cells detached from each other yet bonded together. Yeast is also known to form true hyphae, in which the cells create branches made from the fusion of cells. In this and other ways yeast can act as a multi-cellular being. The Microscope: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Red & White Tartar: Wine Salts of Alchemy Vulcano: Child Miners, Gods & Extremophiles Candida albicans colonies branching out Reproduction: Budding vs. Binary Fission Yeast predominantly reproduces through budding, a process where a new cell forms as a small protrusion from the parent cell. This process allows the parent to maintain its structure while producing offspring, sometimes leading to a chain of budding cells. Mitosis is a form of nuclear division in eukaryotes, including yeast, which occurs before budding to ensure each new cell has a complete set of chromosomes. Mitosis results in two genetically identical daughter cells. Mythic Fire Gods: Hephaestus of the Greek 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files daughters Budding is distinct from binary fission, a process seen in many prokaryotic organisms where the cell divides into two equal halves. Unlike binary fission, budding results in asymmetrical cell division. The primary difference between budding and fission is how cells separate and share their genetic material. Budding allows more efficient growth under changing environmental conditions. During the process a small bulge forms on the parent cell. This bud enlarges and eventually separates to become an independent cell. Under optimal conditions, a single yeast cell can produce over a million daughter cells within 24 hours. Potash: Agriculture, Plant & Garden Health Arsenic: Murderous Metal & Miracle Cure Amazons - Warrior Women History & Myth Yeast budding. When colonizing they also elongate their bodies to cover more space. Interesting Facts About Yeast Diversity : There are over 1,500 species of yeast, with Saccharomyces cerevisiae being the most studied due to its significance in baking and fermentation. Besides baking and brewing, yeast is critical in producing bioethanol, vinegar, and fermented foods like yogurt and kimchi. The global market for fermented foods is expected to reach over $600 billion by 2025. Alcohol Production : Yeast is used by humans in fermentation for thousands of years. Fermentation converts sugars into alcohol (ethanol) and carbon dioxide. This process is vital for producing beer, wine, cider and mead. Genetic Research : Yeast serves as an important model organism in genetic research. Its simple genome and rapid growth make it ideal for studying cellular processes, genetics, and biotechnology. Medicinal Uses : Certain yeast species are utilized in biotechnology for the production of pharmaceuticals, including insulin and vaccines. Yeast shows resistance to various environmental stresses, like high sugar concentrations and extreme temperatures. This remarkable resilience enables their survival in different habitats. Nutritional Value : Yeast is rich in B vitamins, proteins, and essential amino acids, making it a nutritional supplement in many diets. The yeast cell is a remarkable microcosm of biological processes, exhibiting complex mechanisms of nutrient absorption, communication, colonization, and reproduction. Yeast, Humans & Aerobic Respiration of Cells Fermentation Energy: Yeast & Lactic Acid Bacteria Glycolysis: Biochemistry of Holistic Health Carbon dioxide of yeast fermentation causes bread to rise and contributes to its flavor Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Algae are a diverse range of species, from microscopic phytoplankton to massive kelp forests. Their variety comes from lack of a common ancestor. They share the ability to create energy from sunlight. How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health Diatoms: Glass-Making Algae Crucial to Life Cyanobacteria: Nutrients & Bacterial Blooms Algae are polyphyletic, descended from various species over time. They can be prokaryotes like cyanobacteria , single cells without a true nucleus, to complex collections of eukaryotic cells. Often called blue-green algae, cyanobacteria are bacteria with the ability for photosynthesis. Their production of oxygen is a large factor in the Great Oxidation Even 2400-2100 mya. Nonflowering water-loving plants, algae are a large group including the seaweeds and single-celled forms. There are between 30,000 and over a million species. Phosphorus: Element of Fatal Fascination ATP: Nature of Energy & Vital Functions Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Prochlorococcus marinus cyanobacteria Algae have chlorophyll but lack true stems, roots, leaves, and vascular tissue. Like plants, algae convert light into energy through photosynthesis , using CO2 and water to produce sugars and oxygen. Algae fall in two main categories, microalgae and macroalgae. Microalgae are microscopic, often floating freely in water, while macroalgae (seaweed) are larger, growing in many marine environments. At the microscopic level, algae display a wide array of forms and functions. Single-celled diatoms, with beautiful silica shells, are responsible for a major part of global photosynthesis. Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld Lactic Acid: Natural Process & Human Health diatom Dinoflagellates are another group of single-celled algae. The name comes from their two flagella which give them motility. They're found in fresh and sea water, with the majority liking saline. About 2300 known species of dinoflagellate exist. The dinoflagellate Erythropsidinium has the smallest known eye. Some species are bioluminescent, glowing on beaches or flashing in the water. They're known for algal blooms. Dinoflagellates like Karenia brevis are notorious for toxic red tides, which occur when weather and nutrient conditions are right. Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Catalase: Unseen Enzymes Essential to Life Lactic Acid Bacteria: Nature to Modern Uses Blooms are about a million cells per milliliter. They produce brevetoxins and saxitoxin, the cause of paralytic shellfish poisoning. Algae provide food for organisms like fish and shellfish. Kelp forests, composed of large brown algae, can support more than 800 different species of marine life. Algae are promoted for nutritional benefits. Species like spirulina and chlorella contain valuable proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Invisible World: Prokaryotes & Animalcules Fatty Acids: Environment & Human Health Five Food Acids: Citric, Acetic, Malic, Tartaric & Lactic These microalgae are common ingredients in dietary supplements and health food. A tablespoon of spirulina contains bout 4 grams of protein. Some seaweed species have emulsifying properties. Red dye or pigment has been extracted from red algae. Brown seaweed like kelp is a source of essential iodine. Algae farming is big business today and helps produce oxygen through algal consumption of CO2. Algae help regulate atmospheric carbon dioxide. In photosynthesis, they sequester significant amounts of carbon. Algae can absorb up to 1.8 billion tons of carbon dioxide annually. Maltose: Sweet Delight of Brewing & Energy Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Five Types of Resistant Starch: Fiber & Health Algae are fundamental to the health of aquatic environments and, by extension, the entire planet. They create 50-85% of Earth's oxygen. Algae form the base of the food web in aquatic ecosystems. Algae is of scientific interest for: Biofuel production: Algae can be cultivated for oils, which in a perfect world can be converted into biodiesel and other biofuels, offering a renewable alternative to fossil fuels. Carbon capture: Algae can be used to capture carbon dioxide from industrial emissions, the largest source of pollutants. Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment Candida albicans: Nature of the Yeast Cellulose: Plant Fibers of Structure & Strength Wastewater treatment: Algae can absorb nitrogen and phosphorus to remove bloom-feeding nutrients from wastewater. Countless microbes are investigated for bioremediation, arousing questions as to the facts behind this chronic need. An interesting species is Cupriavidus metallidurans , which eats metal and produces gold. Algae are also vulnerable to pollution. A major problem is nutrient runoff from agricultural fertilizers, especially containing phosphates, creating harmful algal blooms like green or red tides. Phenols: Nature's Creations in Daily Life Polysaccharides: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose Milk & Dairy: Ancient Lactose Gene These reduce oxygen levels and release poisons such as brevetoxins. Blooms deplete oxygen levels in water, creating "dead zones" especially along shorelines. Microalgae are natural water filters. They absorb organic substances from wastewater, biodegrade pollutants and assimilate CO2, helping improve water quality. Glycolysis: Biochemistry of Holistic Health ATP: Nature of Energy & Vital Functions Irrwurz or Mad Root: German Folklore Food and feed: Algae are a rich source of protein, vitamins, and minerals, potential ingredients for human and animal feed. For thousands of years, seaweed farming has been part of East Asian culinary traditions. Fossils of isolated spores show land plants to exist as early as 475 million years ago during the Late Cambrian/Early Ordovician period. According to the theory, plants evolve from sessile shallow freshwater charophyte algae. The algae is stranded on land when water levels drop during dry seasons and must adapt or die. They evolve filamentous thalli and holdfasts resembling plant stems and roots. Oil-Dwelling Microbes: Bacteria, Yeast & Mold Science of Onion Tears: Demystifying Acids Ephedra - Oldest Medical Stimulant Herb Symbiosis Some algae species create symbiotic relationships with other organisms. In these partnerships, the algae provide nutrition to the host, which in turn offers protection to the algal cells. The host organism meets some or all its energy needs through the algae. Paramecium bursaria is a ciliate species of marine and brackish waters. It has a mutualistic endosymbiotic relationship with the green algae Zoochlorella . The algae live inside the transparent ciliate, producing oxygen and nutrients. In exchange they get protection and a scenic ride through the competitive microworld. Ancient Marsh Muse - Rough Horsetail Rise of Pan: Fertility Goat God Péh₂usōn Herbology & Lore: Stinging Nettle microscopic Paramecium bursaria with algae Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top