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Compost is the heart of sustainable gardening. Composting turns scraps into nutritious soil, with help from microbes and other organisms. As an organic process, decomposition is integral to a healthy ecosystem . Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Carbon Fixation: Environmental Heath & Ecology Glucose in Nature: Ecology & Environment Composting relies on a balance of ingredients. Greens ( Nitrogen -Rich): These provide nitrogen, fueling the decomposition process. Examples include: Fruit and vegetable scraps Coffee grounds (including paper filters) Grass clippings (no pesticides) Fresh leaves Polysaccharides: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Potash: Agriculture, Plant & Garden Health Browns ( Carbon -Rich): These provide carbon, which helps with aeration and balances the nitrogen. Examples include: Dry leaves Twigs and small branches Shredded paper and cardboard (non-glossy) Straw Sawdust (from untreated wood Escherichia coli (E. coli): The Good Bacteria Feed the Yeast: Nutrients for Microbe Health Ammonium (NH+4): Nitrogen Needs of Plants Water: Moisture is important for the microorganisms breaking down the organic matter. The compost pile should feel like a damp sponge. 40-60% moisture is optimal for decomposition. Air: Turning the pile regularly with a pitchfork or other pronged implement introduces air. Composting Methods Open Pile Composting: This is the simplest method. Pile materials in a designated area in the yard. It needs regular turning for aeration. Microfungi: Mysterious Web of Life & Death Fruit Breakdown: Decomposition of an Apple Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Compost Bin:  A compost bin helps contain the pile and often has features to improve aeration and temperature control. For the handy, it's easy to make at home with wood slats and chicken wire. Tumbler Composter: Rotating bins reduce physical labor and speed up the composting process. Vermicomposting (Worm Composting): This method uses worms to break down organic matter, ideal for indoor composting and smaller spaces. Fructose (Fruit Sugar): Sweetest Saccharide Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment Composting Process Layer Materials: Begin with a layer of coarse brown materials, like small branches or straw, for airflow. Alternate layers of green and brown materials with a ratio of 2 parts brown to 1 part green. Add Water: Moisten the pile regularly with non-chlorinated water, ensuring it's damp but not soggy. Turn the Pile: Turn the compost pile every few days to a week, especially during initial active decomposition phase. This adds oxygen and speeds decomposition as microorganisms reduce organic matter more efficiently. How to Make a Sourdough Starter Kahm Yeast: the Wild Ones Pseudomonadota : E. coli, Gonorrhea & Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria major composting During composting, organic acids are neutralized. Mature compost has a healthy pH from 6 to 8. In anaerobic conditions, organic acids can build up instead of decomposing. Aeration nullifies this threat. Check the pile regularly. If it's too dry, add water. If it smells bad (like ammonia), it may need more browns. Monitor moisture content. It should be damp but not wet. If it's too dry, add water or more green matter. If too wet, mix in more brown materials to soak up excess moisture. Lactobacillus: Nature of Lactic Acid Bacteria Pasteurization: Microbial Dominance & Destruction Song of the Loreley - Lethal Attraction indoor composting The Joy of Humus After several weeks or months, depending on the method and materials,, compost will be ready. Full decomposition can take up to a year in some cases. Compost should be dark and crumbly with a pleasant earthy smell. This nutrient-dense product is humus. It can be used to enrich garden beds, improve potted plants, or mix into seed-starting soils. Black Tea (Camellia sinensis): Harvest to Cup Polyphenols: Plants & the Environment Wine Making Process: Grape to Glass humus Troubleshooting Smell: A foul odor indicates an imbalance. Too much nitrogen (greens) can cause an ammonia smell, while a sour smell can mean it's too wet and anaerobic. Slow Decomposition: Ensure the pile is moist enough and that you're turning it regularly. Adding more greens can also speed up the process. Pests: Cover food scraps with browns to deter pests. What Not to Compost Meat, bones and dairy products Oil and fat Diseased plants Pesticide-treated grass clippings Pet waste has compounds detrimental to plant growth Phytochemicals: Natural Chemicals of Plants Streptococcus LAB: Lactic Acid Bacteria Cyanobacteria: Nutrients & Bacterial Blooms Using Compost Soil Amendment: Mix compost into garden beds to improve soil structure and fertility. Top Dressing: Spread a thin layer of compost around plants as a natural fertilizer. Potting Mix: Add compost to potting mix for container gardening. Lawn Care: Use compost as a top dressing for the lawn to improve soil health and promote robust grass growth. Ammonia: Formation, Hazards & Reactions First Life on Earth: Microbes & Stromatolites Mandalas: Psychology & Art Therapy Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Yeast is a unicellular fungus essential in daily life. This gift of nature is used in baking leavened bread and in food fermentation. Its remarkable abilities transform simple ingredients into delicious human foods, and prevail for thousands of years. How Yeast Transforms Sugars to Booze Spores & Yeast: Saccharomyces cerevisiae Killer Yeast: Assassins of the Microworld Earliest known evidence of bread-making, a type of coarse grain flatbread, comes from a 14,000-year-old archaeological dig site in Black Desert of Jordan. People may have used the bread as a wrap for roast meat. Honey mead is one of the first intentional fermentation processes c. 8000 BCE. It's made with wild yeast, moisture and honey, discovered by early humans in abandoned bee hives. The process of baking with yeast comes a little later. By 3000 BCE, Egyptians bake leavened bread with spontaneously occurring wild yeast in the environment. It's noticeable as the white residue on ripe grapes and also forms on grains. Deliberate cultivation of yeast in baking starts around 500 BCE. Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld Microbial Alchemy: Fermentation, Digestion, Putrefaction The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature The whitish residue on grapes is wild yeast. It appears only when the fruit is ripe. As human populations grow through history, different cultures develop methods for using the power of yeast. It's not until 1857 AD that its importance in fermentation is officially understood by scientists. Louis Pasteur's research identifies yeast, specifically Saccharomyces cerevisiae , as a living organism responsible for fermentation. This discovery changes previous assumptions of inorganic chemical reactions. Science of Yeast: Interactions and Processes in Baking When the industrious single-celled organism yeast is combined with flour, water, and sugar, it begins to metabolize sugars and other carbohydrates. In bread making, yeast initially works aerobically to produce carbon dioxide and water. Once the oxygen is depleted, the yeast shifts to anaerobic respiration, generating CO2 and alcohol. Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses GI Yeast Hunter: Bacteroides thetaiotomicron Predators of the Microworld: Vampirovibrio  & Lysobacter Fermentation Activation : When yeast is introduced to warm water and sugar, it activates and becomes "active" yeast. The warmth encourages the yeast to feed on the available sugars. Sugar Metabolism : Yeast consumes glucose and other fermentable carbohydrates present in the flour, broken down with help from the enzyme amylase. Amylases occur naturally in yeast cells. Time is needed yeast to produce enough of the enzymes to break down significant quantities of starch in the bread. Through the process of glycolysis, the yeast converts sugar into pyruvate. Glycolysis is a series of reactions to extract energy from glucose by splitting it into two three-carbon molecules or pyruvates. Anaerobic Fermentation : In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate is further broken down into ethanol and carbon dioxide. The reaction is fundamentally glucose + enzymes = carbon dioxide + ethanol / lactic acid, with the formula C6H12O6 (glucose) → 2C2H5OH (ethanol) + 2CO2 (carbon dioxide). Leavening of the Dough : The carbon dioxide produced during fermentation is trapped in the dough, causing the bread to aerate, expand and rise. The volume and texture depend on several factors, including type of yeast, amount of sugar, dough hydration, and fermentation time. Flavor Development : Besides producing carbon dioxide, fermentation also develops flavors and aromas essential to good bread. Organic acids, esters, and alcohols contribute to the complexity of the final product. Difference Between Gram-Negative & Gram-Positive Bacteria Song of the Loreley - Lethal Beauty Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Dried yeast contains billions of dehydrated microorganisms. Warm water & sugar perk them up. Baking Fermentation is the heart of baking. Initially, yeast breaks down sugars through glycolysis into pyruvate . The released carbon dioxide is trapped in the dough. When dough is baked, heat causes trapped carbon dioxide to expand. As temperature rises, yeast cells die. The thermal death point of yeast is 55° - 60° C (130° - 140° F) The alcohol evaporates to an extent. Glycolysis: Biochemistry of Holistic Health Pyruvate (Pyruvic Acid): Key to Life's Energy ATP: Nature of Energy & Vital Functions Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) is the clear odorless highly flammable booze created by yeast. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), foods baked or cooked with alcohol retain 40% of the original alcohol content after 15 minutes of cooking, 35% after 30 minutes, and 25% after an hour. Compounds like esters and phenols emerge during fermentation, creating the bread's distinct taste and aroma. Yeast doesn't work alone and often teams up with benevolent bacteria. Sourdough bread has a tangy taste due to lactic acid bacteria  working with the yeast. Lactic Acid Bacteria: Nature to Modern Uses Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Secrets of Xanthan Gum for Artists & Chefs The golden-brown bread crust is created by the Maillard reaction , which creates melanoidins, responsible for the flavor of browned foods. Melanoidins are brown, high molecular weight polymers formed when sugars and amino acids combine at high heat and low moisture. The Maillard reaction is common in many foods including seared steaks, fried dumplings, cookies and biscuits, breads, toasted marshmallows and falafel. Flavonoids: the Big Five of Aroma, Flavor & Color Bacteria: Unseen Driving Force Behind All Life Four Humors & Medical Stagnation Maillard's Reaction: Toasted Marshmallows Interesting Facts Different Yeast Strains : There are over 1500 species of yeast, but the species Saccharomyces cerevisiae is dominant in baking and brewing due to its reliability and efficiency in fermentation. Yeast Reproduction : Yeast can reproduce asexually through a process called budding. In ideal environments, a real yeast colony can double in size every 90 minutes. Nutrient Powerhouse:  Yeast is packed with essential nutrients, including protein, B vitamins, and minerals. For instance, nutritional yeast can provide up to 14 grams of protein per 1-ounce serving, making it a valuable addition to vegan diets. Dough Types Matter:  Different doughs use different yeast types. Sourdough uses wild yeast, creating unique flavors, while commercially produced yeast enhances consistency and speed. Temperature Sensitivity:  Yeast thrives at around 95°F (35°C). Temperatures above 140°F (60°C) kill yeast, while below 70°F (21°C) can slow fermentation, impacting dough rise and flavor. Proofing Time:  Proofing times can vary greatly. For example, sourdough may take several hours to rise, while commercial yeast can double dough volume in as little as 40 minutes, affecting flavor complexity. Yeast Lifespan:  Dry yeast can officially last up to 24 months, while fresh yeast typically needs to be used within two weeks for maximum potency. Personal experience using 10-year-old dry yeast, however, yields hearty yeast activity and microbial enthusiasm. Flavors of Coffee: From Harvest to Homestead Catalase: Unseen Enzymes Essential to Life Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper Yeast is also used in coffee production Food & Drink Made with Yeast Fermentation includes Sourdough Bread Sourdough rises naturally, without the use of commercial yeast. It relies on a 'starter,' a fermented blend of flour and water containing wild yeast and beneficial bacteria, to rise. This process also gives sourdough its characteristic tangy flavor and slightly chewy texture. Cheese Some cheeses undergo fermentation processes involving yeast. For example, the flavor of some blue cheeses, such as Roquefort, comes from Penicillium roqueforti , a beneficial fungus. While all cheese is fermented, not all contain active microbes. Cheese like cheddar and parmesan are heated to temperatures high enough to kill these organisms. B. Linens Bacterium: Big Cheese of B.O. Iodine (I): Origin, Properties, Uses & Facts Cornstarch: Cuisine, Beauty, Cleaning Uses Sauerkraut and Kimchi Fermented vegetables like sauerkraut and kimchi rely on yeast and beneficial bacteria for their unique flavors. These processes not only enhance taste but can also contribute probiotics. Coffee In conventional wet processing, yeasts are introduced to aid in the decomposition of mucilage and expedite the drying of the beans. This technique involves immersing coffee beans in water tanks, where yeast-induced biochemical reactions generate favorable sensory traits. Chocolate Yeasts are essential in chocolate production. To achieve high-quality chocolate, cocoa beans must undergo a proper fermentation process, which involves both yeasts and bacteria. Yeasts are particularly important as they're active in the initial days of fermentation. Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Microbe pH Levels: Acidophiles, Neutrophiles & Alkaliphiles Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter Artisan Chocolates Vinegar Vinegar production begins with yeast fermentation and conversion of alcohol into acetic acid. Various alcoholic beverages can be transformed to vinegar by acetic acid bacteria, creating diverse flavors ranging from Asian black Chinkiang to artisan apple cider vinegar. Chinkiang (Zhenjiang) vinegar is produced with techniques used for over a thousand years. Glutinous rice is steamed until it's soft and sticky, then left to cool slightly. Afterward, the rice is inoculated with a yeast starter, usually derived from an earlier batch of vinegar. Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter Chinese Black Vinegar has a blend of complex flavors Acetic acid is a normal co‐product of alcohol fermentation. Cells under physiological conditions do not normally sense this compound as toxic and can use acetate as a regular carbon source by channeling it into respiratory metabolism. Kefir Kefir is a type of fermented milk made using kefir grains, which are a symbiotic culture of yeast and bacteria, resulting in a tangy and probiotic-rich beverage. Kefir grains originate in the Northern Caucasus Mountains. Horses, Alps & Amazons: the Caucasus Acetic Acid: Vinegar 🜊 in Ancient Alchemy Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides Kefir Beer Beer relies primarily on yeast fermentation to convert malt sugars into alcohol. Depending on the yeast strain used, beer can vary widely in flavor; for instance, lager yeast produces a crisp taste, while ale yeast creates fruity notes. Wine & Mead Yeast converts grape and other fruit sugars into alcohol in wine and mead-making. The choice of fruit variety and yeast strain affects a wine's flavor, aroma and complexity. For example, using Saccharomyces bayanus  yeast can yield higher alcohol content and a clean taste. Honey Mead: Most Ancient Ambrosia Natural Purple Dyes: Ancient & Medieval Natural Glass Gemstones: Cataclysmic Fusion Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

A sourdough starter is a living mixture of microbes, flour and water giving sourdough its unique flavor and texture. Often called the mother, the starter includes naturally occurring wild yeast and lactic acid bacteria (LAB). Acetic Acid: Food, Health & Science Lactic Acid Bacteria: Team Players of Fermentation Yeast: Microbiology of Bread & Food Making The microbes are in the air, on hands, clothes, fruit and vegetables and on the flour itself. Many bacteria can cling comfortably to a yeast cell, several of which can travel on a dust mote, all unseen by humans. Remarkably, yeast and many bacteria can't move on their own yet travel hundreds of km. Yeast can also secrete glue to stick to mobile substrates, or stay in one place as other microbes glide by. Create Artisan Apple Cider Vinegar Green Coffee: Consumer Facts & Information Cherish the Chocolate: Sweet Fermentation Yeasts populate nectar-rich flowers and come into honeybee hives on little bee feet In the sourdough starter, yeasts consume sugars in the flour and produce carbon dioxide, causing the bubbles. Bacteria like Lactobacillus produce lactic acid. This lowers pH and contributes to the tangy flavor of sourdough. Acetic acid bacteria busily consume alcohol produced by yeast to create acetic acid, another subtle layer of flavor. Kahm Yeast: the Wild Ones Saccharomyces cerevisiae : Queen of Yeasts Brettanomyces : Favorite Artisan Wild Yeast balsamic vinegar, made by acetic acid bacteria & friends A common ester made by these microbes is ethyl acetate , fundamentally a fusion of alcohol and acetic acid. It produces a pleasant fruity scent to compliment the profile. Unlike commercially produced yeasts, a sourdough mother forms as a slow and natural process. Patience and regular feeding are needed to maintain the balance of activity and flavors of yeast and bacteria. Lactase: Nutrition & the Milk Sugar Enzyme Peracetic Acid: Origin, Reactions, Hazards Bacterial Communication: Autoinducers whole grain dough The creation and care of a sourdough starter is paramount in artisan baking. The starter is a rich community of microorganisms. When nurtured and nourished, a starter can last indefinitely. Sourdough starters can be customized. Depending on choice of flour and the environment it’s kept, the starter develops distinct qualities. Rye flour has a robust flavor, while whole wheat is used for faster performance. Fruit Breakdown: Decomposition of an Apple Ethyl Acetate: Scent of Flowers, Wine & Fruits Glycolysis: Biochemistry of Holistic Health Emmer wheat, one of the ancient grains How to Make A Sourdough Starter Creating a sourdough starter or mother is surprisingly simple, requiring only flour, water, time and patience. Needed: Flour:  All-purpose flour is all right. Whole grain flours, such as whole wheat or rye, can enhance the nutrient profile and speed up fermentation. Grains contain glucose as complex polysaccharides . Water:  Filtered or bottled, or tap water set out for 24 hours to let chlorine evaporate. Chlorine is an enemy of microbes. Glass jar or bowl , with lid or cloth cover, big enough for feeding and doubling the starter Time : 7 - 10 days ATP: Nature of Energy & Vital Functions Black Tea ( Camellia sinensis ): Harvest to Cup Listeria  Bacteria: Health and Environment On day one, mix 1/2 cup of flour with 1/4 cup of water at room temperature in jar or bowl. Briskly stir the mixture until no dry flour remains, then loosely cover with a lid or cloth. Place jar in a warm dark spot (21°- 24°C or 70°-75°F) for 24 hours. Bubbles start to form within the timeframe, a sign the wild yeast and bacteria are active. If not, re-cover the vessel and wait another 24 hours. Pectin: Nature's Polysaccharide Gelatin The Microscope: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Pheromones in Microbes, Plants & Animals When bubbling is visible and steady, discard half the starter and add another 1/2 cup of flour and 1/4 cup or so of water. Stir well and cover loosely again. Discard is necessary to avoid acid buildup in the mother. Feed the mother every 24 hrs for 5-7 days. With each feeding, more bubbles appear along with a developing sour aroma. The starter is ready when it doubles in size within 4-6 hrs of feeding and smells strongly sour. Once established, sourdough starter can be stored in the fridge. This slows down fermentation, but it still needs to be fed weekly. Before baking, bring it back to room temperature and feed it again to reactivate it. Why Apples Turn Brown: Science & Nature Phytochemicals: Natural Chemicals of Plants Wine Making Process: Grape to Glass starting a dough Troubleshooting: Common Issues If Mother Doesn’t Bubble If no bubbling starts in the first few days, check flour freshness and water quality. Temperature is important as the yeast needs warmth to prosper. Sunlight or brightness can also hamper yeast activity. A Layer of Liquid Forms A thin layer of liquid on top of the starter is known as hooch. This is created by the yeast producing H2O, and indicates the microbes are hungry. Stir it in or pour it off before adding more flour and water. Predators of the Microworld: Vampirovibrio  & Lysobacter Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment a liquid layer can form on the mix or in it - with glass jars it can be seen as it happens Off-Putting Smells A sour aroma is normal. Strong, unpleasant odors can come from organisms like mold. If the starter smells bad, it may be wise to start anew. Baking with Sourdough Starter The starter can be used in different recipes, but especially for sourdough bread. To make the dough, combine starter with additional flour, water, and salt to taste. After bulk fermentation and shaping, the bread can be baked. Check online for recipes. Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment Candida albicans : Nature of the Yeast Cellulose: Plant Fibers of Structure & Strength Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Kazachstania humilis ( Candida milleri , Candida humilis ), is familiar in sourdough and other fermentation. Favored by artisan fermenters and bakers, it brings friends to help create delightful flavors and textures. Kahm Yeast: the Wild Ones Lactic Acid Bacteria: Team Players of Fermentation Quorum Sensing: Microbial Coordination Kazachstania humilis  yeast cells Kazachstania humilis  is a budding yeast of the family Saccharomycetaceae . It's often used in fermenting wheat and rye sourdoughs, and is the second most frequently identified sourdough yeast after Saccharomyces cerevisiae . It's found in batches of wild yeast and in the natural environment. A single-celled microorganism, it can prosper in many habitats, but never alone. Wild Yeast: Microbes Acting Naturally Streptococcus LAB: Lactic Acid Bacteria Fruit Breakdown: Decomposition of an Apple K. humilis  consumes sugars and secretes byproducts including: Carbon Dioxide: The gas makes sourdough bread rise. Ethanol: Less inclined to alcohol production than some other yeasts, K. humilis  is beloved by bakers for its natural flavors Organic Acids: Adding another depth of flavor and the characteristic tanginess. In nature, it breaks down molecules, releasing nutrients to be efficiently recycled in soil and water. This yeast encourages growth of friendly lactic acid bacteria, promoting ecosystem diversity and health. Sugars D-Galactose & L-Galactose: Nutrition Kombucha: Ancient Brew & DIY Health Tea Women Scientists of the Ancient World K. humilis  prefers acidic conditions with pH of 3.5 - 4. The lactic acid produced by the bacteria help increase environmental acidity. This encourages the breakdown of substrates, helping release sugars. Common habitats include decaying plant matter, overripe fruits, and fermentation materials. It's best known and studied in sourdough starters. Yeast: Microbiology of Bread & Food Making Killer Yeast: Assassins of the Microworld Honey Bees (Apidae): Nature & Myth sourdough starter It's also been found in orange juice, coastal mangrove sediments, bamboo shoot fermentation and decayed oranges. It's been isolated from beer. It helps make drinks like tequila, and takes part in fermenting cocoa beans. In traditional sourdough cultures, Kazachstania humilis  can be isolated from up to 50% of active starters. It helps shape the distinctive flavor and texture of the bread. Yeast: Microbiology of Bread & Food Making Chamomile - Herbology & Folklore Difference Between Gram-Negative & Gram-Positive Bacteria In food and beverages like kefir and kombucha it reunites with lactic acid bacteria. Unlike  S. cerevisiae, K. humilis  can't absorb the sugar maltose , abundant in barley. In such situations it calls on bacteria like Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis who break maltose down to a double glucose, much enjoyed by the yeast. It also likes other fermented grain products, such as fermented oatmeal. Acetic Acid: Food, Health & Science Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Seven Trace Minerals: Nature's Little Helpers barley is a good source of maltose In sourdough, as in the natural environment, it has an ongoing relationship with lactic acid bacteria (LAB), such as the Lactobacillus  species. LAB like Lactobacillus brevis  and L. buchneri    produce both lactic and acetic acids. They create a zesty sour flavor and inhibit growth of unwanted microbes by increasing the acidity in the environment. In turn, yeasts produce invertase, an enzyme enabling both yeast and bacteria to metabolize sugars. Kazachstania humilis  collaborates with other yeasts as well, creating a rich microbial community. Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter Yeast & Mold: Ancient Fungi, Modern World Flavors of Coffee: From Harvest to Homestead Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Kahm yeast is familiar in fermentation. A collective of wild yeasts including Pichia, Kazachstania and Candida spp , it's the cloudiness in brine or a whitish wrinkly film appearing on the surface. Saccharomyces cerevisiae : Queen of Yeasts Brettanomyces : Favorite Artisan Wild Yeast Lactic Acid Bacteria: Team Players of Fermentation About Kahm Yeast Kahm yeast collectively contains many wild species. They're naturally present on fruit and vegetables, especially those of high sugar content. Wild yeast commonly appears on vineyard grapes as a whitish film. The word “kahm” goes back to the Middle High German kan . This in turn derives from Latin cana , literally "gray hair", referring to the grayish layer on wine. Amazing Yeast: Feeding, Breeding & Biofilms Feed the Yeast: Nutrients for Microbe Health Microbe Glue (EPS) in Biofilm Formation Kahm yeast with typical patterning Kahm yeast can develop on ferments when sugar is depleted and the pH decreases due to lactic acid production by industrious bacteria. It can look like a translucent pale skin, or thick, white and wrinkly. Yeasts of the kahm group are active in anaerobic conditions of high sugar and acidity between 4.0 and 6.0. Brewer's yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is comfortable with a pH as low as 2.9, though it functions best at 5.5. Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld Honey Mead: Most Ancient Ambrosia Glucose in Nature: Ecology & Environment Saccharomyces yeast making a biofilm Genera in kahm yeast can include: Debaryomyces Mycoderma Pichia Kazachstania Candida  Zygosaccharomyces Saccharomyces Brettanomyces Of these, Zygosaccharomyces spp. are most associated with spoilage especially in wine. Species of this genera are able to produce acetic acid, the active component in vinegar, and thus can ruin a batch of booze. Vibrio Cholerae : the Cholera Bacteria Ambrosia: Divine Nectar & Immortal Gods Fructose (Fruit Sugar): Sweetest Saccharide wine fermenting Kahm yeast enjoys warmer temperatures. Its growth can double at 24°C (75°F). In aerobic conditions yeast consume sugars and produce carbon dioxide and water. In anaerobic conditions they expel CO2 and ethanol. In aerobic settings yeast produces more energy to prosper. In anaerobic habitats it makes more booze. In veg fermentation alcohol content is miniscule as the process is dominated by LAB. Lactic Acid Bacteria: Nature to Modern Uses Maltose: Sweet Delight of Brewing & Energy Grayanotoxins: the Madness of Honey Ukrainian feast Kahm yeast isn't harmful, nor does it necessarily indicate a problem. It's safe to ingest as long as there is no mold, but flavor or textures may change. Kahm yeast has the power to create undesirable flavors and smells. These include overly sour or acid tastes and musty death-like aromas. Artisan Perfumery: Four Degrees of Fragrance Sucrose: Double Sugar of Science & Cuisine Create Artisan Apple Cider Vinegar Conversely, kahm yeast can enhance flavor complexity of fermented products. Some brewers use it for fruity or floral notes, enriching overall taste. In winemaking it may be part of terroir or expression of place. In controlled brewing wild yeast may be used to start the fermenting process, and cultivated yeast like Saccharomyces cerevisiae added later. In vegetable fermentation, if kahm is unwanted, it can be skimmed off. Beer: Malting & Mashing in Grain Fermentation Three Types of Amylase in Digestion & Fermentation Song of the Loreley - Lethal Attraction Kahm formations can range from opaque to translucent Sugar Content : High sugar levels attract kahm yeast. It's often found in orange juice or oranges due to the easily available glucose and fructose. Sugar concentrations of over 15% promote kahm yeast growth. pH Levels : Kahm yeast does poorly in high-acid environments. For instance, lacto-fermented products with pH below 4.0 are less likely to have kahm yeast issues. Fruit Breakdown: Decomposition of an Apple Kombucha: Ancient Brew & DIY Health Tea Sugars D-Galactose & L-Galactose: Nutrition Difference Between Kahm Yeast and Mold In most forms of fermentation, mold can be toxic. Food contaminated with mold should be thrown out unless the mold is part of the product, like stinky cheese or oncom, an Indonesian specialty made with mold. Appearance: Kahm yeast is typically white or off-white and forms a thin to thick skin. It can be wrinkled or have a slightly bumpy texture. Mold is often fuzzy and colorful with a distinct raised appearance. Mold: Cultivation & Use in Food Fermentation Foodborne Fungi and Mold: Facts & Dangers Pan: Wild Rustic God of Music & Flocks mold on an orange, fruit beloved for its sugars by both mold and yeast Kahm may be part of the cloudiness in vegetable fermenting brine, which is basically salt and water. Mold floats but can't grow underwater. It needs environmental oxygen. Smell: Kahm yeast may have a mild, yeasty, or sometimes slightly funky odor. It may not appeal to all. Mold often has a musty, disgusting or rotten smell due to microbial volatile organic compounds (mVOCs). Microfungi: Mysterious Web of Life & Death Hormones in Microbes, Plants & Animals Why Apples Turn Brown: Science & Nature Aspergillus flavus mold ... if kahm yeast develops Remove it:  The easiest solution is often to simply scrape or skim off the kahm yeast. Taste Test:  After removing the kahm, taste a little of the food or brine. If it smells and tastes acidic, salty, but not overly bitter or off-putting, the fermentation process is still working well. Prevention of Kahm Yeast Cleanliness : Wild yeast is unavoidable but a clean fermentation environment helps control it. Sterile equipment can reduce risk of contamination by hordes of hungry microbes. Five Food Acids: Citric, Acetic, Malic, Tartaric & Lactic Pectin: Nature's Polysaccharide Gelatin Wild Yeast: Microbes Acting Naturally In vegetable fermentation it can be tricky. Many people want the natural yeasts, LAB and microbial allies present in the veg. Washing vegetables can remove many of these. Blanching can kill them. However, high salt content and acidity in brine can promote growth of beneficial microbes while rendering the habitat unfavorable to such spoilage organisms as Salmonellae . Yeast: Microbiology of Bread & Food Making Killer Yeast: Assassins of the Microworld Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Salmonella bacteria are famous for causing food poisoning Acidity: A starter culture or brine from a previous successful batch can kickstart fermentation and lower pH quickly. Maintain anaerobic conditions: Keep fermenting food completely submerged in the brine. In a fermenting vessel, a proper airlock system lets carbon dioxide escape while preventing oxygen from flowing in. Shake the Jar if fermenting in a hand-held vessel. This keeps a healthy fermentation mix going as things have a tendency to settle, with particles at bottom and a layer of oxygenated fluid at top. Before shaking jar, make sure lid is on firmly. Cell Communication in Living Organisms Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Wine God Liber: Liberty & Liberal Libation Consistent temperatures: Keep the fermenting vessel in a place with stable temperatures, ideally between 18-24°C ( 65-75°F ). The flourishing temperature for kahm yeast is 24°C (75°F). Salt: Yeast and bacteria have varying degrees of salt tolerance. Most brine fermentation recipes call for a variable 1.5 - 3 teaspoons of salt per cup of H2O. It can be higher if desired (very salty) but no lower. Salt Trade - the Most Precious Mineral Wine Making Process: Grape to Glass Yeast & Fermentation: the Crabtree Effect Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Fermentation is used intentionally by c. 8000 BCE to create honey mead , a blend of fermented honey and water. Yeast is crucial to brewing and baking leavened bread, and to fermentation and decomposition in nature. Ethyl Alcohol: Science of Solvents & Booze Red & White Tartar: Wine Salts of Alchemy Science of Alchemy: Simple Distillation Process About Fermentation Fermentation is a biochemical process in which microorganisms, mainly yeast and bacteria, convert sugars into acids, gases, or alcohol under anaerobic (oxygen-free) conditions. This process not only preserves food but also enhances its flavors, textures, and nutritional value. Yeasts can prosper in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. They oxidize various sugars in aerobic settings, whereas fermentation occurs in anaerobic environments. Yeast produce spores in unfavorable conditions. German House Spirits: Beer Donkey (Bieresel) Asphodel: Ancient Dye & Medicine Plants Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides Budding yeast cells under microscope - Saccharomyces cerevisiae In anaerobic environments, yeasts can transform sugar into energy, CO2, and alcohol without requiring oxygen. The production of alcohol, a toxin, enables yeasts to outcompete other microbes. As yeast grows and metabolizes sugar, the buildup of alcohol is too much. Most yeast strains can withstand an alcohol concentration of 10 – 20%. After that, they sink to the bottom, go dormant and wait for more sugar. The Beast that is Yeast Yeast, especially Saccharomyces cerevisiae , is the champion of fermentation. This single-celled fungus thrives on simple sugars and ferments them through glycolysis (the breakdown of glucose). Yeast: Microbiology of Bread & Food Making Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Ninkasi: Beer Goddess Mesopotamia yeast is sleeping Yeast breaks down the monosaccharides glucose and fructose . During this process, sugars are converted into the desirable byproducts ethanol and carbon dioxide. The dual nature of these byproducts is well known as they both can be lethal in some situations. The key stages of fermentation include: Glycolysis : Glucose is converted into pyruvate, producing a small amount of energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). Anaerobic conditions : In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate undergoes alcoholic fermentation, resulting in the production of ethanol and carbon dioxide. Honey Mead: Most Ancient Ambrosia Honey Bees (Apidae): Nature & Myth How Yeast Transforms Sugars to Booze beer froth The two byproducts of fermentation, ethanol and carbon dioxide, have uses in brewing, baking and more. The carbonation from CO2 causes effervescence in beverages, while ethanol provides the intoxication. Byproducts of Fermentation As yeast ferments sugars, it produces not only ethanol and carbon dioxide but also other byproducts that contribute to the complexity of flavor and aroma in beverages. These include: Esters : Compounds which create fruity or floral notes. Phenols : Molecules adding spicy and smoky flavors. Higher alcohols : Contribute to the depth of flavor but can also lead to off-flavors if produced in excess. Ardent Spirits Alchemy: the Fiery Elixirs of Life Beer Goddess Siris of Mesopotamia 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine Art & Science of Brewing The process begins with malting grains such as barley to convert starches into fermentable sugars. Malting is the process of steeping, germinating and drying grain to convert it into malt. The grains are then mashed, combining them with hot water to create a wort. The cooled wort is transferred to a fermentation vessel. Yeast is added for fermentation. The yeast converts the sugars, mainly maltose , in the raw materials into alcohol and carbon dioxide, transforming wort to beer. Different types of yeast, variations in temperature and duration of the process, bring out a wide range of flavor profiles. Spores & Yeast: Saccharomyces cerevisiae Predators of the Microworld: Vampirovibrio  & Lysobacter Spirit of Wine of the Wise: Alchemy Recipe Fermentation in Nature Yeast is everywhere in nature. When substances ferment it's due to the presence of wild yeast happily finding a food source. Yeasts love the sugars in honey and over-ripe fruit. The yeast, like most fungi, can live in oxygenated or oxygen depleted environments. They prefer anaerobic conditions to do their work. In the absence of air the yeasts derive energy by fermenting sugars and carbohydrates to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide. GI Yeast Hunter: Bacteroides thetaiotomicron Biofilm Communities: Metropolitan Microbes Arcanum Joviale: Alchemy of Sudorific Sweat Brettanomyces , a wild yeast genus, occurs naturally and lands on plants, animals, around the house, outdoors and on skin. Wild yeast can be captured in a sourdough starter or beer yeast starter. It produces carbon dioxide and alcohol, essential for leavening and fermentation. Fermentation is important to digestion. From GI microbiome to breakdown of organic matter in soil, fermentation is integral to ecosystems. Symbiosis between microbes and their environment allows the yeast to prosper. Silent Destroyers: Microbial Corrosion of Concrete Nitric Acid: Aqua Fortis the Acid Queen Shennong Primordial Farmer & Healer Yeast at work in a bottle of to-be-sparkling wine ... CO2 produces the bubbles Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Krausen is a joyful moment in brewing and fermenting. When krausen appears, fermentation is under way. When it falls, fermentation is fertig (done). Knowing the subtle secrets of kräusen can greatly enhance brews. Yeast: Process from Culture to Consumer Amazing Yeast: Feeding, Breeding & Biofilms Honey Mead: Most Ancient Ambrosia A German verb, kräusen (pron. kroy-sen) means "to curl" or "to ruffle". In brewing it means "to condition (beer) by adding fermenting wort, so as to restart fermentation and introduce fresh carbon dioxide". Krausen is the English noun. Formed during fermentation, it represents a critical phase. The layer of foam and bubbles is both a visual spectacle and happy indicator of active and hearty fermentation. Yeast & Mold: Ancient Fungi, Modern World Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld GI Yeast Hunter: Bacteroides thetaiotomicron Frothy thick glistening krausen Krausen is created by top-fermenting yeasts such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae , also known as baker's or brewer's yeast. They're used to brew beverages like stout, ale, porter and Altbier , a copper colored brew popular in the German Rhineland. Bottom-fermenting yeasts are preferred for lagers. These include Dortmunder, Pilsner and Bock, a strong dark beer brewed in fall to be consumed in spring. Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper Ethyl Alcohol: Science of Solvents & Booze Oil of Philosophers: Alchemy Health & Beauty Saccharomyces cerevisiae  yeast, reproduction by budding Top-fermenting yeast creates a heady layer of foam on top of the brew during the vigorous stage of high krausen or hohe kräusen . It happens at the start of primary fermentation. A mix of proteins, yeast and CO2 bubbles produced by the yeast, krausen appears as a thick, frothy layer ranging in hue from white to beige or light brown, depending on the ingredients used and type of beer being brewed. Hildegard von Bingen: Nature, Music & Beer Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe 3 Great German Artists for Art Lovers White krausen is typical of wheat beer Formation of Kräusen Yeast Activation : Pitching is the process of adding yeast to wort to start fermentation. When yeast is pitched to the wort it enters a phase of active reproduction and metabolism. The yeast cells begin to consume sugars in the wort, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide as byproducts. Initially, the yeast multiplies by budding to form new cells. As these feed on sugars, their excretion of CO2 adds to the creation of bubbly foam rising to the top of the fermenter. The thickness and duration of krausen can vary based on several factors. These include yeast strain, fermentation temperature and ingredients used in the wort. Some yeast strains may produce krausen for only a couple of days, while others create a robust foam prevailing for over a week. Yeast: Microbiology of Bread & Food Making Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Ninkasi: Beer Goddess Mesopotamia Hops, a flavorful ingredient in German beers, introduced by medieval abbess Hildegard von Bingen Protein Interaction The proteins present in the wort influence krausen formation. As CO2 bubbles rise, they trap some of the proteins, creating a stable foam. This protein structure is crucial for the foam's longevity and contributes to the beer texture. Temperature and Fermentation Dynamics : The temperature of fermentation can significantly influence krausen formation. Warmer fermentation temperatures typically result in a more vigorous fermentation, leading to a larger and denser krausen. Cooler temperatures may produce less krausen. While yeast can grow in various conditions it's most prolific at temperatures of 32˚C-35˚C (90˚F-95˚F) and pH of 5.5, slightly acidic. Higher heat inhibits yeast growth. The thermal death point for yeast is 55° - 60° C (130° -140° F). If cooled, it stops activity at 40° F (4° C). Acetic Acid: Vinegar 🜊 in Ancient Alchemy Ardent Spirits Alchemy: the Fiery Elixirs of Life 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine krausen layer Yeasts have the ability to produce antimicrobial compounds to inhibit growth of harmful mold or bacteria. If yeast and mold have a battle on even turf, yeast will probably win. Copper equipment is also known to repel viruses and bacteria, therefore commonly used in brewing. If beer or mead forms unwanted krausen, the layer can be skimmed off the top. Brewers might do this if the krausen tastes bad rather than imparting its flavors into the booze, especially if they have a certain flavor profile in mind. Spores & Yeast: Saccharomyces cerevisiae The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature Alchemy: How to Make Rosaceum Oil Significance of Krausen Indicator of Fermentation The presence and characteristics of krausen serve as a visual cue for brewers to gauge fermentation activity.  The presence of krausen clearly shows fermentation is happening. For brewers, seeing krausen is a reassuring sign that the yeast is healthy and working properly. A vigorous krausen indicates healthy yeast activity, while a lack of krausen can signal problems such as under-pitching yeast or temperature problems. Verdigris: Coveted Blue Green Copper Pigment Song of the Loreley - Lethal Attraction Difference Between Gram-Positive & Gram-Negative Bacteria beer froth A potential problem is the overdevelopment of yeast into a killer strain . This can destroy beverage flavors. When yeast is under pressure by competition it can release a toxin to kill other strains or even weak members of its own strain. The toxins also kill beer. Flavor Development During fermentation, yeast contributes various flavor compounds. These include esters and phenols, which can influence the taste profile of the beer. Krausen contains these flavor precursors, making it integral to the beer’s aroma and taste. It helps create esters for provide fruity notes and phenolic compounds for spiciness. German House Spirits: Beer Donkey (Bieresel) Pyruvate (Pyruvic Acid): Key to Life's Energy Women of Alchemy: Anna Maria Zieglerin brewing is originally women's work Impact on Beer Clarity After fermentation is complete, the krausen eventually subsides, and proteins and other particles settle out of the beer. This sedimentation process is essential for achieving clarity in the final product. Hygienic Considerations Krausen can also serve as a barrier against contaminants. The foam layer helps seal the fermentation vessel, reducing the risk of unwanted microbial intrusion. However, excessive krausen can lead to blow-off, where foam spills over the top of the fermentation vessel. The barrier krausen creates is a defense against airborne contaminants. This protection is crucial, as it minimizes exposure to unwanted wild yeast and bacteria. Wild Yeast: Microbes Acting Naturally Yeast: Microbiology of Bread & Food Making How Yeast Transforms Sugars to Booze Wild yeast - the whitish smudges on skins of grapes, blueberries and other fruit Temperature Regulation Krausen has insulating properties to help maintain a stable fermentation temperature. Controlled temperature prevents yeasts from overheating. Yeast dies at 60which is essential for a successful fermentation process. Managing Krausen in Fermentation While krausen is an exciting feature of fermentation, managing it is crucial to prevent issues like overflow. Here are a few practical tips for handling krausen effectively: Positioning the Fermenter : Put the fermenter in an area with space for possible overflow. Using a blow-off tube can effectively release excess gas during intense fermentation. Understanding Yeast Characteristics : Different yeast strains create various amounts of krausen. For instance, German Weissbier yeast typically produces a large krausen, whereas a clean ale yeast may generate much less. Managing krausen is part of the fermentation process. When krausen starts to decrease, it's time for racking to secondary fermentation or preparation for bottling. Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides Isaac Newton: Alchemy & the Occult How Lactic Acid Bacteria Make Yogurt the final result - good work! The beer head is created by the carbon dioxide bubbles earlier released by the yeast. A thick head indicates well-nourished yeast. Some brewers add yeast-fortifying proteins and nutrients especially made for these industrious microbes. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Vibrio cholerae is the bacterium responsible for cholera, one of history's most destructive diseases. Cholera is an infection of the intestinal tract, and rages through the world leaving pain and death in its wake. Quorum Sensing: Microbial Coordination Escherichia coli (E. coli): The Good Bacteria Botulism: Causes, Symptoms & Prevention About Vibrio Cholerae A discovery in the mid-19th century fizzles but German physician Robert Koch revives it in 1883 during a cholera outbreak in Egypt. He studies how these bacteria contribute to cholera. The infection historically causes numerous epidemics. The seventh cholera pandemic (1961-1970) is estimated at a million cases worldwide. People can have cholera without showing symptoms, or with mild effects. Not all Vibrio cholerae strains are dangerous. Two subgroups in particular, O1 and O139, can be lethal. Listeria  Bacteria: Health and Environment Pseudomonadota: E. coli , Gonorrhea & Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria Bacterial Communication: Autoinducers Colony of Vibrio cholerae Vibrio cholerae  is a Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic bacterium. It may be rod or comma shaped. It's highly motile due to a single polar flagellum, which helps it nimbly navigate its aquatic environment . The bacterium enjoys alkaline conditions. It's oxidase-positive, producing the enzyme cytochrome c oxidase which is needed for cellular respiration. Vibrio cholerae measures between 1-3 micrometers in length. A micrometer is about 1/1000th or 0.001 of a millimeter. As a facultative anaerobe, V. cholerae can survive with or without oxygen. Killer Yeast: Assassins of the Microworld Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter Bacteria & Archaea: Differences & Similarities This flexibility enables it to inhabit diverse environments, from the salty sea to freshwater lakes. Vibrio cholerae lives in aquatic environments, especially fond of brackish and saltwater. It can live freely or attach to surfaces of algae, plankton, and shellfish. Stagnant water bodies with poor sanitation are ideal breeding grounds. Human activities like pollution can exacerbate cholera outbreaks. Vibrio cholerae is heterotrophic, meaning it obtains nourishment from organic matter. In its natural environment, it feeds on dissolved organic carbon and other nutrients in the water. Bdellovibrio : Lifestyles of Predatory Bacteria Carbon Fixation: Environmental Heath & Ecology Glucose in Nature: Ecology & Environment As it processes food, the bacterium releases organic compounds as waste. If it's one of the pathogens, its potent cholera toxin activates when it infects a human host. Vibrio cholerae reproduce asexually by binary fission, a rapid process. The bacterium duplicates its genetic material and divides into two identical daughter cells. It can quickly reach infectious levels. Predators of the Microworld: Vampirovibrio  & Lysobacter Structures of Starch: Amylose & Amylopectin Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Under optimal conditions, V. cholerae doubles in number every 20 to 30 minutes. A single bacterium potentially gives rise to millions of bacteria in a few hours; but it takes only 10-100 bacteria to cause cholera in a person. In nature, Vibrio cholerae is a contributing part in the marine ecosystem or river environment. It helps decompose organic matter, recycling essential nutrients. It's also a food source for small organisms. Five Types of Resistant Starch: Fiber & Health Flavors of Coffee: From Harvest to Homestead Cellulose: Plant Fibers of Structure & Strength Ciliates like Stylonychia dine on bacteria About Cholera Cholera is an acute diarrheal illness caused by infection with Vibrio cholerae . Documented outbreaks go back to ancient times. In the 19th century devastating cholera pandemics rage world-wide. This accompanies the poor sanitation, pollution and overcrowded conditions of industrial revolutions in Europe and the rest of the world. Symptoms include severe diarrhea and dehydration causing death if untreated. The devastation of the third cholera pandemic (1852-1860) influences public health reform and sanitation globally. Streptococcus LAB: Lactic Acid Bacteria How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life How Vibrio cholerae Cause Cholera Cholera's devastating effects stem from the bacterium's ability to colonize the small intestine and produce a potent poison, the cholera toxin (CT). Ingestion: Vibrio cholerae enters the body through the ingestion of contaminated food or water. Survival in the Stomach: The bacterium must survive the acidic environment of the stomach to reach the small intestine. Acid-Producing Bacteria in Sulfuric Acid Creation Algae in Glass Houses: Diatomaceous Earth Hormones in Microbes, Plants & Animals Human digestive system Colonization: Once in the small intestine, Vibrio cholerae attaches to the intestinal lining with pili, short hairlike structures. Cholera Toxin Production: The bacterium produces cholera toxin, which binds to receptors on the intestinal cells. Disruption of Ion Transport: Cholera toxin disrupts the normal flow of ions and water across the intestinal lining. Faust: Fact & Fiction German Renaissance Colorful World of Bacteria - Color Producers Pheromones in Microbes, Plants & Animals Massive Fluid Loss: This disruption leads to a massive outflow of water and electrolytes into the intestinal lumen, resulting in severe watery diarrhea, the defining characteristic of cholera. It's sometimes called "rice-water stool." If left untreated, it causes deadly dehydration within hours. Up to 1 liter of fluid can be lost each hour. Dehydration and Death: Rapid fluid loss can lead to severe dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, shock and death. Microbe Glue (EPS) in Biofilm Formation Cell Communication in Living Organisms Why Apples Turn Brown: Science & Nature Cholera is largely a human disease but Vibrio cholerae also interacts with marine life. Non-pathogenic strains can be found in crustaceans, mollusks, and fish. Pathogenic strains are specifically adapted to humans. V. cholerae don't cause illness in the animals but maintain the bacterium's presence. In the environment they're fundamental decomposers dwelling among millions of other microbes. They don't stand out in a crowd. Five Food Acids: Citric, Acetic, Malic, Tartaric & Lactic Create Artisan Apple Cider Vinegar Black Tea ( Camellia sinensis ): Harvest to Cup Facts about Vibrio cholerae and Cholera Oral rehydration therapy (ORT), a simple solution of water, salt, and sugar, is a highly effective treatment for cholera, replenishing lost fluids and electrolytes. Cholera is associated with the seasonality of coastal algal blooms off Bangladesh, and with floods. Some strains of V. cholerae can be regulated by bacteriophages, or viruses able to infect them. Cyanobacteria: Nutrients & Bacterial Blooms Milk into Cheese: Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) Fermentable & Non-Fermentable Sugars fishing boat on a calm sea Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Bacteria communicate using autoinducers, or signals. Autoinducers help bacteria coordinate their actions. In quorum sensing they inspire bacteria to adjust their behaviors based on population density. Quorum Sensing: Microbial Coordination Hormones in Microbes, Plants & Animals Microbe Glue (EPS) in Biofilm Formation About Autoinducers Bacteria collaborate, compete and coordinate their activities with quorum sensing (QS). Autoinducers are small, diffusible signaling molecules produced and secreted by bacteria. The specific chemical structure of autoinducers varies depending on the bacterial species and its particular quorum sensing system. They fall into a few common categories. These include: Acyl-homoserine lactones (AHLs): Used mainly by Gram-negative bacteria, they're a homoserine lactone ring with an acyl chain of varying length and modification. Escherichia coli  uses AHLs to coordinate behavior in large populations, contributing to functions like biofilm formation. Cell Communication in Living Organisms Why Apples Turn Brown: Science & Nature Phytochemicals: Natural Chemicals of Plants Escherichia coli   Oligopeptides: More common in Gram-positive bacteria, oligopeptides are short chains of amino acids which may undergo post-translational modifications. Autoinducing peptides (AIPs) : Typically produced by Gram-positive bacteria, AIPs are small peptides detected by specific receptors on nearby cells. An example is Staphylococcus aureus . This bacterium uses AIPs to regulate its virulence. When concentration of AIP reaches certain levels, it catalyzes a coordinated attack on host tissues. Fruit Breakdown: Decomposition of an Apple Pheromones in Microbes, Plants & Animals Escherichia coli (E. coli): The Good Bacteria Autoinducer-2 (AI-2): A furanosyl borate diester believed to be a universal signal, used for interspecies communication, although this is debated. Enterococcus faecalis and Escherichia coli use AI-2-mediated signaling in formation of mixed biofilms. AI-2 produced by E. faecalis triggers group cooperative behavior in E. coli . Species-specific molecules can exist. Each bacteria species produces a specific type of autoinducer, affecting its behavior and that of nearby organisms. Milk & Dairy: Ancient Lactose Gene Colorful World of Bacteria - Color Producers Fructose (Fruit Sugar): Sweetest Saccharide Enterococcus Communication begins when bacteria release autoinducers. Signaling molecules can vary, including small organic compounds and peptides. Production and Secretion: As the bacterial population grows, each cell continuously produces and secretes small amounts of autoinducer. Diffusion and Accumulation:  These molecules diffuse freely through the surrounding environment. In low-density populations, the concentration of autoinducer remains low. Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment Candida albicans : Nature of the Yeast Streptococcus  LAB: Lactic Acid Bacteria Threshold Concentration: As bacterial population density rises, so does concentration of autoinducer in the environment. A certain population triggers coordinated reactions like changes in gene expression and behavior. When a threshold concentration is reached, it signifies a "quorum". A quorum is a sufficient number of bacteria present to carry out a task. There may be various thresholds in bacterial expansion and development. Phenols: Nature's Creations in Daily Life Polysaccharides: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose Lactic Acid Bacteria: Team Players of Fermentation Binding and Activation:  At a certain threshold, the autoinducer binds to a specific receptor protein within the bacterial cell. The receptor-autoinducer complex then becomes a transcription factor. The activated complex binds to specific DNA sequences, triggering expression of designated genes. This leads to coordinated changes in bacterial behavior. Cellulose: Plant Fibers of Structure & Strength Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter Cherish the Chocolate: Sweet Fermentation Through quorum sensing and the action of autoinducers, bacteria can coordinate a wide range of activities, including: Bioluminescence:  This is the production of light, famously seen in Vibrio fischeri  which colonizes the light organs of certain marine animals. In squid it's used for light camouflage, to break up the visual silhouette of the squid. The nocturnal pineapple fish  ( Monocentris japonicaemi ) has light-producing organs filled with luminescent bacteria on each side of its lower jaw. Scientists suspect they may attract prey. Bdellovibrio : Lifestyles of Predatory Bacteria Glucose in Nature: Ecology & Environment Structures of Starch: Amylose & Amylopectin pineapple fish (aka pinecone fish) Biofilm Formation:  The creation of structured communities of bacteria encased in a self-produced matrix. Biofilms are notoriously resistant to antibiotics and host defenses. Biofilm formation relies on autoinducers. A biofilm is a complex community of microorganisms enclosed in a protective matrix. Biofilms formed by Pseudomonas  aeruginosa  can raise resistance to antibiotics by up to 1000x. Virulence factor production: Pathogenic bacteria often rely on these signals to coordinate an attack. Vibrio cholerae  produces toxins only when its population density reaches a specific level. Predators of the Microworld: Vampirovibrio & Lysobacter Difference Between Gram-Positive & Gram-Negative Bacteria Seven Deadly Diseases of the Renaissance Vibrio cholerae Sporulation:  The formation of resistant spores under stressful conditions helps bacteria survive harsh environments. Conjugation: Conjugation is the method by which a bacterium transfers genetic material to another through direct contact. In this process, one bacterium is the donor of the genetic material, the other the recipient. Resource Optimization: By using autoinducers, bacteria optimize their resource usage. They regulate such activities as nutrient intake and enzyme production, ensuring they work well especially if resources are scarce. Scheele's Green: History's Most Toxic Pigment Pasteurization: Microbial Dominance & Destruction Treponema pallidum : About the Syphilis Bacteria Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Quorum sensing enables microorganisms to communicate effectively. This coordinates behavior among bacterial communities. In quorum sensing, microbes function as a unified group instead of individuals. Fruit Breakdown: Decomposition of an Apple Hormones in Microbes, Plants & Animals Cell Communication in Living Organisms Bacteria can communicate, coordinate and organize into complex, communities with multiple cells. Quorum sensing is how bacteria sense the density of their population through signaling molecules, or autoinducers. As bacterial populations grow, they release the autoinducers, causing a rise in concentration. When concentration hits a certain threshold, it sparks a coordinated response among the bacteria. Killer Yeast: Assassins of the Microworld Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes: Life Forms on Earth Cupriavidus metallidurans : Metal Eating Gold Making Bacterium Collective behavior enables several bacterial functions, including biofilm formation, virulence and bioluminescence. Each bacterial species produces its own type of autoinducer. Gram-negative bacteria often rely on acyl-homoserine lactones as autoinducers. Gram-positive bacteria use peptide -based signals. When the concentration of this molecule reaches a certain threshold, a "quorum" is achieved. This threshold triggers a change in gene expression in the bacteria, prompting cooperative action by the entire colony. Bacteria & Archaea: Differences & Similarities Rotten Egg Sulfur Smell: Microbial Processes Malevolent Microfungi: Hazards of Health & Home Biofilm Formation Biofilms are communities of bacteria or fungi like yeast. They use organic matter, their own bodies and the gluey secretion EPS . This helps them cultivate a favorable environment, often with several microbial species. Biofilms are found on surfaces like medical implants, pipes, decomposing organic materials or teeth, as plaque. Once enough bacteria attach to a surface, they release signals to trigger production of the protective matrix. Microbial Reproduction: Mitosis & Meiosis The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature Algae in Glass Houses: Diatomaceous Earth biofilm of Saccharomyces cerevisiae or brewer's yeast The signals recruit other bacteria, and coordinate the biofilm's growth and development. Biofilms occur throughout the natural world. A common biofilm maker is Staphylococcus aureus . Biofilms can make S. aureus  up to 1000x more resistant to antibiotics than their free-floating relatives. Fungal Biofilms: Ecology of Biofilm-Producing Molds & Yeasts Amoebae: Microbial Predators on the Move B. Linens  Bacterium: Big Cheese of B.O. Staphylococcus aureus biofilm Virulence in Pathogenic Bacteria For disease-causing bacteria quorum sensing is a deciding factor in whether they launch an attack. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is best known for causing hospital-acquired infections. The bacteria use quorum sensing to coordinate the expression of virulence factors, like toxins and enzymes to damage host tissues. Only when they reach a sufficient population size can they overwhelm the immune system. Difference Between Oxidation & Fermentation Polyphenols: Plants & the Environment Escherichia coli (E. coli): The Good Bacteria Quorum sensing mechanisms are present in other microorganisms like fungi and even some eukaryotic cells. It's present not only in virulent microbial activity but in beneficial organisms like digestive bacteria. In the GI tract quorum sensing helps maintain the balance of microbial communities. It encourages bacteria like Lactobacillus and Enterococcus to colonize and reproduce. Listeria  Bacteria: Health and Environment Five Food Acids: Citric, Acetic, Malic, Tartaric & Lactic Microbe Glue (EPS) in Biofilm Formation Enterococcus sp . common lactic acid bacteria in human digestive system Bioluminescence Bioluminescence in marine bacteria like Photobacterium phosphoreum , occurs when its population density reaches a tipping point. The bioluminescence is meant to attract prey or deter predators. Organisms of much study, Vibrio fischeri  live in the pineapple fish Monocentris japonicaemi as well as the translucent light organs of several species of squid. If enough cells exist to disguise the squid silhouette from below, the bacteria light up. Fermentation Energy: Yeast & Lactic Acid Bacteria Maillard Reaction: Science & Flavor in Browning Food Five Major Proteins of Nature & Human Health A. fisheri in petri dish Each morning, the squid expels about 90% of A. fischeri  in a process of venting. The remaining 10% of bacteria regenerate the population before the next night. The nocturnal pineapple fish has light-producing organs filled with luminescent bacteria on each side of its lower jaw. Their purpose isn't exactly known. Scientists suspect they may attract prey. Quorum Quenching is a concept to prevent bacteria from coordinating their virulence or forming biofilms. By interfering with their communication systems, scientists make them more susceptible to traditional antibiotics. Create Artisan Apple Cider Vinegar 7 Primary Electrolytes: Essential Ions & Health Hundred Years’ War: Battles & Overview Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Black tea is made from the leaves of the Camellia sinensis  plant. As it undergoes full oxidation, it takes on a dark hue and a strong flavor. Stages in the process influence its flavor and aroma. Polyphenols: Plants & the Environment Phytochemicals: Natural Chemicals of Plants Wine Making Process: Grape to Glass the art of tea The Camellia sinensis plant is also the source as green, white, and oolong teas. Oxidation is a large part of the difference between these and the true black tea. Many phytochemicals in black tea form during oxidation. Black tea leaves contain phytochemicals including water-soluble catechins like epicatechin and its derivatives. Theaflavins, thearubigins and their derivatives are also found in black tea leaves. Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Fructose (Fruit Sugar): Sweetest Saccharide Yeast & Fermentation: the Crabtree Effect Camellia sinensis   The Harvest: A Crucial First Step Timing and technique influence the final quality and flavor profile. Tea harvesting is often a morning ritual during the cooler hours when dew still coats the leaves. "Two Leaves and a Bud": The most common harvesting standard involves plucking the top two leaves and the unopened bud of new shoots. This ensures the freshest and most flavorful leaves are used. Tea pluckers require speed and skill. They carefully hand-pick the tender shoots, repeating the process every 7-14 days during the growing season. In China black tea is often called red tea due to its color when brewed. The name can also refer to the red leaves created through tea processing. Sucrose: Double Sugar of Science & Cuisine Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment Microbe Glue (EPS) in Biofilm Formation Tea harvesters (tea pluckers) Mechanical Harvesting: In lower-grade tea, mechanical harvesters are used. Efficient for large-scale production, this method is less selective. It includes older leaves and stems, which affect the tea's overall taste and quality. Seasonal Variations: The flavor of black tea can change with the season. Assam tea in India has a malty robust flavor in the second flush harvest (May-June), while the first flush (March-April) is lighter and more floral. Yeast, Humans & Aerobic Respiration of Cells Flavors of Coffee: From Harvest to Homestead Cherish the Chocolate: Sweet Fermentation botanical art Black Tea: Processing Once harvested, the leaves go through a series of controlled steps. There are two primary methods for processing. Orthodox Method This traditional method prioritizes quality and involves four main stages. Withering: The freshly plucked leaves are spread out on large trays and exposed to warm air, reducing their moisture content and making them pliable. This process can take 12-18 hours. Levels of temperature and humidity during withering affect the aroma and flavor profile of the finished tea. Cyanobacteria: Nutrients & Bacterial Blooms Milk into Cheese: Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) Fermentable & Non-Fermentable Sugars Rolling: The withered leaves are then rolled and twisted, either by hand or using machines. This ruptures the cell walls, releasing enzymes and essential oils, and triggering oxidation. The rolling process also gives the leaves their characteristic shapes. Rolling methods differ by region. Taiwanese teas often use a method forming small pellets, while Indian teas might have a looser, more open appearance. Maltose: Sweet Delight of Brewing & Energy Amazing Yeast: Feeding, Breeding & Biofilms Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Oxidation: This is the defining step for black tea. The rolled leaves are spread out in a cool, humid environment and allowed to oxidize. Enzymes react with oxygen, turning the leaves from green to a coppery-red and developing the characteristic flavor and aroma of black tea. The length of oxidation, typically 1-3 hours, must be is carefully monitored. The longer the oxidation process, the richer and bolder the final flavor will be. Variations of black tea making create their own unique taste, texture and aroma profiles. Hildegard von Bingen: Nature, Music & Beer Seven Trace Minerals: Nature's Little Helpers Women Scientists of the Ancient World Firing (Drying): The oxidized leaves are dried in ovens to stop the process and reduce the moisture content to around 3%. This step preserves tea flavor and prevents spoilage. Proper drying is crucial not only for flavor preservation but also for the shelf life of the tea. Too much moisture can encourage mold, while too little can make the tea dry and brittle. Pectin: Nature's Polysaccharide Gelatin The Microscope: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Red & White Tartar: Wine Salts of Alchemy After drying, tea leaves are sorted and graded based on size and quality. The grading system includes whole leaf, broken leaf, and fannings. Whole leaves are highly sought after. They often command a premium price because they produce more nuanced flavors when brewed. Once graded, the tea is packaged in airtight containers to maintain freshness and aroma. Some tea makers create blends. Acetic Acid: Nature, Microbes & Health The Probiotic Yeast: Saccharomyces boulardii Science of Onion Tears: Demystifying Acids CTC (Crush, Tear, Curl) Method This modern method prioritizes speed and efficiency, primarily used for producing tea bags and lower-grade teas. The leaves are passed through a machine. It crushes, tears, and curls them into small, uniform pieces. While faster and cheaper, the CTC method gives a less complex flavor compared to Orthodox teas. Carbon Fixation: Environmental Heath & Ecology Carbohydrates: Sugars of Nature & Health Kohl: Eye Beauty Magic of Ancients hand picking is the preferred method for quality The Perfect Cup: The ideal water temperature for brewing black tea is around 212°F (100°C), and the recommended steeping time varies depending on the type of tea, but typically ranges from 3-5 minutes. Lipton's Legacy:  Sir Thomas Lipton (1848 - 1931) revolutionizes the tea industry by making tea more affordable and accessible to the people. He's one of the first to package tea directly from the estates, eliminating middlemen and reducing prices. Global Consumption : Black tea is the most consumed type of tea worldwide, accounting for over 75% of global tea production. India, China, and Sri Lanka contribute to the international market, valued at about $18 billion. 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Schrat (Schratt) is a nature spirit, goblin, elf or even a domestic entity in Germanic lore. Waldschrat or Wood Schrat lives in the forest. Nightmare Schrat, like the Mare , weighs upon a sleeper's chest and brings terrifying dreams. Night Raven (Nachtkrapp) Germania Yarrow (Achillea) Magic & Medicine Witches' Night - Hexennacht Schrat - German nightmare forest elf, imp or goblin Schrat is one of several nightmare-bringers in German mythology. It can get into a person's bedroom through a crack or keyhole. Schrat enjoys tormenting sleepers as it slips into their minds to twist and tangle dreams to relentless nightmares. The Mare sits on the chest of the sleeper, triggering a nightmare (Alptraum, pl. Albträume - Elf Dreams ), waking dreams and panic attacks. The demonic Drude  also brings nightmares and causes sleep disturbances such as insomnia and illness. Sprites: Ethereal Creatures of Faerie Gnomes: Earth Spirits of Renaissance Mythology German Myth: Lindwyrm, Mare & Pig Demons Druden cause emotional disturbances and insomnia or nightmares The Elves are a complex group of creatures who can be helpful, neutral or nasty. In the past, Elves are blamed for inflicting disease and tragedy. During the witch hunts, suspected witches are accused of sending out evil elves to do their bidding. In older regions the Drudenfuss or pentagram may be found carved into doorways and window frames against evil Elf magic. It's also called Schrattlesfuß , Schrat's  foot. Nature Spirits of German Mythology German House Spirits: Beer Donkey Curse of the Evil Eye & Apotropaic Magic Symbol of Protection Appearance and function of the Schrat is variable with region. The forest Schrat or Waldschrat inhabits deep dark places. It doesn't enjoy human interaction and lives as a hermit among the trees. This type of Schrat keeps its entrance very tidy, which can give away its dwelling place someone happen to take a closer look. It hides the true path when someone steps on an Irrwurz , causing the person to get lost. Rise of Pan: Fertility Goat God Péh₂usōn Butzemann, Witches & Nyx - Scare 'em Good Witches & Witchcraft: Ancient World Irrwurz is identified with the plantain or certain ferns If the forest is logged, Schrat will leave, but not in a friendly way. Axes break and trees fall in the wrong direction. Today's Waldschrat causes accidents and glitches in machinery. The nightmare-bringing Schrat lives up to its alternate name Schratte , or Scratch, a name for the Devil of Christianity. The name Scratch is passed down from the Middle English scrat , the name of a demon or goblin, derived from Old Norse skratte . Butter - Food of Peasants & Barbarians White Pigments of Ancient Artisans Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Nightmare Schrat is sometimes thought to be a real person. The Schrat is recognizable by its eyebrows, which seem to form a single knit brow. Safeguards against Schrat attack include rowan branches or wood, the pentagram and copper bells. The term Schrat has too many diminutives to list. They include Schrätlein , Schrättlein , Schrättele , Schrätele , Schrätel , Schrattl , Schrattel , Schratel , Schrättlig , Schrättling and Schrattele , most meaning "little goblin" or "little devil". Goats in German Myth: Erntebock & Habergeiß Elderberry Tree: Germanic Nature Lore Gold - Precious Metal of the Sun Name diminutives and diminishment of physical size are typically ways to banish fear of wild nature entities, as in the suffix term "männchen", or little man, for Elf. Fear of elves and evil elf magic wanes when the perps are small, shallow, greedy and less intelligent than humans. Schrat might try to move in as a domestic spirit although its nature is not conducive to domestic harmony. Like the Mare, Schrat tangles manes, tails and forelocks of horses. It can suck dry the udders of cows. Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas Creation, Cattle & the Cosmic Cow Kusarikku - Bull Men of Mesopotamia A pentagram deflects evil Schrat magic to keep cows and calves safe Schrat is, rarely, a woman. She's said to have a hereditary condition inherited from her mother. Only by killing the best horse in the stable, a reference to the past practice of blood sacrifice, will Schrat be free of the curse, and the homeowner free of Schrat. True to its Elfin mythology Schrat is a bringer of illness. It can let fly arrows of poison which strike from afar. In some cases it wants a pacification offering of millet gruel or other nourishment. It might also dwell in a cavern above a town and protect the region in return for gifts of food. Schrat can shape-shift into animals including butterfly (especially monarch), caterpillar, magpie, fox and cat. Red streaks on trees caused by pupal discharge of butterflies are said to be the blood of a Schratlein being chased by the Devil. Wiedergänger - the German Undead German Vampires - Nachzehrer Heimchen - House Crickets of Folklore Schrat can transform to a monarch butterfly Methods of Schrat repulsion in the home, barns and outbuildings include the pentagram or five-point star; a gift of clothes; or a mirror, so the Schrat will be frightened by its own reflection, a technique also used for Mare attacks. Mirrors also have the ability to act as portals, both ways. If Schrat goes into a mirror it's caught. The erstwhile victim must cover the mirror immediately to trap Schrat. It can be made to do a favor or good deed in return for its release. After that it won't come back. 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