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Nefertum (Nefertem) is a creature of eternal beauty. At the time of Creation he rises from the waters as a blue lotus flower, which is forever his symbol. He's part of the Memphis Triad with Ptah and Sekhmet. Sekhmet - War Goddess of Ancient Egypt Ptah: God of Creators & Creation Egypt Egyptian Blue Lotus: Visionary Beauty Nefertum (Nefertem) - He Who is Beautiful Creation God Ptah and daughter of Ra, Sekhmet, are considered his parents. He's part of the tutelary trinity of Memphis, Egypt. Nefertum represents the first sunlight, and also the fragrance of the blue water lily. A version of the Book of the Dead reads: Rise like Nefertem from the blue water lily, to the nostrils of Ra (creator and sun god), and come forth upon the horizon each day. His flowers are specific, the Egyptian blue lotus or Nymphaea caerulea, a psychoactive plant. N. caerulea is blue to bluish purple in color. Along with the white lotus they're indigenous to Egypt. Flooding of the Nile - Nature & Myth Medicine in Ancient Egypt: Ebers Papyrus Taweret - Hippopotamus Goddess of Egypt The Blue Lotus of Egypt When the sun comes up the water lilies spread their petals and let the fragrance rise to greet the dawn. People associate the lotus flower with the sun as it closes at night and opens through the day. Nefertum has a number of epithets including He Who is Beautiful Water-Lily of the Sun He Who Opens In Beauty Beautiful One Who Does Not Close His name itself means "he who sees beauty" or "beautiful one". In artistic depictions he appears with a stylized lotus flower crown and blue head cloth. In the picture below he's shown at left looking left. He wears the divine beard and carries a staff and an ankh. The Ankh is the symbol and essence of all life. Linen, Hemp & Cotton - Fabrics of Ancient Egypt Was Scepter, Djed & Ankh Power Trio Ka - Life Essence in Ancient Egypt Memphis Trinity - Nefertum, Ptah, Sekhmet in golden barque He's beloved as a personal and family deity. Statuettes and figurines of Nefertum are often found in excavation sites as they're carried as magic charms for good luck. They're created in pottery, bronze, stone or  blue Egyptian faience . Apart from Memphis, Nefertum has a temple with Sekhmet in Leontopolis in the Nile Delta of Lower Egypt. Bes: Household Protector God of Egypt Benu - Ba Heron God of Ancient Egypt Atum of Egypt - First Primordial God Remnants of Leontopolis & region in museum Otherwise he has no specific cult center, but is worshipped throughout the lands. Nefertum acknowledges the conflicts of fortune, and helps people see and share the beauty of the world. His mother's identity is called into question. Although Nefertum rules in Memphis in a family triad with Sekhmet, in other regions he's thought to have Bastet as his mother. In this case he might be shown with the head of a cat or lion, and often in reclining position. Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Turquoise: Precious Stone of Ancients Nekhbet - Vulture Goddess of Egypt Besides the Blue Lotus, the symbols of Nefertum include the cat or lion. This is only in the areas his mother is presumed to be Bastet, who has a lion's head before it changed to that of a cat. The change occurred to help harmonize and synch the goddesses Bastet and Sekhmet. Greeting the Sun every morning, Nefertum is the Good Son who functions at a level between esoteric and intuitive. He's a patron of beauty wherever it may be found. Mortal worries and even soap operas of the Gods have little effect on him. Nefertum (Nefertem) Bronze c. 660 BCE Nefertum enjoys a long reign, from the Old Kingdom of c. 2649 - 2130 BCE at least to the early days of the Romans. He expands into a God of the Sun, Rebirth, Beauty and Perfume. He has a kind and generous personality. A sculpture of the God's head emerging from a water lily is found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun, indicating the importance of Nefertum to the Pharaohs. The paints are red and yellow ochre, colors of iron oxide or the Earth. The emergence of the God's head signifies rebirth of the Pharoah. Kohl supplies the dark colors of the eyes and brows. Kohl: Eye Beauty Magic of Ancients 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Anubis: Jackal-Headed God of Egypt Head of Nefertum, born of a lotus flower, found in tomb of King Tut (pic: Jean-Pierre Dalbéra) Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

In ancient Egypt, every year starts anew with the Arrival of Hapi, or the Flooding of the Nile. It's a joyful occasion marked by feasting, dancing, music and liberal libations for all. Flooding of the Nile - Nature & Myth Papyrus (C. papyrus): Sacred Reeds of Aaru Carnelian - Gems of the Ancient World Hapi is a dual-natured God In June, the river Nile is at its lowest point. The land seems to die away. Then the Dog Star rises and as if by some great miracle a deluge of water approaches from the south. Torrential rains in Ethiopia, bringing nutrient rich silt down from the highlands, can raise the Nile up to 13.7 m (45 ft) in a short time. By July the great river is swollen. The two-week holiday celebration Wafaa-El-Nil (Flooding of the Nile) begins in the middle of August. Hapi is considered a unifying and creative force. He's an androgynous or dual-sex fertility god with both male and female characteristics. Sirius the Dog Star: Stellar Mythology Egyptian Blue Faience - Ceramic Glass Sekhmet - War Goddess of Ancient Egypt Hapi has a female side Although Hapi is referred to as a male god, he's presented as a dual-sex deity, with female fertility features such as full pendulous breasts and a large belly. Feminine features represent pregnancy or abundance. In Egyptian hieroglyphs he's referred to as an intersex entity. Sometimes he's fat, like the Buddha, a sign of prosperity. In the stone carving below, he's shown with love handles. In ancient depictions Hapi is often portrayed as two gods, himself and a mirror image. Alexandria: Jewel of Ancient History Ptah: God of Creators & Creation Egypt Crocodilopolis - Sobek Crocodile God Hapi with papyrus - stone carving, base Ramesses II statue, Luxor Temple. Hapi's titles include "Lord of the Fish and Birds of the Marshes" and "Lord of the River Bringing Vegetation". He wears a loincloth and false beard. With one exception, Hatshepsut , the false beard is a male ornament. Hapi might have blue or green skin representing water and vegetation. In Lower Egypt Hapi wears papyrus , a vital reed in Egypt, and is attended by frogs. In Upper Egypt his associations are the lotus and crocodile. He's sometimes pictured as two figures uniting Upper and Lower Egypt with a papyrus rope as below. The rope loops approximate the shape of ankh. His crown includes stalks of papyrus and/or lotus. Egyptian Blue Lotus: Visionary Beauty Nefertum: He Who is Beautiful Gods of Egypt The Way to Aaru - Egyptian Paradise Throne Carving of Hapi and Hapi 2, 18th Dynasty of Egypt ( c. 1550 -1292 BCE ) When Wafaa-El-Nil  is over in mid August it's time to get to work. The floods leave fertile silt deposits, cultivated by the Egyptians with such techniques as basin irrigation . Sowing and planting begins right after the festival. The Wepet Renpet or 'opening of the New Year' festival falls on September 11, dictated by the position of the Dog Star. Location of the festival itself varies as it takes routes determined by the inundation of flood water. Hapi is often celebrated along with Osiris and the frog goddess Heqet , whose vitality is greatest in the last flood phases. This is when tadpoles mature. As frogs indicate environmental health, plentiful frogs is a sign of a strong healthy land. Was Scepter, Djed & Ankh Power Trio Taweret - Hippopotamus Goddess of Egypt Magic: Heka & the Ka in Ancient Egypt Goddess Heqet and the Moon Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Sekhmet is Goddess of War and medicine. Sites of worship include Memphis, Egypt, with husband Ptah and son Nefertum in a divine trinity. She's often the bloodthirsty Eye of Ra . Hathor: Cosmic Cow Goddess of Ancient Egypt Eye of Ra Egypt - Wrath of the Woman Wadjet - Winged Snake Goddess of Egypt Sekhmet, Warrior & Medicine Goddess of Egypt She also reigns at Leontopolis and is often portrayed as a lion-headed goddess. Another of her children is lion-headed war god Maahes. Later legends list Sekhmet as mother of divine architect Imhotep. Intoned as the Eye of Ra, Sekhmet is the vengeful aspect of her father, Ra the Sun God. Among the most important deities of the Egyptian pantheon, Sekhmet is shown with positive and negative traits. She has a terrible hunger and is a fierce protector deity to those who treat her well. She can destroy, but also heal and repel disease. Taweret - Hippopotamus Goddess of Egypt Crocodilopolis - Sobek Crocodile God Ancient Egypt Remedies: Ebers Papyrus Sekhmet is the Eye of Ra The Eye of Ra symbolizes power, violence and rage. Sekhmet acts in the name of Ra to punish disrespectful or lazy worshippers. In Egypt the Eye comes to be associated with conflict and violence. As a Goddess of War Sekhmet is bloodthirsty. In one legend she kills so many people to drink their blood, Ra, who has sent her to chasten humanity, now becomes worried for the fate of humanity. Ba Bird & Sacred Ram - Ancient Egypt Khet, the Body: Death Rites of Ancient Egypt Shen Rings Egypt - Divine Protection Her bloodlust is ferocious He tricks Sekhmet into drinking a lake of beer colored like blood. She gets so drunk she forgets her vengeful nature and returns in peace to the ranks of the divinities. The humans survive once more. The legend holds parallels with a Hindu tale of Kali, who goes insane with bloodlust. She won't stop killing people until her consort Shiva throws himself under her feet. In some versions of the myth, Sekhmet is angry at being tricked and departs from the Kingdom of Gods and the land of Egypt. As she is part of the Sun her departure diminishes the light of Ra. The gods must beg for her to come back ... which she does, eventually. Seshat - Scribe Goddess Ancient Egypt Khnum: Ram Headed Potter God Egypt Nefertum: He Who is Beautiful Gods of Egypt Lioness is a symbol of Sekhmet As a lion-headed goddess or terrible goddess, Sekhmet can also breathe fire. Desert winds are said to be like her hot breath. She can cause plagues or disasters, known as her servants. To placate her is to avoid the wrath she can wreak. Sekhmet is invoked to repel disease and restore the ill to health. Her symbols include the gold sun disc above her head, wrapped with a cobra or uraeus . The snake represents both danger and healing. Other symbols of Sekhmet are the lioness, and red linen, the fabric of her gown. She often holds an Ankh, the key of life. Was Scepter, Djed & Ankh Power Trio Heh Gods & Eternal Life in Ancient Egypt Magic: Heka & the Ka in Ancient Egypt Cobra or sun disc with cobra (uraeus), is a sign of Sekhmet She's associated with Hathor the Mother Goddess, who wears a sun disc with two curved horns, and Bastet, the feline Goddess. Both these divinities can also act as the Eye of Ra. As time goes by, Sekhmet and Bastet form divine dyads, with Sekhmet representing the warrior, and Bastet her gentle aspect. Originally a lion-headed Goddess as well, Bastet becomes gradually more cat-like as her identity shifts to her gentle nature. In some variations Sekhmet and Bastet are sisters. Benu - Ba Heron God of Ancient Egypt Sacred Scarab: Lucky Bug of Ancient Egypt Byblos Vibrant Port City: the Egyptians You're so cute. We could be twins. Festival of Sekhmet Around the end of the 1st century BCE, the Festival of Sekhmet is internationally popular. Held at the beginning of the year, it's a time of libation, drinking to excess and embracing the nature of the beast. In reference to the bloodthirstiness of Sekhmet in the Ra myth, people drink beer dyed red with pomegranate juice. In honor of Sekhmet musicians play, as she's fond of music to pacify her restless ferocity. Pomegranate - Food of the Ancients 12 Days of Zagmuk: Chaos & the King Ammit - Eater of the Heavy Heart pomegranates Poets inscribe odes and praises. Priests burn incense and incant prayers to her power, brilliance and beauty. Praise is thought to curb her ferocious qualities and encourage her to protect Egypt from enemies. The people are happy to pour it on. Her New Year festival is extremely high in attendance, with tens of thousands of merrymakers recorded. Pagan Solstice Fests: Saturnalia Serket - Scorpion Goddess of Egypt Flooding of the Nile - Nature & Myth Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

An ancient creator God of Egypt, Ptah is deity of creativity, artists, crafters, architects, sculptors, stone masons, metal workers and metallurgy. He's one of the patron triad of deities at Memphis (Giza), Egypt. Taweret - Hippopotamus Goddess of Egypt Sekhmet - War Goddess of Ancient Egypt Ka - Life Essence in Ancient Egypt Ptah is a God of Creation Ptah conceives the world and brings it into being with the creative power of speech. A hymn to Ptah dating to the 22nd Dynasty of Egypt (950 - 730 BCE) says the creator God "crafted the world in the design of his hear." His son is   Nefertum , associated with the blue lotus flower . Ptah is wed to Sekhmet , warrior goddess and deity of medicine. Nefertum, Ptah and Sekhmet carry Ankhs, symbols of divine life essence. On their heads, Sekhmet wears a solar disc, Nefertum a stylized lotus flower. Flooding of the Nile - Nature & Myth Linen, Hemp & Cotton - Fabrics of Ancient Egypt Medicine in Ancient Egypt: Ebers Papyrus Memphis Triad from left: Nefertum, Ptah, Sekmet, in solar barque Solar barques are made of gold which is associated with the Sun and the golden life essence. Initially the God Ra has a solar barque with which to traverse the sky and Underworld in day and night aspects. Soon the solar barque is popular among the other Gods too. As a creation God Ptah is particularly invoked by metalworkers and blacksmiths. At the same time Ptah stirs fear, associated with rumbles and tremors and cracks in the crust of the Earth. Also in his Tatenen form as a young man, Ptah is master of ceremonies  for the festival of Heb Sed , celebrating the first thirty years of a Pharaoh's reign. Nefertum: He Who is Beautiful Gods of Egypt Khnum: Ram Headed Potter God Egypt Scribes & Writing - Ancient Egypt Ptah Creator God can appear as a young man The Shabaka Stone , containing significant texts from Twenty-Fifth Dynasty Egypt (747 - 656 BCE) , says Ptah "gave life to all the gods and their kas as well, through this heart and this tongue." Many epithets are given to him, including Ptah the begetter of the first beginning Ptah lord of truth Ptah lord of eternity Ptah who listens to prayers Ptah master of ceremonies Ptah master of justice Ptah the God who made himself to be God Ptah the double being Ptah the beautiful face Like most powerful deities Ptah has the attributes of shape-changing and disguise. He sometimes appears as a naked dwarf. In other depictions he's old and gnarled with green skin. His shroud sticks to him. He might also appear as a beggar or rag-picker. Heqet, Frog Goddess of Egypt Byblos Vibrant Port City: the Egyptians Papyrus (C. papyrus): Sacred Reeds of Aaru A glorious God of Creation can assume a humble form In his godly form, Ptah wears the divine beard, the characteristic of Gods and Pharaohs. A false beard, it's a distinction of rank. The Pharaoh has to appear among the people clean-shaven. The false beard in art is a link to divinity and rightful rule. Hatshepsut the first female Pharaoh causes an uproar with it. In the below relief, Ptah is the first God in succession, followed by Hathor and Imhotep. His scepter incorporates the was scepter, ankh and djed or tower of stability, also called the spine of Osiris. Was Scepter, Djed & Ankh Power Trio Heh Gods & Eternal Life in Ancient Egypt Magic: Heka & the Ka in Ancient Egypt Ptah w Triple Staff; Horus, with sun disk & horns, holding ankh; Imhotep, priest vizier w ankh The three parts of Ptah's Scepter from top down: The Was scepter, a s ymbol appearing often in relics, art, and hieroglyphs associated with ancient Egyptian religion . It's usually a stylized animal head atop a long staff with forked end. The sign of life, Ankh or key of life, ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic symbol representing the word for "life" and as a symbol of life itself. The Djed (Djt) pillar, a long staff or pillar representing stability. The three combined symbols relate to the three creative powers of the god: power ( was ), life ( ankh ) and stability ( djed ). From the Old Kingdom (2700 - 2200 BCE) , Ptah absorbs the look and functions of senior Underworld gods Sokar and Tatenen. Nekhbet - Vulture Goddess of Egypt Sobekneferu - Queen of the Pharaohs Hathor: Cosmic Cow Goddess of Ancient Egypt Hello. We have a lunch appointment. Sokar and Tatenen are ancient deities of the Memphis region. They're both associated with the Land of the Dead. Sokar is especially linked to the Memphis Necropolis also called the Necropolis of Saqqara, from the name of the God Sokar. Boundaries with Ptah are hazy. These gods overlap in regions of worship and once more form a sacred trinity. Ptah's form of Sokar has remnants of his white shroud. He wears the Atef crown, below, a symbol of Osiris, the primary Underworld god. In this capacity, he represents the patron deity of the N ecropolis of Saqqara and other famous sites of royal pyramids. Apis - Sacred Fertility Bull of Egypt Wadjet - Winged Snake Goddess of Egypt Thoth - Ibis Scribe Moon God of Egypt Atef Crown, a symbol of Osiris, Egyptian god of the Underworld The Gods come together as the trinity of Ptah-Soker-Osiris. Figurines of the trio are widely made and sold. The figures ae placed in graves for luck or protection. The Egyptians have not just graves but entire cities of the dead. A God of Life, also honored in the Afterworld, Ptah shows not just duality but wholeness. As a creation God Ptah is particularly invoked by metalworkers and blacksmiths. At the same time Ptah stirs fear, associated with rumbles and tremors and cracks in the crust of the Earth. Curse of the Evil Eye & Apotropaic Magic Ram God of Egypt Ba-neb-djedet Sirius the Dog Star: Stellar Mythology Fires of Creation Ptah is likewise equated with Sun deities Re (Ra) or Aten as a giver of life. In the Ptolemaic era (c. 330 BCE) his symbols include two birds with human heads and solar disks, the Ba . Ba birds can leave the burial chamber on behalf of the deceased, but must always return to reconnect with the tomb. Ba translates to personality, as entwined with the physical, spiritual and self-identifying parts of the soul. Ba Bird & Sacred Ram - Ancient Egypt Benu - Ba Heron God of Ancient Egypt Joyful Arrival of Hapi in Egypt golden Ba bird symbol, Egypt 4th century BCE Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

The flooding of the Nile comes at the rise of the Dog Star Sirius . Festivals abound and people create agriculture calendars around it. Floods bring fertility and abundance; insufficient floods mean drought and famine. Heqet, Frog Goddess of Egypt Joyful Arrival of Hapi in Egypt Atum of Egypt - Dawn of the Gods Good day on the Nile Too much water swamps villages and destroys fields and dams. Balance is crucial. Ancient Egyptians celebrate the flooding of the Nile with a two-week holiday festival, Wafaa El-Nil. The Nile travels from its source in Lake Victoria, east central Africa, through several countries including today's Tanzania, Uganda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Eritrea, South Sudan, Sudan and Egypt. At the Nile Delta in Egypt, the river runs into the Mediterranean Sea. The Way to Aaru - Egyptian Paradise Nekhbet - Vulture Goddess of Egypt Taweret - Hippopotamus Goddess of Egypt Mediterranean coast at Alexandria Considered the longest river in the world, the Nile comprises seven sections. From south to north: Lake Plateau of East Africa Al-Jabal (El-Jebel) White Nile Blue Nile Atbara Nile north of Khartoum in Sudan and Egypt Nile delta The Nile travels 6,600 kilometers (4,100 miles) from source to sea. The Nile river expands into one of the largest deltas worldwide, encompassing 240 km (150 mi) of Mediterranean coastline. The river brings life to barren lands and gives rise to rich civilizations. Kohl: Eye Beauty Magic of Ancients Apep - Primal Chaos God of Egypt Egyptian Blue Lotus: Visionary Beauty Nile, satellite photo, shows greenery around the river in the midst of the desert The year of the ancient Egyptians is divided into three seasons: Akhet (Inundation) Peret (Growth) Shemu (Harvest) Akhet covers the Egyptian flood cycle. The cycle is so consistent the Egyptians can time its onset to the heliacal rising of Sirius , a key event used to set the calendar . Sirius the Dog Star: Stellar Mythology Egyptian Blue Faience - Ceramic Glass Sekhmet - War Goddess of Ancient Egypt Sirius, the Dog Star The heliacal rising of the star Sirius, the brightest star of the night sky, is the first day when Sirius is visible in the east at dawn. Because it's part of the constellation Canis Major, Sirius is also known as the Dog Star. Ancient Egyptians know the heliacal rising of Sirius occurs shortly before the annual flooding of the Nile. The Nile Floods begin with monsoon season in Ethiopia. The primary monsoon season is Kiremt , between June and September, when 50 - 80% of rain falls. Ptah: God of Creators & Creation Egypt Hathor: Cosmic Cow Goddess of Ancient Egypt Eye of Ra Egypt - Wrath of the Woman The massive deluge brings nutrient rich soils and silt rushing from the highlands downriver. The Nile river begins its rise in June, and continues steadily through July, when the water level increases substantially. At the beginning of September the Nile flood levels stabilize until October, when a small rise occurs. The flood reaches its highest level in October. Shen Rings Egypt - Divine Protection Natron - Ancient Embalming & Household Salts Benu - Ba Heron God of Ancient Egypt Reedy or not, here I come From there the water begins to lower again, coming to its lowest level the following June. The cycles continue. Flood waters rise to 45 ft (14 m) at Aswan, 38 ft (12 m) at Luxor and Thebes, and 25 ft (7.6) at Cairo. Basin Irrigation Basin irrigation has been used in Egypt since c. 7000 BCE to store and deliver water. If the floods are too low, the basins can't fill, depriving the people, plants and animals of food and life. Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Myrrh - Mystique, Death & Divinity Crocodilopolis - Sobek Crocodile God Water is Life Before basin irrigation, the Egyptian people work the crops around the flooding times. Later, architectural engineering constructs dams and dikes throughout the croplands to channel water into basins. Once flooded the basins are closed off for about six weeks, allowing the nutrient saturated silt to settle. The water is then channeled into lower croplands or back into the Nile. Sowing or planting begins immediately afterward. Earthworms: Soil Health & Ecosystem Balance Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Pharos Lighthouse: Ancient Wonder of Alexandria Healthy Crop Perennial Irrigation Muhammad Ali Pasha , Khedive (Viceroy) of Egypt (r. 1805 - 1848), makes it a priority to modernize Egypt. He tries to extend arable land and bring in extra revenue with cotton cultivation. Cotton is a crop with a longer growing season and need for water at all times. New canals are built, shifting from the traditional basin irrigation to perennial irrigation, which can irrigate farmland throughout the year. In this way, crops can be harvested twice or even three times a year. Ammit - Eater of the Heavy Heart Baphomet, the Goat of Mendes in History Herbs & Natural Remedies - Ancient Egypt Prosperity throughout the land Agricultural output sees significant increases. In 1873, Isma'il Pasha commissions the construction of the Ibrahimiya Canal , extending perennial irrigation. In the 20th century, the Aswan High Dam is completed. The Lake Nasser reservoir can store water the height of even the highest floods. The annual flooding cycle in Egypt comes to an end. Lake Nasser, the southernmost freshwater region of the Egyptians at Sudan, is the largest artificial lake in the world. Music of Ancient & Medieval Egypt Seshat - Scribe Goddess Ancient Egypt Sacred Scarab: Lucky Bug of Ancient Egypt Scarab Deity Khepri on a boat of Papyrus, Horus at Prow - Khepri represents fertility of Earth and Soil Flood Deities The Nile is a vital part of ancient Egyptian spiritual life. God of the Nile and the annual flooding is Hapi, a dual-sexed god. Both he and the Pharaoh were thought to have powers of flood control. The annual flooding of the Nile is called the Arrival of Hapi . Since this flooding provides fertile soil in an area otherwise desert, Hapi symbolises fertility, hope, nourishment and well-being. Sistrum (Sistra) Music: Ancient Egypt Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Lapis Lazuli: Vibrant Blue Gem of Ancients Egyptian engraving of Hapi Although Hapi is referenced as a male god, he has pendulous breasts and pronounced belly, feminine attributes of fertility and nourishment. He may be depicted as a dyad of identical gods. He wears a crown of papyrus , an essential plant for Egypt. The god Osiris in his agricultural role is also closely associated with the Nile and fertility of the land. During Inundation festivals, figures of Osiris are made of mud, and planted with barley. Another deity associated with the flooding of the Nile is Heqet, the frog goddess . Frogs are beloved as symbols of life, music, medicine, prosperity and happiness. Menat: Ritual Jewelry of Ancient Egypt Dream Interpretation (Oneiromancy) - Ancient Egypt Linen, Hemp & Cotton - Fabrics of Ancient Egypt Heqet, the Frog Goddess Due to floods washing away sediment, deposits of the gemstone carnelian appear on the Nile water terraces, as well as small naturally occuring stones in the river. In ancient Egypt carnelian holds the power of the Sun. Natural carnelian has been used in beadwork since prehistoric times. A bow drill is an early example of a hole-making tool. Carnelian is highly valued by the Egyptians due to its rich glow and solar qualities, and is found in tombs of Pharaohs such as Tutankhamun. Today the annual floods are part of Nile history. Nefertum: He Who is Beautiful Gods of Egypt Khonsu - Moon God of Ancient Egypt Apis - Sacred Fertility Bull of Egypt Falcon of Tutankhamun with carnelian sun disc, shen rings & inlaid feathers Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

The Hippopotamus Goddess of Egypt is Taweret, a protector deity of pregnant women, childbirth and infants. Her ferocious appearance bespeaks her destructive abilities. Ka - Life Essence in Ancient Egypt Egyptian Blue Lotus: Visionary Beauty Wadjet - Winged Snake Goddess of Egypt Hippopotamus Goddess Taweret protects home & family Those who fail to respect her can have serious accidents or brutal death. Hippopotamus mothers are fiercely protective of their babies or calves, and Taweret is a powerful guardian. Images of Taweret appear on children's feeding cups and other household obects c. 2055–1650 BCE. Because of her power she is given titles such as "She Who is Great" and "Queen of Divine Waters." These are meant to pacify her if she's in a hostile mood. Anubis: Jackal-Headed God of Egypt Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Thoth - Ibis Scribe Moon God of Egypt The first King of Egypt is killed by a hippopotamus. Hippos are known as the world's most dangerous animals. Egyptians attribute the animal traits to the Goddess Taweret by watching and understanding the qualities of wild animals. She has the head of hippopotamus, back and tail of a crocodile, body of a lion and pendulous human breasts. Shen Rings Egypt - Divine Protection Ogdoad - Primordial Gods of Egypt Curse of the Evil Eye & Apotropaic Magic Hippopotamus Goddess Statuette of Faience (photo: Rama) Images and symbols of Taweret are often placed near an infant child or in the sleeping room of a pregnant woman to guard against miscarraige or illness. The early Egyptians consider young male hippopotamuses to be manifestations of chaos. Overcoming them in royal hunting campaigns is thought to demonstrate the divine power of the King. Nekhbet - Vulture Goddess of Egypt Ptah: God of Creators & Creation Egypt The Way to Aaru - Egyptian Paradise Female hippopotamuses are honored as embodiments of apotropaic deities, as they viciously protect young from harm. Protective amulets depicting female hippos date back to the Predynastic period of Egypt (c. 3000 - 2686 BCE). The tradition of creating and using the protective hippo amulets continues for hundreds of years, finally trickling out with the advent of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and the Roman period (c. 332 BCE - 390 AD). Eye of Ra Egypt - Wrath of the Woman Hathor: Cosmic Cow Goddess of Ancient Egypt Sobekneferu - Queen of the Pharaohs Blue faience statuette of Taweret Other guardian hippopotamus goddesses are Ipet, Reret, and Hedjet. Some scholars see them as representing one Goddess, Taweret, or her aspects. Ipet (the Nurse) is associated with childbirth and child rearing. Reret (the Sow) is named after Egyptian term 'water pig' for hippo Hedjet (the White One) Amentet Goddess of Death Egypt Serket - Scorpion Goddess of Egypt Khet, the Body: Death Rites of Ancient Egypt hanging out with the girls Spell 269 of the Pyramid Texts stresses the nurturing role of Ipet. The spell says the deceased king will partake of the goddess's "white, dazzling, sweet milk" when he ascends to the heavens. As maternal goddesses the female hippopotamus deities are thought to nurture the land and all people of Egypt, royal or not. Taweret gains power in the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055-1650 BCE) as a domestic goddess. Magical objects bear her image. A type of wand or knife carved of hippopotamus ivory, with a representation of Taweret, is used in rituals of birth and protection of newborns and babies. Ammit - Eater of the Heavy Heart Khonsu - Moon God of Ancient Egypt Seshat - Scribe Goddess Ancient Egypt Little Ones Need Security & Protection About this time Taweret becomes a funerary deity as well. The practice of placing hippopotamus figurines in tombs and gravesites gains popularity. Grave talismans usually have floral markings representing river vegetation, which hippos eat. The hippo is associated with protection after death, and also rebirth. She relates to cycles of life and death. Menat: Ritual Jewelry of Ancient Egypt Nefertari Queen of Peace Ancient Egypt Sekhmet - War Goddess of Ancient Egypt Her association with water reinforces the theme of rejuvenation or re-emergence, or the soul reborn in the land of the Dead. Riches, personal items or needful things in the form of grave goods await the deceased. Due in part to popular piety in the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1069 BCE), household deities like Taweret gain even more importance. Taweret's image appears on a wide variety of domestic objects, attesting to her primary role in the home. Crocodilopolis - Sobek Crocodile God Apis - Sacred Fertility Bull of Egypt Sistrum (Sistra) Music: Ancient Egypt Astronomical or Celestial Ceiling, Taweret at far right (photo: Jean-Pierre Dalbéra) Due to her ability to repel evil powers, Taweret is often depicted on temple walls. Her popularity grows to embrace parts of Greece and other European regions. She still holds a strong position in folk religion. It's customary to display a statue or symbol of the goddess, and to honor her in the home. Dream Interpretation (Oneiromancy) - Ancient Egypt Flooding of the Nile - Nature & Myth Egyptian Blue Faience - Ceramic Glass Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Ib ( jb ) is the ancient Egyptian heart, the center of intelligence and existence in a body. It's also called qaib or qa-ib referring to the ka, qa or life essence. In embalming and mummification practices, the heart is the only organ not removed from the corpse. Ka - Life Essence in Ancient Egypt Ba Bird & Sacred Ram - Ancient Egypt Khnum: Ram Headed Potter God Egypt In ancient Egypt the heart is the center of awareness There are eight components of the soul. The center of intelligence, the heart plays a crucial role in the Egyptian afterlife. Mummy wrappings often contain heart amulets, or truth charms placed over the heart of the dead person. The heart carries deeds of the deceased. The heart is embalmed with the body. Ingredients of embalming fluids vary over years and regions. They're made from animal fats, beeswax, pistachio resin, bitumen and plant oils. Other favorites include myrrh and cinnamon . Embalmers use natron to dry out the body. Medicine in Ancient Egypt: Ebers Papyrus Was Scepter, Djed & Ankh Power Trio Ram God of Egypt Ba-neb-djedet Pistachio on the tree An embalming mix called antiu discovered at Saqqara is made of cedar oil, juniper / cypress oil, and animal fats. Pistachio resin and castor oil are used to treat the head of the deceased after the brain, considered stuffing, is removed through the nasal cavity. A few non-native plants appear. Resin of the African elemi tree ( Canarium schweinfurthii ) is imported from the regions south of Egypt. Dammar gum comes from Dipterocarpaceae in India and Southeast Asia . Curse of the Evil Eye & Apotropaic Magic Egyptian Blue Faience - Ceramic Glass Amentet Goddess of Death Egypt Resin of the Elemi Tree Keeping the heart and body ( khet ) well preserved ensures ample freedom of movement for the other parts of the soul such as the ka and ba , who use the body as a home base. When a person dies and enters the first stage of the afterlife, duat, Anubis the jackal-headed god weighs the heart against a feather of Goddess Ma'at (Maat). She can be represented by a winged woman with the feather in her headband. Magic: Heka & the Ka in Ancient Egypt Egyptian Blue Lotus: Visionary Beauty Book of the Heavenly Cow - Myths of Egypt Ma'at - Truth & Justice Ma'at is both a goddess and set of divine principles relating to justice, wisdom and truth. A balance or scales with woman's head can represent her. Upon weighing, if the heart is lighter than the feather, the deceased may continue toward the ultimate goal of Aaru , Egyptian paradise. If the heart is heavier than the feather of Ma'at, the ravenous hybrid demon Ammit gobbles it up. The heartless person is then doomed to wander the eternal wastelands of duat , as a restless spirit in torment. At some point, the deceased may get a chance for redemption, but nobody knows for sure. Myrrh - Mystique, Death & Divinity Anubis: Jackal-Headed God of Egypt Sekhmet - War Goddess of Ancient Egypt Weighing of the heart in duat, from the Book of the Dead Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Khet represents the physical body and is considered part of the soul in ancient Egypt. The soul is made of eight parts. Together they will form the Akh , or whole, after death. The condition of the physical body determines quality of existence in the Egyptian Afterlife Aaru . Ba Bird & Sacred Ram - Ancient Egypt Egyptian Blue - First Synthetic Color Taweret - Hippopotamus Goddess of Egypt The soul attains spiritual completion when the deceased successfully journeys to Aaru . It's not an easy task. Unlike the Underworld Kur of Mesopotamia, where no one is judged, the type of afterlife received in ancient Egypt is based on the person's deeds in life. In ancient Egypt the Afterlife or Underworld begins with the jackal-headed god Anubis coming to take the dead person's spirit to duat , the first part of the Afterlife. There, the heart is weighed against a feather of Ma'at, Goddess of Justice. Linen, Hemp & Cotton - Fabrics of Ancient Egypt Ammit - Eater of the Heavy Heart Anubis: Jackal-Headed God of Egypt Weighing of the Heart If heart is too heavy the deceased fails. The soul does not transition to Aaru , and hungry demon Ammit devours the heart. The deceased is stuck in duat . There are opportunities to get out of duat , but they are few. If the soul is judged worthy, the deceased must pass through up to 21 goddess gates guarded by demon gods. If this feat is successful, Heron God Benu awaits with a boat to take the person to the luxurious reed island of Osiris, god of vegetation and afterlife. Nekhbet - Vulture Goddess of Egypt Steppe Trade Routes: Before the Silk Road Benu - Ba Heron God of Ancient Egypt Benu is a grey heron (Ardea cinerea) native to Africa and Eurasia Benu is connected to the ba or personality of the soul. He's the ba of Sun God Ra. The heron symbolizes eternal cycles of life / death / rebirth. Aaru itself is said to be the ka  of the Nile Delta. The eight parts of the soul are Khet, the physical body Sah, the spiritual body Ren, the name or identity Ba, the personality Ka, the vital essence or 'double' - life essence which exists in all living things Ib, the heart Shut, the shadow Sekhem, the power, form Shen Rings Egypt - Divine Protection Wadjet - Winged Snake Goddess of Egypt Arabian Leopard: Bronze Age Predators Body is a Temple Khet, the Physical Body In Egyptian beliefs, without the physical body, the soul has no intelligence and no chance to be judged. Thus it's crucial to preserve the physical body as long as possible. Mummification by natural forces happens in certain conditions such as arid climate, extreme cold or lack of air. Natural mummification is already known in Egypt when deliberate mummification first appears c. 3600 BCE. Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus): Plant of Aaru Sekhmet - War Goddess of Ancient Egypt Bride of the Pharaoh The condition of khet , the physical body, dictates the quality of existence for the deceased in the Afterlife. Before the soul can journey to duat , the person must be spiritually awakened using the dead body. It's most important to halt the decomposition process. Specialists among the priests of Anubis remove the internal organs of the corpse, including the brain. The heart is left intact. Then the body is washed inside and out with a mix of spices and palm wine. Khnum: Ram Headed Potter God Egypt Hathor: Cosmic Cow Goddess of Ancient Egypt Nefertum: He Who is Beautiful Gods of Egypt Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) & Cassia (Cinnamomum cassia) are used in funerary rites Spices and resin used in embalming include cinnamon  ( tisheps  or khet nedjem  "sweet wood"), anise, cumin and myrrh . The natural petroleum product bitumen  is also used. The six steps of embalming are: Announcing the Death Embalming & Purifying the Body Discarding the Brain from the Dead Body Removal of the Internal Organs Drying Out the Body Stuffing the Body The body is treated with natron , a type of soda ash and natural drying agent. After 40 days, the natron is washed away and the body stuffed with sawdust, sand, straw, linen and pouches of natron. Egyptian Blue Lotus: Visionary Beauty Flooding of the Nile - Nature & Myth Sacred Scarab: Lucky Bug of Ancient Egypt Natural natron formations in Chad The skin and first layers of linen wrappings are covered in resin or bitumen as sealant, preservative and pest repellent. Amulets, charms or cedar wood might be included in the wrappings, placed close to the body. For furnishings or the coffin, cedar wood is valued for its pest and disease resistant properties. The Egyptians trade actively for Phoenician cedar, today's Cedar of Lebanon. A coffin of wood may be placed inside a stone sarcophagus or neb ankh (possessor of life). Herbs & Natural Remedies - Ancient Egypt Kohl: Eye Beauty Magic of Ancients Immortal - Quest for the Elixir of Life Ideally the body is wrapped in fine linen with dense weave. Linen creates an air-tight environment and also has natural anti-moth and other insect repellent properties. In the Old Kingdom (c. 2650 - 2130 BCE) elaborate burial chambers and mummification are primarily for Kings and the wealthy. By the Middle Kingdom (c. 2040 - 1780 BCE), any body could enjoy these privileges. Pharos Lighthouse: Ancient Wonder of Alexandria Egyptian Alchemy - Power of Eternity Apep - Chaos Snake God of Egypt You too can have all this According to Greek philosopher Herodotus, grieving families of ancient Egypt have a choice of type and quality of mummification. He writes, "The best and most expensive kind is said to represent [Osiris], the next best is somewhat inferior and cheaper, while the third is cheapest of all." The tomb may be decorated with scenes of a person's life. The purpose is to show the gods the virtue of the deceased, and to identify the deceased to the gods. Items beloved by the person, or potentially needed in the Afterlife, are placed in the tomb. Expulsion of Intellectuals Alexandria 145 BCE Nefertari Queen of Peace Ancient Egypt Eye of Ra Egypt - Wrath of the Woman Jewelry of gold, lapis lazuli, garnet, carnelian, turquoise is a grave good to wear or trade in the Afterlife Grave goods include jewelry, musical instruments (and sometimes musicians), furniture, chariots, a change of clothes, oxen or other beasts of burden. If the dead person is wealthy, slaves or servants might be killed to attend the deceased. Opening of the Mouth Ritual At the interment of the body, priests of Anubis use special tools to perform funerary rites, which reanimate the mummified remains of the deceased in the afterlife. The main ceremony is the "opening of the mouth" ritual. Apis - Sacred Fertility Bull of Egypt Bes: Household Protector God of Egypt Atum of Egypt - Dawn of the Gods Ritual adze used to touch mouth and certain points on the body of deceased The ritual is done in several stages. There are 72 parts to the rite and the whole process takes 70 days. The body first must be purified. Natron, a baking soda type of salt also used in preservation of the body as a mummy, is a primary constituent to embalming. Oils and perfumes are placed in the mouth of the person, and on other parts of the body. Heh Gods & Eternal Life in Ancient Egypt Giant Cinnamon Birds of Arabia Ogdoad - Primordial Gods of Egypt Sacred Oils Anoint the Body Linseed oil, of the flax plant, and hemp seed oil are natural preservatives. Hemp seed oil is used even today as a wood sealant. Both flax and hemp are grown in ancient Egypt and used in embalming. Olive oil is imported from Crete after c. 2000 BCE. The oils and resins symbolize the saliva of the falcon-headed god Horus in the Afterlife. He's connected with rebirth and resurrection. During the ritual, one priest wears a mask of jackal-headed god Anubis, and is responsible for keeping the body upright. Heh Gods & Eternal Life in Ancient Egypt Magic: Heka & the Ka in Ancient Egypt Heqet, Frog Goddess of Egypt Falcon God Horus in bird form - Egyptian faience The opening of the mouth ceremony grants senses and abilities to the spirit of the deceased. Functions such as breathing, speaking, seeing, eating, and drinking are considered essential. Reciting spells and incantations, and asserting innocence before the gods after completing the trials of the duat requires use of senses such as sight, hearing and speech. Also, the deceased is said to receive milk, saltwater and fresh water upon entering the duat . Amentet Goddess of Death Egypt Salt Trade - the Most Precious Mineral Joyful Arrival of Hapi in Egypt Cheers! These are connected to rebirth, symbolically representing the way infants receive milk from their mothers as a first source of nourishment. Drinking ability is essential for the spirit of the deceased. The full ritual reanimates each section of the corpse, so the spiritual body has power of movement in the Afterlife. Rituals like this are costly and take time, but just as today, people are willing to invest. If the deceased is virtuous in life, the person can choose to take different forms in the next world. The various manifestations can be used to help or protect friends and/or family, or to take revenge on enemies. Turquoise: Precious Stone of Ancients Silver - Queen of Precious Metals Byblos Vibrant Port City: the Egyptians Papyrus canary - the deceased may take the form of a bird to visit the living Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

The Lighthouse of Alexandria or Pharos Lighthouse is a beacon for seafarers and a brilliant display of power, wealth and technology in the ancient world. It dominates the coast for over 1500 years. The Great Library of Alexandria Alexandria: Jewel of Ancient History Alexandria & the Siege of Diocletian Pharos Lighthouse as depicted by Philip Galle 1572 Strategically positioned on the island of Pharos, extending into the Mediterranean Sea, the Lighthouse is a Wonder of the Ancient World. It gives a clear view of the ocean. For centuries sailors depend on its light. Alexandria is a mix of Greek, Roman and Egyptian influences. The city is founded by Alexander the Great in 331 BCE. Alexander dies suddenly in 323 BCE, and the Ptolemaic dynasty, named for one of his generals, begins. Agathodaemon: Snake God Alexandria Expulsion of Intellectuals Alexandria 145 BCE Ptolemy: Earth, Almagest & Ancient Astronomy The Ptolemies support art, literature and trade. They build a great library rising to world fame. The city becomes a center of philosophy. Medical schools are famed especially for studies in human anatomy. Glass making booms. Trade items of Egypt like papyrus , salt fish, grain and linen help make Alexandria a center of commerce and culture. The lighthouse facilitates safe passage of ships transporting metal, dyes, jewels, spices and people. Gnosticism: Five Essential Gnostic Principles Taweret - Hippopotamus Goddess of Egypt Egyptian Blue Faience - Ceramic Glass 2nd century coins from Alexandria with lighthouse Construction of the Lighthouse begins 280 BCE during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus and is completed c. 247 BCE. Designed by Greek architect Sostratus of Cnidus, the Lighthouse operates for nearly 1500 years. In ancient times the Island of Pharos connects to the mainland with a man-made causeway, the Heptastadion. It forms the western side of the city's Great Harbor. The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World are first selected by Hellenic travelers in Persian, Babylonian and Egyptian territories, described in travel guides, art and poetry. The lighthouse is of major value to tourism. Pagan Solstice Fests: Saturnalia Khet, the Body: Death Rites of Ancient Egypt Baphomet, the Goat of Mendes in History The finished height of the Pharos is between 100-137m (330-450 ft), making it one of the tallest structures in the world at the time. The Statue of Liberty for comparison is 93m (305 ft) tall. The Pharos is made of blocks of locally quarried limestone and marble, the metamorphic form of limestone. It's constructed in three distinct stages, tapering upward.  The limestone blocks are carefully fitted together using molten lead as a mortar, giving the structure stability in the face of the elements. Marble is used for decorative elements and the lantern chamber. Leap to Flames: Why Did Empedocles Jump into Mount Etna? Soul Perspectives: Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato Cleopatra the Alchemist of Alexandria   marble - highly prized Base:  A square lower section containing administrative offices, storage rooms, and possibly even stables. Octagonal Mid-Section:  Octagonal walls distribute weight and provide stability. Cylindrical Top:  This holds the lighthouse's lantern, where fire burns to generate the guiding light. Fuel such as wood or oil is taken up the tower by a spiral ramp inside the structure. It may have been wide enough to accommodate animals or a pulley system. Malaria: Roman Fever & Renaissance Plague Death Cap Mushrooms: Deadly Poison Four Humors & Medical Stagnation Light from the fire is amplified and projected seaward using a sophisticated system of polished bronze or metal mirrors. Carefully positioned within the lantern chamber, they reflect the fire's light. This creates a powerful beam seen up to 56 km (35 mi) away, and gives rise to the legend it can destroy enemy ships. During the day, white sails on the lighthouse catch the sun to signal the entry point for incoming vessels. Alchemists of Ancient Alexandria Women Scientists of the Ancient World Unus Mundus One World: Psychology The word Pharos becomes synonymous with lighthouse . In early medieval times the structure starts its journey to decay. It's cracked and damaged by earthquakes in 796 and 951 and suffers from another in 956, causing the top 20 m (66 ft) to collapse. Earthquakes originate from two tectonic boundaries, the African-Arabian and Red Sea Rift zones, respectively 350 and 520 km from the lighthouse. The earthquake of 956 causes the structure's top 20 m (66ft) to collapse. underwater ruins of the Pharos (cred. Roland Unger) Devastating earthquakes in , 1303 and 1323 severely damage the remnants of the structure. By the late 15th century, it crumbles completely. Some of its blocks are salvaged to build the citadel now on the island. For centuries, Pharos is one of the tallest man-made structures globally. Its groundbreaking design influences countless other lighthouses, including the famous Tower of Hercules in Spain and Phare de Cordouan in France. Herbs & Natural Remedies - Ancient Egypt Myrrh - Mystique, Death & Divinity Stymphalian Birds & Greek Heroics Citadel of Qaitbay built 1477-79 AD Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Irrigation creates rich agricultural lands from dry barren earth. For thousands of years, people invent and refine ways to move water to their crops, shaping societies, economies and cultures. Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Potash: Agriculture, Plant & Garden Health From parched landscapes of ancient Mesopotamia to the fertile rice paddies of Asia, irrigation is integral to the growth of human civilization. Control and distribution of water expands the limits of rain-fed agriculture. Rudimentary forms of artificial watering, like diverting small streams or digging shallow trenches, appear by the 6th millennium BCE in regions like the Middle East and Asia. Around 3000 BCE, sophisticated systems emerge in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley. Mugwort (Wormwood) Herbal Lore Ammonium (NH+4): Nitrogen Needs of Plants Cellulose: Plant Fibers of Structure & Strength These early systems use the power of rivers like the Tigris, Euphrates, Nile, and Indus. Regions creates canals, dikes, and weirs to manage water flow and distribute it to fields. It gives people a sense of community. Different cultures adapt irrigation to their unique landscapes and climates. The ancient Egyptians perfect basin irrigation using the annual flooding of the Nile marked by the rise of the Dog Star . Nile River satellite photo - today the floods are no more Heqet, Frog Goddess of Egypt Aya - Goddess of Dawn, Mesopotamia The Igigi - Why Humans are Created In East Asia, intricate canal systems and terrace farming bring agriculture to mountainous regions, crafting beauty and nourishment into the landscape. Chain pumps and treadmills let farmers lift water from rivers and wells. The Romans are renowned for aqueducts, transporting water over long distances to cities and agricultural areas. In the Americas, indigenous Hohokam create networks of irrigation ditches. Gallic Wars: Caesar's Invasion of Germania Famous Women of Ancient Rome Edelweiss: Alpine Flower of True Love As civilizations expand, so do irrigation technologies. Through the medieval period, regions refine irrigation techniques to suit the seasons, pairing crop types and irrigation methods. The industrial revolution brings strong advances in irrigation technology. Steam-powered pumps in the 19th century help extract groundwater and irrigate previously inaccessible lands. In the 20th century, the development of electric pumps, sprinkler systems, and advances in drip irrigation revolutionize agricultural practices. They offer the potential for increased efficiency and reduced water waste. Victorian Trends: Sailor Suits to Taxidermy German Folklore - Irrwurz or Mad Root The Strange Case of Rudolf Diesel Types of Irrigation Through History Surface Irrigation: The oldest and most common method distributes water across the land surface through channels, furrows, or basins. This method is inexpensive and can be efficient as in Egyptian basin irrigation. Surface irrigation is widely used in ancient Roman agriculture, allowing people to cultivate vast fields. Problems can include evaporation or uneven water supply. Soy Sauce: A Cultural Culinary Odyssey German Romanticism: Nature & Emotion Compost: Heart of Sustainable Gardening Egypt feeds a vast nation with basin irrigation and the Nile floods Though the modern version emerged in the 19th century, ancient Persians use similar systems to distribute water evenly across fields. They design a network of pipes and outlets so crops receive the water they need. Sprinkler Irrigation:  This method uses sprinklers to distribute water over the crop canopy. While more efficient than surface irrigation, it can still be susceptible to evaporation, particularly in hot and windy climates. Black Tea (Camellia sinensis): Harvest to Cup Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment Subsurface Irrigation:  This technique involves burying perforated pipes or porous materials beneath the soil surface to deliver water directly to the roots. This method is efficient but can be laborious to install. Subsurface irrigation has historical origins in the Roman aqueduct systems. These engineering marvels transport water from rivers to urban areas and agricultural fields using hydraulics. Gum Arabic, Guar, Xanthan: Guide for Artists & Artisans Kimchi: Microbes, Acids & Fermentation Einkorn Wheat - First Domestic Crops popular roman crops include Triticum aestivum , or common wheat Drip Irrigation : A type of subsurface hydration, drip irrigation has ancient origins. Civilizations in the Middle East use clay pots buried in soil to release water slowly to their crops. This technique provides moisture to the roots and reduces water loss through evaporation. Irrigation is associated with ambitious projects and legendary landscapes. Among the most famous is the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Accounts depict an elaborate tiered garden, with sophisticated irrigation to lift water from the Euphrates River to its upper levels. Mechanisms, like chain pumps or Archimedes' screws, may be used to achieve this feat. Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Flavors of Coffee: From Harvest to Homestead Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 19th century illustration The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World are named by Hellenic travelers, who write guidebooks and describe fantastic scenes. The Lighthouse of Pharos  in Alexandria  is among the Seven Wonders, as are the Pyramids. Other examples include the vast canal systems of ancient Mesopotamia. In this way the people transform arid landscapes into fertile agricultural regions and prosperous civilizations. The Nazca Lines : In Peru, the Nazca civilization constructs an intricate set of aqueducts and channels to cultivate crops in the desert. Hormones in Microbes, Plants & Animals Why Apples Turn Brown: Science & Nature Honey Bees (Apidae): Nature & Myth ceviche, popular Peruvian flavors The Qanat System : In this ancient Persian technique the people bore tunnels into mountains to transport water to arid plains, efficiently moving it over long distances. Chinese Rice Terraces : In regions like Yunnan, farmers build terraces on steep hillsides, using advanced irrigation techniques to produce rice, a substantial food for millions. Factors Affecting Irrigation Climate: Rainfall patterns, temperature and humidity all play a crucial role in determining the need for irrigation and the types of systems that are most suitable. Arid and semi-arid regions rely heavily on irrigation for agricultural production. Compost Heat: Microbes & Decomposition Homeostasis: Internal Balance of the Body How to Make a Sourdough Starter Topography: The slope of the land can affect water distribution and drainage. Steep slopes may require terracing or specialized irrigation techniques to prevent erosion and ensure even watering. Soil Type: The texture and composition of the soil influence its water-holding capacity and drainage characteristics, which in turn affect the frequency and amount of irrigation required. Crop Type: Different crops have different water requirements. Understanding these requirements is essential for designing and managing effective irrigation systems. Wine Making Process: Grape to Glass Cyanobacteria: Nutrients & Bacterial Blooms 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Economic Factors: The cost of installing and maintaining irrigation systems can be a barrier, especially for small-scale farmers. Social and Political Factors: Water rights, governance, and access to resources can also influence irrigation practices. Technological Advances : Advances in tools and techniques improve irrigation. For example, the invention of the water wheel during the Middle Ages allows easy water lifting and distribution, revolutionizing agriculture. Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Phytoplankton: Environment & Human Health Nüwa: Chinese Primordial Snake Goddess Water wheels power agriculture and industry Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) have been used in fermentation and food processing for thousands of years. The two forms of LAB fermentation, homo and hetero , produce different products like lactic acid or CO2. Hetero-Fermentation in Lactic Acid Bacteria Soy Sauce: A Cultural Culinary Odyssey Maillard Reaction: Science & Flavor in Browning Food LAB are prevalent in cheddar cheese creation Homo-fermentation is a metabolic pathway in many species of lactic acid bacteria. It creates lactic acid as the primary product of glucose fermentation. This process differentiates homo-fermenters from hetero-fermenters. The latter generate a variety of end products, including carbon dioxide, ethanol and acetic acid, along with lactic acid. Milk into Cheese: Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) Binary Fission: Speedy Microbe Reproduction Candida Species: the Good Yeasts a maze of pathways Hetero-fermentation creates a range of tastes and textures. In homo-fermentation the bacteria focus energy on a singular outcome, for the smooth, clean flavors in many fermented foods. They may work together. Some LAB can even switch between processes as the need decrees. They may be found in the company of yeast, adding another depth to fermentation flavors. Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld Kombucha: Ancient Brew & DIY Health Tea How Lactic Acid Bacteria Make Yogurt Both LAB and yeast are among the microbes of a kombucha SCOBY LAB prosper in different environments, especially food rich in sugar. Lactobacillus delbrueckii  converts over 90% of available lactose or milk sugar to lactic acid in dairy products and is favored in yogurt production. Homo-Fermentation Process The process begins with lactose being taken up by LAB bacteria. Lactose is converted to glucose and galactose . In glycolysis , in a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions, glucose is decomposed to two molecules of pyruvate . Pasteurization: Microbial Dominance & Destruction Salmonella Bacteria: Science & Health Ethyl Alcohol: Science of Solvents & Booze The pyruvate is then reduced to lactic acid by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). This process happens largely without oxygen. Glucose into lactic acid is represented by the metabolic equation: C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2 CH₃CHOHCOOH Also called the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas (EMP) pathway, it's the common metabolic route for many organisms to break down glucose. In homo-fermentative LAB, glycolysis is the only pathway for glucose catabolism. Nucleic Acids: Nature, Environment & Health Five Food Acids: Citric, Acetic, Malic, Tartaric & Lactic Pectin: Nature's Polysaccharide Gelatin Examples of Homo-Fermentation Yogurt:   Streptococcus thermophilus  and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, popular in yogurt production, are mainly homofermentative. Their efficient production of lactic acid gives yogurt its characteristic tartness and thick texture. Lactic acid lowers the pH of fermented products. This environment inhibits growth of spoilage organisms and pathogens. The pH of yogurt drops to around 4.0, significantly extending its shelf life. Kimchi: Microbes, Acids & Fermentation Lactic Acid Fermentation: Beneficial Bacteria Rosemary: Immortal Essence & Balm of Kings yogurt parfaits Cheddar Cheese:  While more complex microbial communities are involved in cheese maturation, homofermentative LAB like Lactococcus lactis  are important to the initial stages of cheesemaking. They contribute to curd formation and acidification. Sauerkraut:  Sauerkraut fermentation involves heterofermentative bacteria but homofermentative strains can often be found adding depths of flavor and texture. Candida Species: the Good Yeasts Umami the Fifth Taste: Science & Cuisine Starch: Power of Plants & Human Energy sauerkraut & sausages Common Homo-Fermentative Bacteria 1. Lactobacillus delbrueckii Lactobacillus delbrueckii  is widely studied in yogurt and fermented dairy food production. It efficiently ferments lactose into lactic acid, contributing to the tangy flavor and thick consistency characteristic of yogurt. This species can thrive at temperatures ranging from 30-45°C (86-113°F). It's a versatile starter culture in the dairy industry. Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Cherish the Chocolate: Sweet Fermentation Lactic Acid Bacteria: Nature to Modern Uses 2. Streptococcus thermophilus Another popular example is Streptococcus thermophilus , often working with Lactobacillus delbrueckii  in yogurt production. This bacterium is known for its rapid fermentation of sugars into lactic acid. It's prolific at higher temperatures around 42°C (108°F). This speed enhances the texture and flavor of the final product and lets producers reduce fermentation times. Five Sugars: Glucose, Maltose, Fructose, Sucrose, Lactose Women Scientists of the Ancient World Why Apples Turn Brown: Science & Nature 3. Lactobacillus plantarum Lactobacillus plantarum  is found in a range of fermented foods, such as sauerkraut and pickles. This species produces lactic acid and other metabolites to help preserve food and enhance its sensory qualities. It can adapt to varying conditions. L. plantarum is found in the high salt concentrations of fermented vegetables to the acidic environment in yogurt. Some LAB switch between homo-fermentative and hetero-fermentative pathways depending on conditions and available nutrients. Homo-fermentative LAB may also use different substrates for energy. For instance, L. plantarum can ferment fibers as well as sugars. Bdellovibrio : Lifestyles of Predatory Bacteria Song of the Loreley - Lethal Attraction Hormones in Microbes, Plants & Animals Lactobacillus plantarum Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Lactic acid bacteria are important to fermentation of human foods like yogurt , pickles and cheese . Their transformative powers might be magic in a time before microscopic knowledge. Here's more about the amazing activities of these industrious microbes in food and drink. Lactobacillus : Nature of Lactic Acid Bacteria Seven Probiotics: Human Digestive Health Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses LAB are integral to cheese making and provide the sourness of lambic beer About Lactic Acid Lactic acid is an organic acid produced during the fermentation process. It creates the tart flavor of fermented foods. Chemically, lactic acid is a byproduct of glucose metabolism when bacteria convert carbohydrates into energy under anaerobic (non-oxygen) conditions. Lactic acid has important functions in food preservation. It lowers the pH, creating an environment to inhibit spoilage-causing microbes, while also providing distinctive flavors and textures. In some food and drink processes, bacteria like these work together with yeast. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) also create tangy yogurt and kimchi. Little Miss Muffet would not have her curds and whey without them. Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Meet the Microbes - History of Microbiology Secrets of Xanthan Gum for Artists & Chefs Cheese curds are a prime ingredient in the Quebec specialty poutine Lactic acid bacteria belong to genera including Lactobacillus , Streptococcus , Lactococcus , Leuconostoc , and Pediococcus . Characterized by their ability to ferment sugars into lactic acid, the bacteria are ideal for fermentation and preservation. Lactic acid bacteria are common in various habitats, including dairy products, fruits, vegetables and other plants. LAB occur in the human gastrointestinal (GI) tract, an extreme environment for microbes. Yeast: Microbiology of Bread & Food Making B. Linens Bacterium: Big Cheese of B.O. Bdellovibrio: Lifestyles of Predatory Bacteria lactic acid bacteria Lacticaseibacillus paracasei Lacticaseibacillus paracasei is genotypically and phenotypically related to other members of the Lacticaseibacillus casei group. This group also includes Lacticaseibacillus zeae and Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus . Lactic acid bacteria reproduce by binary fission, in which a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells. Under optimal conditions, such as warmth and the presence of sugars, LAB can double in number every 20 to 30 minutes. Difference Between Gram-Negative & Gram-Positive Bacteria Killer Yeast: Assassins of the Microworld Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris They multiply like crazy! These bacteria can live for days to weeks, depending on environmental conditions, their nutrient sources and competing organisms. In a well-controlled fermentation setting, lactic acid bacteria can thrive for a long time. Bacteria are potentially immortal. The Nature of Lactic Acid Fermentation In the process of pure lactic acid fermentation, lactic acid bacteria use glucose as a carbon source to produce the carbon acid pyruvate through glycolysis. Glycolysis involves the breakdown of one 6-carbon-molecule of glucose into two 3-carbon-molecules. Lactic Acid Bacteria: Team Players of Fermentation Seven Deadly Diseases of the Renaissance Malaria: Roman Fever & Renaissance Plague These molecules look tasty Pyruvate then uses the action of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) to produce lactic acid. Lactate dehydrogenase is an enzyme found in nearly all living cells. Lactic acid bacteria live naturally in raw ingredients such as milk and grain. They have co-evolved with mammals for thousands of years, forming symbiotic relationships to benefit both parties. In nature, lactic acid bacteria help decompose organic matter. Their fermentation activity produces acids to enhance soil health, suppress pathogens, and support beneficial microbial communities. They're crucial in detoxifying plant pathogens and enhancing food preservation. Fermenting Green Beans: Salt, Brine & Bacteria Bacteria: Unseen Driving Force Behind All Life Four Humors & Medical Stagnation Preserved food, important in times of no refrigeration Lactic Acid Fermentation Process The fermentation process of lactic acid bacteria begins when they're introduced to a carbohydrate source, like milk or vegetables. For dairy products, the bacteria convert lactose (milk sugar) into lactic acid, which lowers the pH. This causes milk proteins or caseins to coagulate and form curds, the key to cheese production. In yogurt, specific strains of Lactobacillus and Streptococcus are used, producing a creamy texture and tangy flavor. For vegetables, such as in sauerkraut or kimchi, LAB ferment sugars naturally found in the vegetables. Each fermentation process varies depending on the type of bacteria used, time, temperature, and other factors, resulting in a wide range of artisan flavors and textures. Create Artisan Apple Cider Vinegar Natural Health: Paracelsus & Hermetic Principles Binary Fission: Speedy Microbe Reproduction Sauerkraut tops off a meal In modern times, lactic acid bacteria still vital in food production. They're used not only in yogurt and cheese but also sourdough bread, pickles, sausages, and beverages like kefir. Lactic acid bacteria find application in probiotics. As live microorganisms considered to have human health benefits they support intestinal wellness and improve digestion. They're also used in animal feed additives, and in the biotechnology industry for the production of biofuels and pharmaceuticals. Improper fermentation processes can lead to food spoilage or pathogen growth. Proper hygiene, handling and storage of fermented foods are essential to prevent harmful bacteria. While lactic acid bacteria are generally beneficial, some can pose risks in food spoilage. Wolfsbane (Aconitum) Ancient Poisons Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides Cheese Production C heese ripening, cheese maturation or affinage, is a process in cheesemaking. It creates the distinct flavor of cheese, and through the modification of ripening agents, determines the features of different varieties of cheeses, such as taste, texture, and body. The process is characterized by a series of complex physical, chemical and microbiological changes using bacteria and enzymes of the milk, lactic culture, rennet, lipases and added molds or yeasts. Most cheese is ripened, except for fresh cheese. Celandine: Plant Toxins & Medicine Umami the Fifth Taste: Science & Cuisine Asphodel: Ancient Dye & Medicine Plants Delicious Aged or Ripened Cheese Facts About Lactic Acid Bacteria Diversity: There are more than 200 different species of lactic acid bacteria and innumerable strains. Probiotic Benefits: Many strains exhibit probiotic properties, helping maintain a healthy microbiome. Acid Tolerance: LAB can survive acidic environments, making them well-suited for fermentation processes. Flavor Enhancer: The acids and other metabolites they produce contribute to the unique flavors of fermented foods. Lactic acid bacteria are gram-positive, meaning they have a thick cell wall that retains a violet stain in Gram's method of staining bacteria. Some strains of lactic acid bacteria have antimicrobial properties to inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria. These bacteria are known for their resilience in diverse environments, allowing them to thrive under varying conditions. 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter Alchemy: Philosophers' Stone History & Lore Yogurt Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top