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Brain-computer interfaces enable direct communication between the brain's electrical activity and external devices like computers and prosthetics. BCIs transform how humans interact with technology. Soft Robotics: Inspired by Nature Permanent Magnets & Magnetism in Robotics Influence of Magnetism on the Human Brain BCIs translate neural signals, or measurable electrical pulses, into commands. The BCI connection bypasses typical pathways of nerves and muscles, creating a direct pathway between organic brain and machine. Electrical signals are generated by neurons or nerve cells in the brain. Human brains have about 86 billion, passing information at incredible speeds. There are various methods for signal acquisition. Invasive techniques, like implanted electrodes, provide high accuracy but come with risks. A non-invasive approach such as electroencephalography (EEG) is safer and easier but may have limitations in signal quality. Neurotransmitters: Creation & Function The Human Brain: Electricity & Emotion Plant Communication: Electrical Signals Neurons send electrical signals through the axon to pass the signal to other cells BCIs can interpret user intentions. For instance, people with paralysis can control robotic arms using their thoughts, enabling them to do tasks like lifting a cup. BCIs help rehab processes following strokes or traumatic brain injuries. Stroke patients using BCIs for rehabilitation show a strong improvement in motor function. This therapy uses neuroplasticity, the brain's ability to adapt and form new connections. BCIs help patients who have neurodegenerative diseases. People can communicate or control assistive devices through thought. Electric Fields: Invisible Forces of Nature Mental Health & Platelet Serotonin: Mind Body Connection Effects of Extreme Heat on the Human Body In soft robotics , artificial limbs can have the look and feel of real ones, and even sensations. In brain-controlled prosthetics, the limbs also provide sensory feedback. The mechanism lets a user feel sensations while using it. BCIs are big in entertainment and gaming. BCI systems allow players to control a video game purely with their thoughts. Such innovations can create immersive experiences. BCIs have been in development for decades, evolving from rudimentary experiments in the 20th century to today's sophisticated systems. Human Body: the Electromagnetic Brain Static Electricity on Earth & in Space Nature of Electricity: Charging the Universe How BCIs Work Signal Acquisition In this stage the device records the brain's electrical activity. Methods range from non-invasive techniques like electroencephalography (EEG), which uses electrodes placed on the scalp. More invasive approaches include electrocorticography (ECoG), placing electrodes directly on the surface of the brain; and fully implanted microelectrode arrays to record activity of individual neurons. Signal Processing & Decoding Once the brain signals are acquired, they are processed using algorithms to extract relevant information. This includes filtering out noise, identifying patterns, and translating the patterns into specific commands. Machine learning techniques are increasingly being used to train the algorithms. They can adapt to individual users and improve accuracy over time. Electrolytes: Vital Minerals of Human & Environmental Health Amino Acids: Optimal Body Health & Energy Neurotransmitters: Creation & Function Device Control Finally, the decoded commands are used to control the external device. This could be moving a cursor on a screen, manipulating a robotic arm, or stimulating muscles directly to restore movement. The applications of BCIs are diverse. They include Researching and Mapping Cognitive Functions: BCIs give unique insight to the workings of the brain. Researchers study cognitive processes like attention, memory and decision-making. Helping People Who Have Disabilities: This is the most prominent use of BCIs. They help individuals with paralysis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), stroke, and other conditions impairing motor control. BCIs can enable people to communicate, control wheelchairs, operate prosthetic limbs and regain independence. Artificial Intelligence: Power of Prediction Robots & Robotics in Modern Healthcare Solar Wind: Supersonic Tempest from the Sun Augmenting Human Capabilities: BCIs can improve human capabilities in various fields. This could include focus and concentration, accelerated learning and even creating new forms of communication and art. Repairing Sensory-Motor Functions: BCIs can restore lost sensory or motor functions. They stimulate the visual cortex to restore sight bypass damaged spinal cords to restore movement in paralyzed limbs. Problems infection, bleeding, seizures, and potential physical harm to the brain non-invasive BCI devices may cause skin irritation, headaches, and eye strain with extended use. electromagnetic interference between BCI devices and other electronic devices can disrupt the BCI device's proper function and overheat the brain tissue.  brain signals are often weak and noisy, making them difficult to decode. while some invasive BCI approaches have superior signal quality, they also carry risks. Non-invasive methods are preferred, but signal quality is worse. Ongoing R&D focuses on improving signal acquisition techniques, developing more sophisticated decoding algorithms and exploring new applications for this technology. Robot Hearing, Interpretation & Response Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Leap to Flames: Why Did Empedocles Jump into Mount Etna? 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Soft robotics is the design of robots made from flexible materials. Unlike rigid robots, soft robots change their shapes and movements. Inspired by nature, they work in disciplines like healthcare, agriculture and exploration. Permanent Magnets & Magnetism in Robotics Robot Sensors: Powers of Perception Earthworms: Soil Health & Ecosystem Balance In soft robotics robots are made from gels, fluids and elastomers, materials similar to organic human tissue. Textiles, silicone and even bio-ingredients like proteins are also used. Their deformable nature lets them absorb shocks and conform to their surroundings. Softbots can navigate cluttered spaces, squeeze through narrow openings and gently grasp delicate objects. Soft robotics robot arms use silicone and soft actuators. These can bend and stretch like human limbs, safer for direct interaction. Magnetic fields and segmented bodies may be used to improve movement, for instance gliding over rough terrain. Influence of Magnetism on the Human Brain Building Robots: Elastomers, Metals & Plastics Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology Softbots tend to use less energy for operation. Components for soft robots can also be produced using inexpensive materials and manufacturing methods, like 3D printing. Softbot designers take inspiration from nature. Earthworms, jellyfish and octopuses are models for soft robots able to wiggle and flow through confined spaces and interact with objects and organisms. Plants use soft materials to grasp, sense and move, mimicked in soft robots. Plant cells naturally generate hydrostatic pressure because of a solute concentration gradient between the cytoplasm and the external environment. Allelopathy: How Plants Influence Others Nanorobots: Micro Robotic Tech, Ecology, Health Plant Communication: Electrical Signals reaching for the light This concentration is modified by movement of ions across the cell membrane, which alters the plant's shape and volume in response to the change in hydrostatic pressure. This principle is used in soft robotics to develop pressure-adaptive materials, using fluid flow. Additive manufacturing techniques like 3D printing are used to produce silicone inks. Methods include direct ink writing (DIW, also known as Robocasting). This enables the creation of fluidic elastomer actuators with precisely defined mechanical properties. It also facilitates digital fabrication of pneumatic silicone actuators with bioinspired designs and features. A diverse array of fully functional soft robots is printed using this method, able to bend, twist, grab and contract. It avoids problems of traditional manufacturing such as delamination between glued components. Neurotransmitters: Creation & Function Catalase: Unseen Enzymes Essential to Life Robot Hearing, Interpretation & Response Earthworms Healthcare In healthcare, soft robots can perform minimally invasive surgical procedures, revolutionize prosthetics and support rehabilitation. Soft surgical robots increase precision for complex procedures. The reduced risk of damaged tissues promotes quick recovery times for patients. Soft robot prosthetics emulate the natural movements of human limbs. In rehabilitation, soft robotic devices help patients regain mobility by adjusting to their movements. Artificial Intelligence: Technology & Society De-Orbiting Satellites: Problems & Processes Drone Warfare: Unmanned Combat Vehicles Manufacturing Soft robots have benefits in manufacturing. Tasks needing flexibility and a gentle touch include assembly, inspection and material handling. Softbots conform to irregular shapes, reach confined spaces and apply controlled force, often exceeding the abilities of rigid robots. Exploration Soft robots are designed to explore harsh and inaccessible environments, such as the deep sea, disaster zones and other planets. Exploration, both underwater and in space, benefits from soft robotics due to their flexibility. Underwater, softbots can explore sensitive marine habitats without harming them. A soft robot designed to mimic movement of fish can collect data on coral reef health without disrupting the environment. The Human Brain: Electricity & Emotion Calcite: Metal-Eating Bacteria to Coral Reefs Kulullu - Fish Man Monster of Tiamat In space, soft robotics facilitates landing on diverse planetary surfaces. Soft robots adapt their structure to changing terrain conditions and can do demanding tasks like sample collection in environments hostile to humans. Agriculture Soft robots can help harvest delicate crops, weed fields and monitor plant health, reducing reliance on manual labor and rigid robots. Soft robotic grippers can pick strawberries with accuracy, harvesting only ripe fruit while leaving the unripe intact. They're also equipped with sensors to continuously monitor soil health. Search & Rescue In disaster scenarios, soft robots can navigate rubble, locate survivors, and deliver essential supplies where needed. Wildfires & Climate Change: Lethal Cycle Compost: Teeming Metropolis of Life & Death Space Weather: Flares, Storms & Cosmic Rays Strawberries Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Permanent magnets convert electrical energy into mechanical energy in robots for precision movement. Magnetism influences how robots function and interact with their surroundings. Influence of Magnetism on the Human Brain Creation of Magnetism in Rocks Magnetic Fields & Space Travel While electricity powers robot brains, magnetism often drives the physical actions. Robots convert electrical energy into the mechanical energy needed for operation. In energy conversion from electric to mechanical, electric motors use electromagnetism to produce rotational motion. This in turn creates mechanical energy, like a water wheel uses water to drive mechanics. About Permanent Magnets Permanent magnets consistently produce a magnetic field without need of a power source. Unlike electromagnets, dependent on electric current, a permanent magnet has a naturally aligned magnetic structure. The Human Brain: Electricity & Emotion Humans in Space: Effects on Body & Mind Magnetotactic Bacteria: Magnetic Microbes Magnetite is the most common natural magnetic mineral This gives robots a strong magnetic force for tasks like movement and sensing. A robotic arm uses permanent magnets to hold and grip objects with precision. Permanent magnets help convert energy into motion. In DC motors, they interact with electric currents for rotation. In robot vacuum cleaners, permanent magnets allow the motor to quickly change direction. Powering Movement: Electric Motors In robots, electric motors drive limbs, wheels, and actuators. Permanent magnets are fundamental components of the motors. Effects of Extreme Heat on the Human Body Electric Fields: Invisible Forces of Nature Magnetite (Fe3O4): Magnetic Mineral Vehicle assembly robots When an electric current flows through a coil of wire within the magnetic field created by a permanent magnet, the force makes the coil rotate. This drives the motor's shaft, turning electric energy into mechanical energy. The strength of the permanent magnet directly influences motor power and efficiency. Strong magnets have more torque, enabling robots to lift heavy objects, navigate difficult terrains or perform demanding tasks. Development of rare-earth magnets like neodymium improve motor performance. This leads to smaller, more powerful and energy-efficient robotic systems. Robot Hearing, Interpretation & Response Nature of Electricity: Charging the Universe Lodestones: Natural Ferromagnetic Compass Precise Control: Actuation and Manipulation Besides powering general movement, magnets provide the precision needed for delicate tasks. In robotic arms and manipulators, magnets are used in actuators to control the angle and position of joints. Magnetic Levitation: This uses magnetic repulsion to create frictionless movement, for fine controlled adjustments. Magnetic Gears: Magnetic forces transmit rotational motion, providing precise gear ratios and reducing wear and tear. Voice Coil Actuators: These combine a coil of wire and a permanent magnet to create linear motion. Surgeons rely on robots with magnetically controlled instruments. In micro and nanorobotics, tiny bots are used for targeted drug delivery or micro assembly. Precise control is also important in automated vehicles. Plant Perception: How Plants See the Light Neurotransmitters: Creation & Function Electric Vehicles (EVs): Creation & Operation Position and Orientation: Magnetic Sensors Robots need sophisticated sensors to detect position, orientation and proximity to other objects. Magnetic sensors are widely used for this purpose. With magnets placed strategically in the robot, and magnetic sensors to detect their location and orientation, the bot determines its own position in space. This enables object recognition and safe operation around humans. Permanent magnets provide real-time feedback to a robot's control system. Magnetometers can assess magnetic field strength so robots can navigate their environments. Robot Sensors: Powers of Perception Robots & Robotics in Modern Healthcare Robot Lubrication: Grease the Machine Actuation & Object Manipulation Magnetic fields can be used directly to actuate robots and manipulate objects. Magnetic grippers use strong electromagnets to grasp and release ferrous objects. External magnetic fields guide micro-robots through complex environments, like blood vessels, for targeted drug delivery. In magnetic assembly, magnetic forces help align and assemble components in precise configurations. Permanent magnets are energy efficient. They don't need constant electrical energy to maintain magnetic fields, giving mobile robots a longer battery life. Quantum technologies could introduce magnets with unique properties. A bot can be smaller but more powerful. Soft Robotics: Integrating magnetic particles into flexible materials enables robots to deform and adapt to complex environments. Energy Harvesting: Using magnetic fields to generate electricity can power small robots or sensors indefinitely. Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Nanorobots: Micro Robotic Tech, Ecology, Health Top 5 Countries of the Global Space Race Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Magnetism arises from moving electric charges and appears in various forms. The human brain, with billions of neurons communicating via electrical impulses, creates a magnetic field. Mental Health & Platelet Serotonin: Mind Body Connection Neurotransmitters: Creation & Function Human Body: the Electromagnetic Brain Electricity produces magnetism, as in the Earth's core. The planet's magnetic field arises from the motion of molten iron in the core creating electricity. Magnetism & the Brain Brains generate magnetic fields called magnetoencephalographic signals. Devices like magnetoencephalography (MEG) can detect the signals and provide real-time information about brain function. Magnetic fields penetrate biological tissues without causing harm, thus are common in research and treatment. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) uses pulsing magnetic fields to activate specific brain areas. Electromagnetic induction, whereby changing magnetic fields create electrical currents in neurons, can modify neuron excitability and firing patterns. TMS helps recollection by stimulating brain regions associated with memories. The Human Brain: Electricity & Emotion Electricity & Magnetism of the Human Body Magnetotactic Bacteria: Magnetic Microbes Magnetic stimulation affects cognitive functions such as learning. Certain frequencies of magnetic stimulation can improve synaptic plasticity, the brain's ability to strengthen or weaken connections based on activity. Sensory modulation with weak magnetic fields is used to reduce anxiety symptoms. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is used to improve focus, creativity, and problem-solving. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) TMS is a non-invasive technique used by researchers and clinicians to modulate brain activity and even treat certain neurological and psychiatric conditions. A coil placed near the scalp generates a brief, focused magnetic pulse. The pulse passes through the skull to induce a small electrical current in the brain tissue. The current stimulates or inhibits activity of neurons. Magnetite (Fe3O4): Magnetic Mineral Creation of Magnetism in Rocks Magnetic Fields & Space Travel Neuron, or nerve cell - most neurons are in the brain TMS alters the excitability of neurons. Stimulation with high-frequency pulses can increase neuronal firing, raising activity in that region. Low-frequency pulses decrease neuronal firing. Modulation of neuronal activity has various effects on brain functions, including: Motor control: TMS is used to map the motor cortex and study how the brain controls movement. By stimulating different areas, researchers can observe muscle twitches to determine the relationship between specific brain regions and muscle groups. Cognition: TMS can be used to define the role of different brain regions in cognitive processes like memory, attention, and language. By temporarily disrupting activity in a specific area, researchers observe how it affects cognitive performance. Lodestones: Natural Ferromagnetic Compass The Heliosphere: Radiation & Solar Wind The Anxious Victorian: Mental Health Mood and emotion: TMS is used to treat depression and other mood disorders. By stimulating specific areas of the prefrontal cortex, involved in mood, TMS helps alleviate depression and improve overall well-being. Therapeutic Applications of TMS TMS is also an FDA-approved treatment for: Major Depressive Disorder (MDD): TMS is often used as an alternative or adjunctive treatment for depression when medication or other therapies haven't been successful. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Similar to its use in depression, TMS can help reduce the intrusive thoughts and compulsive behaviors associated with OCD. Other Magnetic Influences Magnetoencephalography (MEG): This non-invasive neuroimaging technique measures the magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain. MEG can provide valuable information about brain function and help diagnose neurological disorders. Naturally occurring magnetic fields: Researchers continue to investigate how exposure to the Earth's magnetic field and stronger magnetic fields generated by electrical devices might affect brain activity and health. Electric Vehicles (EVs): Creation & Operation Phytoplankton: Environment & Human Health Lactic Acid: Nature & the Human Body Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Common mycorrhizal networks form through symbiotic relationships of fungi and plant roots. By enabling communication and interaction under the soil, CMNs influence plant health and ecosystem stability. Plant Communication: Volatile Organic Compounds Allelopathy: How Plants Influence Others Scammony: Ancient Health & Medicine grass roots Nature's high-speed data network is powered by fungi. CMNs are vast, interconnected webs of fungal hyphae, or tiny, thread-like filaments. They colonize the roots of many plants. The hyphae physically link plants, often of different species, through a shared fungal partner. This biological connection speeds the exchange of resources and information. Microfungi: Mysterious Web of Life & Death Yeast & Mold: Ancient Fungi, Modern World Polyphenols: Plants & the Environment micro-fungi hyphae Mycorrhizae Mycorrhizal fungi establish mutually beneficial relationships with the roots of most terrestrial plants. In exchange for carbohydrates produced by plants, mycorrhizal fungi improve the plants' abilities to absorb water and nutrients. CMNs form when fungal hyphae make contact with plant roots. After establishing a connection, the hyphae penetrate root cells, creating arbuscules and vesicles for nutrient exchange. A mycorrhizal network can connect dozens of plants. They share resources and communicate. The fungi, often of the Glomeromycota, Ascomycota, or Basidiomycota phyla, become an extension of the plant's root system. Fungal Biofilms: Ecology of Biofilm-Producing Molds & Yeasts Phenols: Nature's Creations in Daily Life Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Truffles (above) and morels are familiar members of the Ascomycota phylum They develop in diverse plant communities. Areas with at least five different plant species have a higher likelihood of CMN formation than those dominated by one or two. The effectiveness of the networks is influenced by environmental factors like soil quality and plant variety. Specific fungal species must be present. The fungal hyphae are longer and thinner than plant roots. They can access nutrients and micronutrients otherwise unavailable. They also improve water uptake, a bonus in dry conditions. Fruiting bodies may sometimes be seen as fairy rings around trees. The "tethered" ring is connected to the roots of the tree. Many plants rely on mycorrhizae for survival. Lignans: Nature's Weapons of Defense Is Cherry Laurel Poisonous? Malevolent Microfungi: Hazards of Health & Home Fairy ring around a tree Benefits of a Fungal Connection Plants connected by a CMN transfer carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and water between them. This helps seedlings, stressed plants, or those in nutrient-deficient areas. Larger, healthier plants feed their weaker neighbors. Plants uptake nitrogen primarily through their roots, in the form of nitrate (NO3-) or ammonium (NH4+). Nitrate is the most common form.  During dry periods, CMNs help connected plants get water. Certain fungi are a water source as well. Plants linked through CMNs survive drought better than isolated plants. CMNs encourage diverse plant species. Plants within these networks show improved growth and reproductive success. Hydroelectric Energy: Power of Water Ideonella sakaiensis : Plastic-Eating Bacteria Lead Acid Batteries: Uses, Disposal, Pros & Cons The fungal networks transmit warning signals between plants. If one plant is attacked it can send a chemical signal through the CMN to alerting neighboring plants so they can activate their defenses. CMNs shape plant communities by influencing plant growth, competition, and resilience under stress. The interconnections provided by CMNs help keep ecosystems stable. When environmental conditions fluctuate, such as during droughts or pest outbreaks, connected plants share resources to help maintain a balanced ecosystem. In soil, CMNs promote organic matter decomposition and improve nutrient cycling. Phytochemicals: Natural Chemicals of Plants Flavonoids: the Big Five of Aroma, Flavor & Color Mugwort (Wormwood) Medicine & Herb Lore decomposing Threats to CMNs Land Use Urbanization, agriculture, and deforestation disrupt plant communities and their mycorrhizal networks. Habitat fragmentation can isolate plant species, preventing formation of CMNs. Chemical Inputs Excess use of fertilizers and pesticides can degrade fungal health and disrupt CMNs. Chemicals diminish the ability of plants to connect through mycorrhizae. Climate Change Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns disrupt plant dynamics and affect CMN formation and function. Altered precipitation patterns are linked to a decline in effective mycorrhizal networks. Carbon Fixation: Environmental Heath & Ecology Flavors of Coffee: From Harvest to Homestead Cellulose: Plant Fibers of Structure & Strength Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Electricity drives the human brain, powering every thought, sensation and emotion. The connection between electrical signals and emotions is a co-production by neurotransmitters and neural circuits. Human Body: the Electromagnetic Brain Electricity & Magnetism of the Human Body Effects of Extreme Heat on the Human Body Emotions seem like intangible feelings, such as uplifting joy, crushing sadness, or surges of anger. Beneath the surface, these complex experiences arise from the very tangible action of electricity. The brain is an intricate network of electrically charged cells or neurons firing in coordinated patterns. The human brain has about 86 billion neurons, each transmitting signals through electrical impulses. It's a remarkably energy-efficient device. In computing terms, it performs the equivalent of an exaflop, a billion-billion (1 followed by 18 zeros) math operations per second, with just 20 watts of power, enough to light up a small LED. Plant Communication: Electrical Signals Electric Fields: Invisible Forces of Nature Static Electricity on Earth & in Space LED flashlights are 3 - 20 watts Neural Communication Electrical signals, called action potentials, are the language of the brain. In this way neurons communicate with each other. The process is as follows: Resting Potential: When a neuron is inactive, it maintains a stable slightly negative electrical charge, a state known as the resting potential. Stimulation and Depolarization: When a neuron receives input from other neurons, it can depolarize, meaning its electrical charge becomes positive. Nature of Electricity: Charging the Universe How Wind Turbines Create Electricity Five Major Proteins of Nature & Human Health neuron Action Potential: If the depolarization reaches a certain threshold, it triggers a rapid and dramatic electrical event, an action potential. This is an electrical surge traveling down the neuron's axon, a long, slender projection that reaches other neurons. Neurotransmitter Release: When the action potential reaches the end of the axon (the axon terminal), it triggers the release of neurotransmitters. These chemical messengers carry the signal across the synapse, the gap between neurons. Neurotransmitters are fundamental to how emotions are processed. For instance, serotonin and dopamine are well-known for their importance in happiness and motivation. Allelopathy: How Plants Influence Others Peptides: Science of Human Health Electrolytes: Vital Minerals of Human & Environmental Health When electrical impulses trigger release of dopamine neurotransmitters during a happy event, it creates feelings of joy. Dopamine levels can increase up to 50% in rewarding situations. Conversely, lower levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin cause feelings of depression and anxiety. Many people with these feelings have imbalances in serotonin. Chain Reaction: Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the next neuron, potentially triggering another action potential and continuing the electrical signal down the chain. Robot Hearing, Interpretation & Response Space Weather: Flares, Storms & Cosmic Rays Tannins: Complex Astringents of Nature Brain Regions Individual electrical signals, combined across specific brain regions, create human emotional experiences. While emotions are complex and distributed across the brain, some regions are especially active. The limbic system, which includes the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus, is important to regulating emotions. Amygdala: Often called the "fear center," the amygdala processes and experiences fear, anxiety, and other emotions related to threat detection. Its electrical activity rises strongly when encountering perceived danger. It sends electrical signals to prepare the body for a fight-or-flight response. The response happens in moments due to the brain's quick electrical reactions to threats. Caffeine: Nature, Characteristics & Health Microhydro Energy: Sustainable Water Power Solar Wind: Supersonic Tempest from the Sun While the amygdala is primarily known for processing unpleasant emotions like fear and anxiety, it also functions to process and experience positive emotions, including happiness and reward. Hippocampus: Essential for memory formation, the hippocampus is intricately linked to emotions. It helps associate past experiences with specific emotions, like joy or guilt, ideally so the human can learn. When an emotionally charged event occurs, the brain encodes the experience. The generated electrical signals strengthen the synaptic connections. This makes it easier to recall emotional experiences later. Specific smells, flavors, songs and other sounds can instantly evoke memories and emotions. Scammony: Ancient Health & Medicine Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment Hypothalamus:  This tiny but powerful region regulates basic bodily functions like hunger, thirst and body temperature. It's important to emotional responses, like those related to stress and fight-or-flight. Prefrontal Cortex (PFC): The PFC, particularly the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), regulates emotions, decision-making, and complex social behavior. It helps control impulsive reactions and makes the brain owner consider long-term consequences. Multiple interconnected brain regions, such as the ventral tegmental area (VTA), hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus are active in feelings of love and attachment. Nanaya: Goddess of Erotic Love Edelweiss: Alpine Flower of True Love Unus Mundus One World: Psychology These areas release neurotransmitters like dopamine, oxytocin, opioid and adrenaline, which enhance pleasurable and motivational elements of love and social bonding. The same neurotransmitters are involved in addiction. External stimuli can dramatically affect the brain's electrical activity. Listening to music can activate areas such as the anterior cingulate cortex and insula, causing feelings of pleasure. Environmental factors, such as social interactions, stress and hormonal fluctuations, also alter the brain's electrical signals. Social support can reduce cortisol levels to lessen stress and anxiety. Metalloproteins: Biochemistry of Nature & Health Homeostasis: Internal Balance of the Body Seven Probiotics: Human Digestive Health Electrical Emotion Centers Happiness: Feelings of joy and well-being are often associated with increased activity in the PFC and the release of neurotransmitters like dopamine in the brain's reward system. Sadness: Sadness and grief can involve reduced activity in the PFC and changes in the levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation. Anger: Anger can trigger heightened activity in the amygdala and the hypothalamus, leading to physiological changes like increased heart rate and blood pressure. Electricity in the brain triggers physical reactions. The brain's electrical activity influences the autonomic nervous system, which controls bodily functions not consciously managed. Mandalas: Psychology & Art Therapy Celandine: Plant Toxins & Medicine Ozone Gas (O3) & the Ozone Layer For instance, during anxiety, the sympathetic nervous system activates to cause physical responses like fast heart rate and sweating. Most people have physical sensations as well as emotional feelings. Physical responses can fortify emotions which trigger even greater response, like excess sweating, stammering or shaking. This in turn worsens the anxiety. Treatment Neurofeedback: This technique uses real-time brainwave monitoring to help individuals learn to self-regulate their brain activity and improve emotional control. Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): In severe cases of depression or obsessive-compulsive disorder, DBS involves implanting electrodes in specific brain regions to modulate electrical activity and alleviate symptoms. 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Plants have sophisticated systems of communication. Electric signaling is one of the ways plants express themselves. They generate and transmit signals, much like the nervous system functions in animals. Plant Communication: Common Mycorrhizal Networks (CMNs) Plant Communication: Volatile Organic Compounds Allelopathy: How Plants Influence Others Plants generate and transmit electrical impulses throughout their bodies. Signals are created by fluctuations in concentrations of ions like calcium (Ca2+) and chloride (Cl-) across cell membranes. Known as action potentials and variation potentials, the electrical impulses travel in the vascular system or phloem. Signals pass through a network of individual cells. They enable plants to react to changes like stress, damage and potential threats. When a plant detects a stimulus, it triggers reactions to alter the flow of ions and create electrical impulses. Both calcium, a metal, and chloride are electrolytes , or charged ions. Calcium (Ca): Earth Metal of Structure & Strength Scammony: Ancient Health & Medicine Plant Perception: How Plants See the Light metallic calcium In solid form (calcium chloride), the ions are fixed. When dissolved or molten, ions enter a free-moving state and interact. Reactions to signals include gene expression changes, activating defenses or closing stomata to minimize water loss. Plants need balanced calcium levels. Too much can injure cells, while too little impedes stress responses. Electrical Signal Triggers Herbivore attack: Damage of plant parts by insects and other animals like deer, giraffes and rabbits send a volley of ions through plant cells. This creates an electrical signal to alert other parts of the plant. Polyphenols: Plants & the Environment Celandine: Plant Toxins & Medicine Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life A caterpillar eating a leaf causes a surge of ions. Plant defenses include toughening of structures and producing unpleasant tastes and/or toxic effects. Some plants can "call" pest predators like parasitic wasps. Pathogen Infection: Presence of harmful bacteria or fungi stimulate electric signals to activate defense mechanisms and immune response. A plant cell damaged by pathogens like fungi or bacteria sends alerts to nearby cells. Plants warn others of impending danger by releasing chemicals. Electrical signals prepare the plant, enabling it to produce and emit volatile compounds. Phytochemicals: Natural Chemicals of Plants Hydroelectric Energy: Power of Water How Wind Turbines Create Electricity Changes in Light: Fluctuations in light intensity or spectrum can influence ion channel activity. Electrical signals regulate photosynthesis and other light-dependent processes. Temperature Shifts: Abrupt changes in temperature initiate protective mechanisms, such as production of heat-shock proteins or antifreeze compounds. Water Availability: Drought stress affects ion balance within plant cells. Signals regulate water conservation, such as stomatal closure. Stomata also close when it rains, to prevent the leaves from getting waterlogged. How Solar Panels Work Flavonoids: Sensory Compounds of Nature Esters: Nature's Fragrance & Flavor Makers Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Phytochemicals are chemical compounds created by plants. They can enhance a plant's color, flavor, and aroma and provide defense systems such as toxins. Wine Making Process: Grape to Glass Fructose (Fruit Sugar): Sweetest Saccharide Yeast & Fermentation: the Crabtree Effect Phytochemicals are produced in primary and secondary metabolism of plants. Primary metabolites like sugars and amino acids are used for basic plant survival. As secondary metabolites phytochemicals are specialized. They aren't directly involved in growth, development, or reproduction. They assist the plant's interaction with its environment. Usually rooted in one place, a plant needs communication and strong defenses. Microbe Glue (EPS) in Biofilm Formation Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment Sucrose: Double Sugar of Science & Cuisine indigo plant - the famous dye gives the plant antibacterial and insect repellent properties Environmental stressors include competition from other plants, insect attacks, and exposure to diseases. Phytochemicals act as a defense system, helping plants withstand these threats. The bright orange of carrots comes from beta-carotene (β-carotene), a carotenoid which converts to vitamin A in a body. Vitamin A is needed by all vertebrate animals. Sucrose: Double Sugar of Science & Cuisine Yeast Fermentation: Beer Brewing Process Yeast, Humans & Aerobic Respiration of Cells In plants and algae carotenoids absorb light energy for photosynthesis, and provide photoprotection. Cattle transform beta carotene from green plants into vitamin A. During a typical pasture season, their daily intake of carotene exceeds their needs by 3-5 times. A cow has about 4 months' supply of vitamin A in her liver. Streptococcus LAB: Lactic Acid Bacteria Fermentation Energy: Yeast & Lactic Acid Bacteria Cyanobacteria: Nutrients & Bacterial Blooms The phytochemical resveratrol occurs in red wine and grapes. Resveratrol is a phytoalexin, a protective antibiotic. Plants produce it under stress from factors like fungal attacks, drought, ultraviolet radiation or inflammation. Phytochemicals influence interactions between plants and pollinators, and attract beneficial insects. Flowers emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to tempt pollinators like bees and butterflies. Flavonoids: the Big Five of Aroma, Flavor & Color Fermentable & Non-Fermentable Sugars Seven Trace Minerals: Nature's Little Helpers Alkaloids, a main phytochemical, deter herbivores due to bitterness and toxicity. Amygdalin is a bioactive cyanogenic phytochemical in the kernels of apricots, (bitter) almonds, apples, plums and peaches. Tobacco plants use nicotine to repel insect pests. Tannins in oak leaves and black tea leaves have bitter, astringent tastes unappetizing to most natural consumers. Polyphenols in tea include flavonoids, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and other catechins or antioxidants. Tartrate Crystals: Secrets of Tartaric Acid Kombucha: Ancient Brew & DIY Health Tea Sugars D-Galactose & L-Galactose: Nutrition Acorns are poisonous to horses, cattle and dogs. People who want to eat acorns must remove the toxins by boiling or cold soaking them multiple times until the water is clear. They will still retain some tannins. Capsaicin, the fiery compound in chili peppers, deters mammals from eating the fruit, while having little effect on birds who disperse the seeds. The milky sap of milkweed contains cardiac glycosides. Lactic Acidosis: Harmful Levels of Lactic Acid Five Food Acids: Citric, Acetic, Malic, Tartaric & Lactic Pectin: Nature's Polysaccharide Gelatin These highly toxic, foul tasting compounds can cause heart failure in some animals like deer. The terrible taste usually repulses a consumer before that happens. Plants are continually under attack from bacteria, fungi and viruses. Allicin, which produces the pungent aroma of garlic, is an antifungal and antibacterial compound for the plant. Wort: Sweet Temptation for Beer-Making Yeast Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas Methanogenesis: Microbial Methane Production cross-section of garlic bulb Phytoalexins are produced by many plants including alfalfa, chickpea and soybean in response to fungal or bacterial infection. Natural antibiotics, they are meant to halt the advance of the pathogen in the plant. Plants also compete with each other for resources like sunlight and nutrients. Some plants release allelopathic chemicals into the soil, inhibiting the growth of nearby competitors. Agrippina & Son: Poisonous Plots of Rome Rhododendron & the Toxic Ambrosia Prussic Acid: Secrets of Hydrogen Cyanide dried chickpeas Violets, which are edible, have an interesting defense. Ionone, the main scented component of the flower, numbs the sense of smell. This tricks the wild consumer into thinking there are no more violets, and going away. In competitive environments, chicory plants release sesquiterpene lactones to hinder growth of plants around them. Black walnut tree release juglone into the soil, poisoning the ground for a competitive edge. Flavonoids: Sensory Compounds of Nature Phenols: Effects on Health & Environment Ethyl Acetate: Scent of Flowers, Wine & Fruits wild violets Conversely, phytochemicals help plants communicate. Release of volatile organic compounds signal danger to nearby plants, triggering defense responses. Browsed by animals like giraffes, the acacia tree not only turns its leaves bitter but alerts other acacias of the danger. They embitter their leaves before the giraffes arrive. Cherish the Chocolate: Sweet Fermentation Brettanomyces : Favorite Artisan Wild Yeast Mugwort (Wormwood) Medicine & Herb Lore ... just try it, buster Not all phytochemicals are defensive. One prominent group is the flavonoids . They create vibrant colors and aromas of flowers to attract pollinators. The bright hues are marigolds come from flavonoids. Rose fragrance arises from terpenoids, the volatile compounds guiding pollinators to the nectar source. Anthocyanins create the red, blue, and purple hues in fruit and flowers like pansies and purple cauliflower. Glycerin (Glycerol): Darling of Cosmetics, Health & Science Esters: Nature's Fragrance & Flavor Makers Artisan Perfumery: Four Degrees of Fragrance Many of the flavonoid compounds are edible by animals. Bright flowers like violets and roses are used in human cuisine. Blueberries and raspberries are beloved by bears and birds. This helps in seed dispersal. Seeds pass through digestive tracts of animals to sprout in fertile soil, except in the case of humans, who flush them down the toilet. Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Butter - Food of Peasants & Barbarians Phenols: Nature's Creations in Daily Life Agricultural methods significantly influence phytochemical levels in food. Organic farming focuses on enhancing soil health and natural pest control, producing crops like tomatoes with higher phytochemical concentrations. Furocoumarins are toxins produced mainly by citrus like lime and present in many other plants, like parsley, celery root and parsnip. They're activated by damage to the plant and fungal attacks. Conversely, many industrial farming practices rely on synthetic chemicals. These can lead to decreased phytochemical content and increased algal bloom toxicity due to nitrogen and phosphorus runoff. Agencies governing food labeling in Europe and the United States have guidelines to limit or prevent health claims about phytochemicals on food product or nutrition labels. Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Natural Purple Dyes: Ancient & Medieval organic tomatoes Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Plants form complex communication networks. One way they interact is by releasing volatile organic compounds (VOCs). These carry information among plants and to organisms such as microbes and insects. Allelopathy: How Plants Influence Others Plant Perception: How Plants See the Light Scammony: Ancient Health & Medicine Plants send signals to warn of threats by deer and other browsers About VOCs Volatile Organic Compounds are organic chemicals. They easily evaporate into the air at room temperature. Plants produce the compounds through biochemical pathways for purposes like defense, signaling and attraction. When a plant is attacked by herbivores, it can produce different VOCs carrying a message of alarm. The signals alert nearby plants, giving them time to prepare for potential threats. Some toughen their leaves or embitter their seeds. A trick of violets is to numb smell receptors when the perceived threat takes a sniff. The potential attacker can't smell any more violets, and ideally wanders away. Lectins & Phytates: Nature of Plants + Human Health Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment 7 Primary Electrolytes: Essential Ions & Health Wild violets Insects Plants also communicate with insects and other animals. VOCs emitted can attract helpful insects, such as pollinators and predators of pests. Cabbage plants, if attacked by caterpillars, can release VOCs to "call" parasitic wasps. The wasps paralyze and lay their eggs in the caterpillars. Types of VOCs Fatty Acid Derivatives These VOCs come from the breakdown of fatty acids and are often used as defense mechanisms. Fatty acid derivatives are released when a plant is attacked by pests. When a tomato plant is bitten by an insect, it emits fatty acids to alert nearby tomato plants to the encroaching threat. Tomatoes have an impressive arsenal. Their defenses include physical barriers like trichomes (hairs) and chemical defenses such as the VOC methyl jasmonate. Like cabbage they can put out a call for predators. Magnesium (Mg): Ecology & Human Health Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Cellulose: Plant Fibers of Structure & Strength Phenylpropanoids/Benzenoids This group of VOCs creates sweet plant scents. The fragrance of flowers is a rich blend of phenylpropanoids and benzenoids designed to entice bees, butterflies, and other pollinators. The corpse flower, in contrast, uses these chemicals to smell like death. Its goal is to attract flies and carrion beetles to pollinate its gigantic blossom. The stench is carried far and wide on the winds. Esters & Phenols in Brewing, Perfumes, Food Making Pheromones in Microbes, Plants & Animals Flavonoids: the Big Five of Aroma, Flavor & Color Titan arum , the corpse flower Amino Acid Derivatives These VOCs, originating from amino acids, are often associated with plant growth and development. They're important for signaling between different parts of the plant. Amino acid derivatives coordinate physiological processes and responses to environmental stimuli. They may also contribute to plant-to-plant communication related to stress responses. Triggered by stressors, these VOCs are cues for nearby plants. When a corn plant is under attack, it releases an amino acid derivative that signals neighboring plants to ramp up their defense mechanisms. Corn's physical defenses include the carbohydrate callose to block sap-sucking insects. Chemically, corn produces DIMBOA, which triggers callose formation, and MBOA to repel caterpillars. Some corn is genetically modified to release insecticidal Bt toxins.  Ammonium (NH+4): Nitrogen Needs of Plants Starch: Power of Plants & Human Energy Esters: Nature's Fragrance & Flavor Makers Terpenoids This is the most diverse group of VOCs. Terpenoids can attract beneficial insects, repel herbivores and unwanted microbes, and provide a defense mechanism against extreme heat. The characteristic scent of pine trees is due to the presence of terpenoids. Mint plants emit terpenoids to repel pests and also attract predator insects. Other Plant Communication Methods Electrical Signaling Similar to animals with a nervous system, plants can transmit electrical signals throughout their tissues. Signals can be triggered by environmental factors like touch, light or damage. They facilitate fast responses, enabling plants to rapidly arm themselves and coordinate defenses. Electrical signals travel through plants at a rate of up to 16 cm/s. Plant Health: Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria Phytochemicals: Natural Chemicals of Plants Cell Communication in Living Organisms Common Mycorrhizal Networks (CMNs) Plants connect below ground through a vast network of fungal hyphae, forming a Common Mycorrhizal Network. The network empowers plants to share resources, such as nutrients and water, and to exchange information. A plant under attack by insects can send a warning signal through the CMN to neighboring plants, preparing them for potential threats. If a willow tree is under threat, it signals neighboring willows to prepare for potential herbivore attacks through mycorrhizal connections. Willow trees have superior defenses against herbivores and pathogens. They use salicylic acid to deter predators, and have physical defenses like flexible branches and thick bark. Willow trees in the Sierra Nevada produce salicin, a chemical to repel browsing deer, opossums and many insects. Willows also talk to each other, sending signals to nearby plants through methyl salicylate (C8H8O3). Elderberry Tree: Germanic Nature Lore Biofuels: Creation & the Dark Side Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Willow trees Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol , is a clear, flammable liquid with a wine-like odor. It's produced by microbial fermentation of sugars, soluble or reduced from polysaccharides like starches. Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld Biofuels: Creation & the Dark Side Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy corn is a common feedstock for bio-ethanol Ethanol (C2H5OH) is widely used as a fuel additive and as a foundational ingredient in chemical processes. It can be made from biomass materials including corn, sugarcane and agricultural waste. Ethanol is the alcohol in beer, wine and other alcoholic beverages. It's created by yeast, who dine on sugars and excrete booze. Yeast also produce CO2, which in beer forms the fizz. In bioethanol production some bacteria are used to ferment as well. Bio-ethanol is denatured to make it undrinkable. Toxic or foul-tasting substances like methanol, benzene, pyridine, castor oil, gasoline, isopropyl alcohol or acetone are added to denature it.  Environment: Lithium-ion Battery Recycling Water Pollution: Eight Countries in Crisis How Wind Turbines Create Electricity Castor beans are toxic, containing ricin, but processed castor oil just tastes terrible How Ethanol Biofuel is Made Feedstock Selection: The most common feedstocks are corn in the United States and sugarcane in Brazil. Other feedstocks are wheat, barley, sugar beets, sorghum, and cellulosic materials like agricultural residues and wood. Pre-treatment: Cellulosic materials require pre-treatment to break down complex carbohydrates into simpler sugars which the yeast can ferment. Grains may be sprouted, as sugar content is highest then. Fermentation: The chosen feedstock is processed to extract sugars or starches. They're then fermented to convert them into ethanol and carbon dioxide. The most commonly used yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae . While yeast are famed for fermentation, certain bacteria can also ferment. They include Zymomonas mobilis and engineered bacteria like E. coli .  Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper How Solar Panels Work Plant Health: Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria   Saccharomyces cerevisiae Distillation: The fermented mixture, known as "beer" in grain fermentation, has a fairly low concentration of ethanol (5-20% depending on yeast strain and conditions). It is then distilled to separate the ethanol from the water and byproducts. Distillation separates ethanol from water and other compounds, increasing its purity and concentration for fuel use. Dehydration: The distilled ethanol contains a small amount of water. Dehydration removes remaining water to produce anhydrous ethanol, which can be blended with gasoline. Ethanol-blended fuels include E10 (10% ethanol), E15 (15% ethanol), or E85 (85% ethanol). Glutamates: Umami Flavors & Brain Cells Nuclear Energy: Power & Process Bioremediation: Organic Cleanup of Toxins Producers & Consumers United States: The US uses corn as its feedstock and is the world's leading producer and consumer of ethanol biofuel. A significant portion of its gasoline has ethanol blends. It's also the world's largest producer of gas. Brazil: Brazil uses sugarcane as its feedstock and is the second-largest producer and consumer. It has a long history of ethanol production including a well-established infrastructure for its use, such as flex-fuel vehicles able to run on gasoline, ethanol, or any blend of the two. Indonesia is the third-largest ethanol producer. As consumers, the EU and China are third and fourth respectively. The bioethanol market is valued at over USD 95 billion. Gravity: Celestial Bodies & Space Travel Laser Weapons in Modern Warfare Clean Rooms: Science & Technology sugarcane processing Pros & Cons of Ethanol Biofuel Pros Renewable Resource: Ethanol is derived from reasonably renewable sources, such as corn and sugarcane. Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions: When burned, ethanol produces fewer greenhouse gas emissions compared to gasoline, although lifecycle emissions may be higher. Higher Octane Rating: Ethanol has a higher octane rating than gasoline. A fuel with higher octane ratings resists knocking or premature ignition in engines. Job Creation: Ethanol production supports agricultural industries and boasts of job creation. Balance of job creation and loss is a hidden factor to be considered. Reduced Dependence on Fossil Fuels: Using ethanol helps reduce a country's reliance on foreign oil imports. The trend these days is deglobalization and national self-reliance. Nanotechnology: Nanoscale Power & Progress Sweet Root Vegetables: Sugar & Starch Sustainable Gardening: Compost & Old Beer fracking in the USA - fossil fuel extraction Cons Food vs. Fuel Debate: Using food crops like corn for ethanol production raises concerns about rising food prices and potential food shortages, especially in developing countries. Ethanol production drives up the price of food corn and restricts growing space for feed corn. Land Use Impact: Expanding biofuel production requires clearing land for agriculture, leading to deforestation and habitat loss. Hidden Costs: According to data from the Energy and Mineral Resources Ministry, the average market ceiling price for molasses rises 60% between 2018 and 2024, pushing bioethanol prices up by 40% while the gasoline price increase was only 30 percent. Water Usage: Ethanol production can be water-intensive, straining water resources in many regions. Lifecycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The overall lifecycle greenhouse gas reduction potential of ethanol has to be considered. Factors like fertilizer use, transportation and land use changes can influence the final effect. Los Angeles is the smoggiest city in the United States largely due to vehicle emissions. The ethanol consumption of California is second only to Texas, which also has toxic air pollution levels. Energy Balance: The energy required to grow, harvest, and process corn can be close to or even exceed the energy produced by the ethanol itself. Fertilizer runoff from mass agriculture is also a known pollutant. Infrastructure Limitations : Not every vehicle and fueling station can accommodate high ethanol blends. However, for every fueling station shut down, owner and employees can work in the ethanol refinery. That's job creation. Carbohydrates: Sugars of Nature & Health Ammonium (NH+4): Nitrogen Needs of Plants Ideonella sakaiensis : Plastic-Eating Bacteria Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Pheromones are communication tools. Chemical substances released by an organism into the environment trigger responses to relay information about mating, territory, danger or food. Cell Communication in Living Organisms Why Apples Turn Brown: Science & Nature Phytochemicals: Natural Chemicals of Plants Pheromones act on different sensory levels, using specialized organs for detection and translation. In many animals, the vomeronasal organ interprets the signals. The vomeronasal organ (VNO) is the peripheral sensory organ for the accessory olfactory system. In most amphibians, reptiles and mammals, paired organs are at base of the nasal septum or on the roof of mouth. Salamanders engage in nose-tapping behavior to stimulate their VNO. A snakes uses this organ to detect prey by extending its tongues to collect scent, then touching the tongue to the organ's opening when retracting it. Difference Between Oxidation & Fermentation Black Tea (Camellia sinensis): Harvest to Cup Yeast & Vineyard Microbes: Flavors of Wine Juvenile European grass snake ( Natrix natrix ) checks out its environment Microorganisms Pheromones in microorganisms are primarily used for mating and reproduction. For instance, Myxobacteria use pheromones to aggregate and form a fruiting body, where they reproduce. Likewise, in sexual reproduction yeasts use pheromones to attract mates and initiate the mating process. Pheromones influence behaviors such as mating, biofilm formation and virulence. An example is quorum sensing, a mechanism whereby bacteria secrete pheromones to gauge their population density. Once a specific concentration is detected, it triggers a collective response. Wine Making Process: Grape to Glass Fructose (Fruit Sugar): Sweetest Saccharide Yeast & Fermentation: the Crabtree Effect Quorum sensing lets some bacteria regulate pathogenicity. Pseudomonas aeruginosa  releases pheromones to coordinate virulence factor expression, increasing its infection efficiency. The bacterium causes about 10% of all hospital-acquired infections. Some bacteria exhibit social behavior like swarming, a collective movement enabled by pheromones. Species like Myxococcus xanthus move in unison to prey on other bacteria. Yeast quorum sensing research focusses on Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans . In S. cerevisiae , quorum sensing molecules (QSMs) are 2-phenylethanol, tyrosol, and tryptophol. In C. albicans , main QSMs are farnesol and tyrosol. Predators of the Microworld: Vampirovibrio & Lysobacter Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Eight Dye Plants & Natural Dyes in History yeast cooperate & secrete substances like EPS  to create a protective biofilm Plants Plant pheromones attract pollinators, helping plants reproduce. Those emitted by female flowers of the titan arum plant guide the male giant silk moth to a mate. He senses this pheromone for up to 22.5 km (14 mi). This isn't surprising as the flower of this plant, also called the corpse flower, can be over 3 meters (10-12 ft) tall and reeks. However it's selective about pollination. The matchmaking behavior ensures reproduction happens near the plant to produce more pollinators. Plants often use pheromones defensively as they can't flee from danger. When under attack from herbivorous consumers, some release volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to attract predators of the herbivore. Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment Catalase: Unseen Enzymes Essential to Life Lactic Acid Bacteria: Nature to Modern Uses Titan arum , the corpse flower When plants like jasmine face herbivore attacks, they release pheromones to attract predators of those pests. These scents can lure parasitoid wasps to caterpillars, helping reduce herbivore damage. Such mechanisms reflect the sophisticated survival strategies of plants. They often communicate with other species for mutual benefit. Plants can also communicate through chemical signals in their roots. When one plant suffers an attack, it can release pheromones into the soil, alerting nearby plants to prepare their defenses . Polyphenols: Plants & the Environment Yeast, Humans & Aerobic Respiration of Cells Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Animals In animals, pheromones serve various purposes such as mating, alarm signaling, and social organization. One classic example is the queen bee's pheromone, which maintains the hierarchy within the hive, preventing worker bees from reproducing. In mammalian species including humans, the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) odor can influence mate selection. Animals sniff out compatible mates based on their MHC pheromones. One compelling aspect of pheromones in mammals is the phenomenon known as the "smell of fear." Humans can't smell fear as in a distinct odor, but the body releases certain chemicals when a person is afraid. Maltose: Sweet Delight of Brewing & Energy Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Five Types of Resistant Starch: Fiber & Health These pheromones can be detected by others. This can trigger emotional and social shifts in response and behavior such as comfort-giving or protection; or aggression, avoidance, predation and bullying. Some animals can also smell or detect the threat of a predator. Known as an innate threat factor, this is 2,5-dihydro-2,4,5-trimethylthiazoline, a single molecule component of a predator odor. This can also be called a "sixth sense," or spider sense tingling in a certain action hero. Homeostasis: Internal Balance of the Body Corycian Caves, Bee Nymphs & Greek Gods Complexes: Psychology of the Psyche Social insects like ants and bees heavily depend on pheromones for communication. A queen bee, for instance, releases pheromones to regulate worker behavior, reproduction, and maintain colony harmony. Foraging ants mark paths to food sources with trail pheromones, resulting in a rapid influx of sister ants. This collective foraging strategy allows ant colonies to maximize their search for food. Termites use pheromones to guide each other to food sources and build complex nests. Archetypes - Personality & the Persona Honey Bees (Apidae): Nature & Myth Chicken Soup: Chickens in German Folklore worker termite Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Allelopathy is the natural production and release of chemicals, or allelochemicals, by plants and other organisms. It's only one of many ways plants cooperate or compete to get the best resources. Lignans: Nature's Weapons of Defense Is Cherry Laurel Poisonous? Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life This biological phenomenon is found in plants, microbes, insects and other animals. They produce biochemicals to enhance or suppress the growth, survival, development and reproduction of nearby organisms. In plants, allelochemicals are natural herbicides, growth regulators and insect deterrents. They help shape plant communities and ecosystems. Ammonium (NH+4): Nitrogen Needs of Plants Rhododendron & the Toxic Ambrosia Agrippina & Son: Poisonous Plots of Rome Chemical Power A diverse group of secondary metabolites, allelochemicals are found in plant tissue such as leaves, stems, roots, seeds, and flowers. They enter the environment by several pathways. Volatilization: Some allelochemicals are volatile, evaporating from plant surfaces and being carried by the wind to neighboring plants. Root Exudation:  Plants can actively release allelochemicals directly from their roots into the surrounding soil. This is a targeted strategy for influencing the immediate root zone and competing for resources. Leaching: Rainwater can wash allelochemicals from plant tissues and deposit them in soil. It's common in leaf litter decomposition, where chemicals released affect germination and growth of seedlings. 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Natural Purple Dyes: Ancient & Medieval Wolfsbane (Aconitum) Ancient Poisons beans sprouting Decomposition: As plant material decomposes, allelochemicals are released into the soil, potentially affecting subsequent generations of plants or other organisms. Beneficial Allelopathy: Good Neighbors Nutrient Cycling: Some allelochemicals, like phenolics, terpenoids, and alkaloids, aid in the decomposition of organic matter. This releases essential nutrients back into the soil to benefit nearby plants. Phenolic compounds can either stimulate or inhibit breakdown of organic matter in soil. Phenolics slow or accelerate decomposition by promoting microbial activity and production of enzymes such as cellulase. Death Cap Mushrooms: Deadly Poison Plant Perception: How Plants See the Light Sweet Root Vegetables: Sugar & Starch compost Pest and Disease Control: Certain allelochemicals have antimicrobial or insecticidal properties, providing natural protection against pests and diseases. These include alkaloids, especially nitrogen-containing compounds like those in opium poppies . Other examples include terpenoids, such as monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids, which are volatile and can deter pests, as well as phenolics like tannins . Glucosinolates are sulfur-containing compounds and can convert to isothiocyanates to become repellents. They're often found in cruciferous vegetables of the Brassicaceae family, like broccoli and cauliflower. Isothiocyanates may have antioxidant benefits for humans.  Seven Trace Minerals: Nature's Little Helpers Potash: Agriculture, Plant & Garden Health Mugwort (Wormwood) Medicine & Herb Lore cauliflower Detrimental Allelopathy: Chemical Warfare Thwarting the Competition: By inhibiting the germination, growth, or nutrient uptake of neighboring plants, allelochemicals allow the producing plant to gain a competitive advantage. This is particularly important in crowded environments where resources are scarce. Phenolic compounds, like coumarins and flavonoids, can inhibit seed germination and alter nutrient uptake. Terpenoids impair cell division and elongation.  Weed Control: Many agricultural weeds are susceptible to allelopathic compounds released by crop plants or cover crops. Sugar maple roots release allelochemicals to hinder nearby germination of other plants. Security Against Invasion: Some allelopathic plants are highly effective at preventing the establishment of invasive species, maintaining the integrity of native ecosystems. Goldenrod and bee balm are two examples. The common mint plant emits volatile organic compounds (VOCs) which help deter pests while promoting growth in companion plants. Once established, mint proves hardy and prolific. Scammony: Ancient Health & Medicine Broad Beans (Fava) - Bronze Age Crops Figs - Food of the Ancient World fresh mint More Examples of Allelopathy Black Walnut ( Juglans nigra ): This tree produces juglone, a powerful allelochemical. It inhibits growth of many plants, creating a characteristic "walnut shadow" where few can survive. Juglone can stunt the growth of over 600 plant species, including tomatoes and potatoes. Gardeners often plant non-sensitive species like roses or certain perennials nearby to avoid negative interactions. Black walnut enjoys the company of ferns, day lilies, jack-in-the-pulpit, bee balm, phlox, clematis, honeysuckle, elderberry and more. Plants like these brighten up the environs. Eucalyptus Trees ( Eucalyptus spp .): The volatile oils released by eucalyptus inhibit the growth of understory vegetation, reducing competition for resources. Polyphenols: Plants & the Environment Microhydro Energy: Sustainable Water Power Volatile Organic Compounds: Home & Away Eucalyptus with koala Eucalyptus oil is a complex blend of ingredients, primarily 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol) and alpha-terpineol. Other notable components include alpha-pinene and limonene. Oils are carried by volatilization, dispersal by breeze. Rice ( Oryza sativa ): Certain rice varieties have allelopathic properties to suppress the growth of weeds, a natural weed control strategy in rice paddies. Sunflower ( Helianthus annuus ): Sunflowers release allelochemicals from their roots to inhibit the growth of many weeds. Sunflowers will also try to annihilate rhubarb, potatoes and beans. Plants with shallow root systems will struggle to survive. Legumes: As their roots form, legume sprouts like peas and beans release flavonoids into the soil to call nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Plants need nitrogen but can't absorb it directly. How & Why to Ferment Green Beans Cellulose: Plant Fibers of Structure & Strength Phytic Acid: Mother Nature's Nutrient Secrets legume roots with nodules for nitrogen-fixing bacteria Nodules grow like little roundish houses on roots to protect the bacteria as they perform their vital task. They "fix" nitrogen, turning it into simpler ammonium, which plants can easily take up. Sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor ): Sorghum releases allelochemicals able to suppress weeds. It is a favored cover crop, improving soil health while controlling unwanted plant species. Garlic Mustard ( Alliaria petiolata ): This invasive plant produces allelochemicals to decrease the growth of native species, allowing it to dominate the forest understory. Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine Chamomile - Herbology & Folklore sorghum Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top