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Common mycorrhizal networks form through symbiotic relationships of fungi and plant roots. By enabling communication and interaction under the soil, CMNs influence plant health and ecosystem stability. Plant Communication: Volatile Organic Compounds Allelopathy: How Plants Influence Others Scammony: Ancient Health & Medicine grass roots Nature's high-speed data network is powered by fungi. CMNs are vast, interconnected webs of fungal hyphae, or tiny, thread-like filaments. They colonize the roots of many plants. The hyphae physically link plants, often of different species, through a shared fungal partner. This biological connection speeds the exchange of resources and information. Microfungi: Mysterious Web of Life & Death Yeast & Mold: Ancient Fungi, Modern World Polyphenols: Plants & the Environment micro-fungi hyphae Mycorrhizae Mycorrhizal fungi establish mutually beneficial relationships with the roots of most terrestrial plants. In exchange for carbohydrates produced by plants, mycorrhizal fungi improve the plants' abilities to absorb water and nutrients. CMNs form when fungal hyphae make contact with plant roots. After establishing a connection, the hyphae penetrate root cells, creating arbuscules and vesicles for nutrient exchange. A mycorrhizal network can connect dozens of plants. They share resources and communicate. The fungi, often of the Glomeromycota, Ascomycota, or Basidiomycota phyla, become an extension of the plant's root system. Fungal Biofilms: Ecology of Biofilm-Producing Molds & Yeasts Phenols: Nature's Creations in Daily Life Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Truffles (above) and morels are familiar members of the Ascomycota phylum They develop in diverse plant communities. Areas with at least five different plant species have a higher likelihood of CMN formation than those dominated by one or two. The effectiveness of the networks is influenced by environmental factors like soil quality and plant variety. Specific fungal species must be present. The fungal hyphae are longer and thinner than plant roots. They can access nutrients and micronutrients otherwise unavailable. They also improve water uptake, a bonus in dry conditions. Fruiting bodies may sometimes be seen as fairy rings around trees. The "tethered" ring is connected to the roots of the tree. Many plants rely on mycorrhizae for survival. Lignans: Nature's Weapons of Defense Is Cherry Laurel Poisonous? Malevolent Microfungi: Hazards of Health & Home Fairy ring around a tree Benefits of a Fungal Connection Plants connected by a CMN transfer carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and water between them. This helps seedlings, stressed plants, or those in nutrient-deficient areas. Larger, healthier plants feed their weaker neighbors. Plants uptake nitrogen primarily through their roots, in the form of nitrate (NO3-) or ammonium (NH4+). Nitrate is the most common form.  During dry periods, CMNs help connected plants get water. Certain fungi are a water source as well. Plants linked through CMNs survive drought better than isolated plants. CMNs encourage diverse plant species. Plants within these networks show improved growth and reproductive success. Hydroelectric Energy: Power of Water Ideonella sakaiensis : Plastic-Eating Bacteria Lead Acid Batteries: Uses, Disposal, Pros & Cons The fungal networks transmit warning signals between plants. If one plant is attacked it can send a chemical signal through the CMN to alerting neighboring plants so they can activate their defenses. CMNs shape plant communities by influencing plant growth, competition, and resilience under stress. The interconnections provided by CMNs help keep ecosystems stable. When environmental conditions fluctuate, such as during droughts or pest outbreaks, connected plants share resources to help maintain a balanced ecosystem. In soil, CMNs promote organic matter decomposition and improve nutrient cycling. Phytochemicals: Natural Chemicals of Plants Flavonoids: the Big Five of Aroma, Flavor & Color Mugwort (Wormwood) Medicine & Herb Lore decomposing Threats to CMNs Land Use Urbanization, agriculture, and deforestation disrupt plant communities and their mycorrhizal networks. Habitat fragmentation can isolate plant species, preventing formation of CMNs. Chemical Inputs Excess use of fertilizers and pesticides can degrade fungal health and disrupt CMNs. Chemicals diminish the ability of plants to connect through mycorrhizae. Climate Change Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns disrupt plant dynamics and affect CMN formation and function. Altered precipitation patterns are linked to a decline in effective mycorrhizal networks. Carbon Fixation: Environmental Heath & Ecology Flavors of Coffee: From Harvest to Homestead Cellulose: Plant Fibers of Structure & Strength Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Electricity drives the human brain, powering every thought, sensation and emotion. The connection between electrical signals and emotions is a co-production by neurotransmitters and neural circuits. Human Body: the Electromagnetic Brain Electricity & Magnetism of the Human Body Effects of Extreme Heat on the Human Body Emotions seem like intangible feelings, such as uplifting joy, crushing sadness, or surges of anger. Beneath the surface, these complex experiences arise from the very tangible action of electricity. The brain is an intricate network of electrically charged cells or neurons firing in coordinated patterns. The human brain has about 86 billion neurons, each transmitting signals through electrical impulses. It's a remarkably energy-efficient device. In computing terms, it performs the equivalent of an exaflop, a billion-billion (1 followed by 18 zeros) math operations per second, with just 20 watts of power, enough to light up a small LED. Plant Communication: Electrical Signals Electric Fields: Invisible Forces of Nature Static Electricity on Earth & in Space LED flashlights are 3 - 20 watts Neural Communication Electrical signals, called action potentials, are the language of the brain. In this way neurons communicate with each other. The process is as follows: Resting Potential: When a neuron is inactive, it maintains a stable slightly negative electrical charge, a state known as the resting potential. Stimulation and Depolarization: When a neuron receives input from other neurons, it can depolarize, meaning its electrical charge becomes positive. Nature of Electricity: Charging the Universe How Wind Turbines Create Electricity Five Major Proteins of Nature & Human Health neuron Action Potential: If the depolarization reaches a certain threshold, it triggers a rapid and dramatic electrical event, an action potential. This is an electrical surge traveling down the neuron's axon, a long, slender projection that reaches other neurons. Neurotransmitter Release: When the action potential reaches the end of the axon (the axon terminal), it triggers the release of neurotransmitters. These chemical messengers carry the signal across the synapse, the gap between neurons. Neurotransmitters are fundamental to how emotions are processed. For instance, serotonin and dopamine are well-known for their importance in happiness and motivation. Allelopathy: How Plants Influence Others Peptides: Science of Human Health Electrolytes: Vital Minerals of Human & Environmental Health When electrical impulses trigger release of dopamine neurotransmitters during a happy event, it creates feelings of joy. Dopamine levels can increase up to 50% in rewarding situations. Conversely, lower levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin cause feelings of depression and anxiety. Many people with these feelings have imbalances in serotonin. Chain Reaction: Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the next neuron, potentially triggering another action potential and continuing the electrical signal down the chain. Robot Hearing, Interpretation & Response Space Weather: Flares, Storms & Cosmic Rays Tannins: Complex Astringents of Nature Brain Regions Individual electrical signals, combined across specific brain regions, create human emotional experiences. While emotions are complex and distributed across the brain, some regions are especially active. The limbic system, which includes the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus, is important to regulating emotions. Amygdala: Often called the "fear center," the amygdala processes and experiences fear, anxiety, and other emotions related to threat detection. Its electrical activity rises strongly when encountering perceived danger. It sends electrical signals to prepare the body for a fight-or-flight response. The response happens in moments due to the brain's quick electrical reactions to threats. Caffeine: Nature, Characteristics & Health Microhydro Energy: Sustainable Water Power Solar Wind: Supersonic Tempest from the Sun While the amygdala is primarily known for processing unpleasant emotions like fear and anxiety, it also functions to process and experience positive emotions, including happiness and reward. Hippocampus: Essential for memory formation, the hippocampus is intricately linked to emotions. It helps associate past experiences with specific emotions, like joy or guilt, ideally so the human can learn. When an emotionally charged event occurs, the brain encodes the experience. The generated electrical signals strengthen the synaptic connections. This makes it easier to recall emotional experiences later. Specific smells, flavors, songs and other sounds can instantly evoke memories and emotions. Scammony: Ancient Health & Medicine Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment Hypothalamus:  This tiny but powerful region regulates basic bodily functions like hunger, thirst and body temperature. It's important to emotional responses, like those related to stress and fight-or-flight. Prefrontal Cortex (PFC): The PFC, particularly the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), regulates emotions, decision-making, and complex social behavior. It helps control impulsive reactions and makes the brain owner consider long-term consequences. Multiple interconnected brain regions, such as the ventral tegmental area (VTA), hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus are active in feelings of love and attachment. Nanaya: Goddess of Erotic Love Edelweiss: Alpine Flower of True Love Unus Mundus One World: Psychology These areas release neurotransmitters like dopamine, oxytocin, opioid and adrenaline, which enhance pleasurable and motivational elements of love and social bonding. The same neurotransmitters are involved in addiction. External stimuli can dramatically affect the brain's electrical activity. Listening to music can activate areas such as the anterior cingulate cortex and insula, causing feelings of pleasure. Environmental factors, such as social interactions, stress and hormonal fluctuations, also alter the brain's electrical signals. Social support can reduce cortisol levels to lessen stress and anxiety. Metalloproteins: Biochemistry of Nature & Health Homeostasis: Internal Balance of the Body Seven Probiotics: Human Digestive Health Electrical Emotion Centers Happiness: Feelings of joy and well-being are often associated with increased activity in the PFC and the release of neurotransmitters like dopamine in the brain's reward system. Sadness: Sadness and grief can involve reduced activity in the PFC and changes in the levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation. Anger: Anger can trigger heightened activity in the amygdala and the hypothalamus, leading to physiological changes like increased heart rate and blood pressure. Electricity in the brain triggers physical reactions. The brain's electrical activity influences the autonomic nervous system, which controls bodily functions not consciously managed. Mandalas: Psychology & Art Therapy Celandine: Plant Toxins & Medicine Ozone Gas (O3) & the Ozone Layer For instance, during anxiety, the sympathetic nervous system activates to cause physical responses like fast heart rate and sweating. Most people have physical sensations as well as emotional feelings. Physical responses can fortify emotions which trigger even greater response, like excess sweating, stammering or shaking. This in turn worsens the anxiety. Treatment Neurofeedback: This technique uses real-time brainwave monitoring to help individuals learn to self-regulate their brain activity and improve emotional control. Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): In severe cases of depression or obsessive-compulsive disorder, DBS involves implanting electrodes in specific brain regions to modulate electrical activity and alleviate symptoms. Active Imagination: Creative Therapy Robot Sensors: Powers of Perception Plant Perception: How Plants See the Light Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Plants have sophisticated systems of communication. Electric signaling is one of the ways plants express themselves. They generate and transmit signals, much like the nervous system functions in animals. Plant Communication: Common Mycorrhizal Networks (CMNs) Plant Communication: Volatile Organic Compounds Allelopathy: How Plants Influence Others Plants generate and transmit electrical impulses throughout their bodies. Signals are created by fluctuations in concentrations of ions like calcium (Ca2+) and chloride (Cl-) across cell membranes. Known as action potentials and variation potentials, the electrical impulses travel in the vascular system or phloem. Signals pass through a network of individual cells. They enable plants to react to changes like stress, damage and potential threats. When a plant detects a stimulus, it triggers reactions to alter the flow of ions and create electrical impulses. Both calcium, a metal, and chloride are electrolytes , or charged ions. Calcium (Ca): Earth Metal of Structure & Strength Scammony: Ancient Health & Medicine Plant Perception: How Plants See the Light metallic calcium In solid form (calcium chloride), the ions are fixed. When dissolved or molten, ions enter a free-moving state and interact. Reactions to signals include gene expression changes, activating defenses or closing stomata to minimize water loss. Plants need balanced calcium levels. Too much can injure cells, while too little impedes stress responses. Electrical Signal Triggers Herbivore attack: Damage of plant parts by insects and other animals like deer, giraffes and rabbits send a volley of ions through plant cells. This creates an electrical signal to alert other parts of the plant. Polyphenols: Plants & the Environment Celandine: Plant Toxins & Medicine Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life A caterpillar eating a leaf causes a surge of ions. Plant defenses include toughening of structures and producing unpleasant tastes and/or toxic effects. Some plants can "call" pest predators like parasitic wasps. Pathogen Infection: Presence of harmful bacteria or fungi stimulate electric signals to activate defense mechanisms and immune response. A plant cell damaged by pathogens like fungi or bacteria sends alerts to nearby cells. Plants warn others of impending danger by releasing chemicals. Electrical signals prepare the plant, enabling it to produce and emit volatile compounds. Phytochemicals: Natural Chemicals of Plants Hydroelectric Energy: Power of Water How Wind Turbines Create Electricity Changes in Light: Fluctuations in light intensity or spectrum can influence ion channel activity. Electrical signals regulate photosynthesis and other light-dependent processes. Temperature Shifts: Abrupt changes in temperature initiate protective mechanisms, such as production of heat-shock proteins or antifreeze compounds. Water Availability: Drought stress affects ion balance within plant cells. Signals regulate water conservation, such as stomatal closure. Stomata also close when it rains, to prevent the leaves from getting waterlogged. How Solar Panels Work Flavonoids: Sensory Compounds of Nature Esters: Nature's Fragrance & Flavor Makers Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Phytochemicals are chemical compounds created by plants. They can enhance a plant's color, flavor, and aroma and provide defense systems such as toxins. Wine Making Process: Grape to Glass Fructose (Fruit Sugar): Sweetest Saccharide Yeast & Fermentation: the Crabtree Effect Phytochemicals are produced in primary and secondary metabolism of plants. Primary metabolites like sugars and amino acids are used for basic plant survival. As secondary metabolites phytochemicals are specialized. They aren't directly involved in growth, development, or reproduction. They assist the plant's interaction with its environment. Usually rooted in one place, a plant needs communication and strong defenses. Microbe Glue (EPS) in Biofilm Formation Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment Sucrose: Double Sugar of Science & Cuisine indigo plant - the famous dye gives the plant antibacterial and insect repellent properties Environmental stressors include competition from other plants, insect attacks, and exposure to diseases. Phytochemicals act as a defense system, helping plants withstand these threats. The bright orange of carrots comes from beta-carotene (β-carotene), a carotenoid which converts to vitamin A in a body. Vitamin A is needed by all vertebrate animals. Sucrose: Double Sugar of Science & Cuisine Yeast Fermentation: Beer Brewing Process Yeast, Humans & Aerobic Respiration of Cells In plants and algae carotenoids absorb light energy for photosynthesis, and provide photoprotection. Cattle transform beta carotene from green plants into vitamin A. During a typical pasture season, their daily intake of carotene exceeds their needs by 3-5 times. A cow has about 4 months' supply of vitamin A in her liver. Streptococcus LAB: Lactic Acid Bacteria Fermentation Energy: Yeast & Lactic Acid Bacteria Cyanobacteria: Nutrients & Bacterial Blooms The phytochemical resveratrol occurs in red wine and grapes. Resveratrol is a phytoalexin, a protective antibiotic. Plants produce it under stress from factors like fungal attacks, drought, ultraviolet radiation or inflammation. Phytochemicals influence interactions between plants and pollinators, and attract beneficial insects. Flowers emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to tempt pollinators like bees and butterflies. Flavonoids: the Big Five of Aroma, Flavor & Color Fermentable & Non-Fermentable Sugars Seven Trace Minerals: Nature's Little Helpers Alkaloids, a main phytochemical, deter herbivores due to bitterness and toxicity. Amygdalin is a bioactive cyanogenic phytochemical in the kernels of apricots, (bitter) almonds, apples, plums and peaches. Tobacco plants use nicotine to repel insect pests. Tannins in oak leaves and black tea leaves have bitter, astringent tastes unappetizing to most natural consumers. Polyphenols in tea include flavonoids, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and other catechins or antioxidants. Tartrate Crystals: Secrets of Tartaric Acid Kombucha: Ancient Brew & DIY Health Tea Sugars D-Galactose & L-Galactose: Nutrition Acorns are poisonous to horses, cattle and dogs. People who want to eat acorns must remove the toxins by boiling or cold soaking them multiple times until the water is clear. They will still retain some tannins. Capsaicin, the fiery compound in chili peppers, deters mammals from eating the fruit, while having little effect on birds who disperse the seeds. The milky sap of milkweed contains cardiac glycosides. Lactic Acidosis: Harmful Levels of Lactic Acid Five Food Acids: Citric, Acetic, Malic, Tartaric & Lactic Pectin: Nature's Polysaccharide Gelatin These highly toxic, foul tasting compounds can cause heart failure in some animals like deer. The terrible taste usually repulses a consumer before that happens. Plants are continually under attack from bacteria, fungi and viruses. Allicin, which produces the pungent aroma of garlic, is an antifungal and antibacterial compound for the plant. Wort: Sweet Temptation for Beer-Making Yeast Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas Methanogenesis: Microbial Methane Production cross-section of garlic bulb Phytoalexins are produced by many plants including alfalfa, chickpea and soybean in response to fungal or bacterial infection. Natural antibiotics, they are meant to halt the advance of the pathogen in the plant. Plants also compete with each other for resources like sunlight and nutrients. Some plants release allelopathic chemicals into the soil, inhibiting the growth of nearby competitors. Agrippina & Son: Poisonous Plots of Rome Rhododendron & the Toxic Ambrosia Prussic Acid: Secrets of Hydrogen Cyanide dried chickpeas Violets, which are edible, have an interesting defense. Ionone, the main scented component of the flower, numbs the sense of smell. This tricks the wild consumer into thinking there are no more violets, and going away. In competitive environments, chicory plants release sesquiterpene lactones to hinder growth of plants around them. Black walnut tree release juglone into the soil, poisoning the ground for a competitive edge. Flavonoids: Sensory Compounds of Nature Phenols: Effects on Health & Environment Ethyl Acetate: Scent of Flowers, Wine & Fruits wild violets Conversely, phytochemicals help plants communicate. Release of volatile organic compounds signal danger to nearby plants, triggering defense responses. Browsed by animals like giraffes, the acacia tree not only turns its leaves bitter but alerts other acacias of the danger. They embitter their leaves before the giraffes arrive. Cherish the Chocolate: Sweet Fermentation Brettanomyces : Favorite Artisan Wild Yeast Mugwort (Wormwood) Medicine & Herb Lore ... just try it, buster Not all phytochemicals are defensive. One prominent group is the flavonoids . They create vibrant colors and aromas of flowers to attract pollinators. The bright hues are marigolds come from flavonoids. Rose fragrance arises from terpenoids, the volatile compounds guiding pollinators to the nectar source. Anthocyanins create the red, blue, and purple hues in fruit and flowers like pansies and purple cauliflower. Glycerin (Glycerol): Darling of Cosmetics, Health & Science Esters: Nature's Fragrance & Flavor Makers Artisan Perfumery: Four Degrees of Fragrance Many of the flavonoid compounds are edible by animals. Bright flowers like violets and roses are used in human cuisine. Blueberries and raspberries are beloved by bears and birds. This helps in seed dispersal. Seeds pass through digestive tracts of animals to sprout in fertile soil, except in the case of humans, who flush them down the toilet. Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Butter - Food of Peasants & Barbarians Phenols: Nature's Creations in Daily Life Agricultural methods significantly influence phytochemical levels in food. Organic farming focuses on enhancing soil health and natural pest control, producing crops like tomatoes with higher phytochemical concentrations. Furocoumarins are toxins produced mainly by citrus like lime and present in many other plants, like parsley, celery root and parsnip. They're activated by damage to the plant and fungal attacks. Conversely, many industrial farming practices rely on synthetic chemicals. These can lead to decreased phytochemical content and increased algal bloom toxicity due to nitrogen and phosphorus runoff. Agencies governing food labeling in Europe and the United States have guidelines to limit or prevent health claims about phytochemicals on food product or nutrition labels. Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Natural Purple Dyes: Ancient & Medieval organic tomatoes Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Plants form complex communication networks. One way they interact is by releasing volatile organic compounds (VOCs). These carry information among plants and to organisms such as microbes and insects. Allelopathy: How Plants Influence Others Plant Perception: How Plants See the Light Scammony: Ancient Health & Medicine Plants send signals to warn of threats by deer and other browsers About VOCs Volatile Organic Compounds are organic chemicals. They easily evaporate into the air at room temperature. Plants produce the compounds through biochemical pathways for purposes like defense, signaling and attraction. When a plant is attacked by herbivores, it can produce different VOCs carrying a message of alarm. The signals alert nearby plants, giving them time to prepare for potential threats. Some toughen their leaves or embitter their seeds. A trick of violets is to numb smell receptors when the perceived threat takes a sniff. The potential attacker can't smell any more violets, and ideally wanders away. Lectins & Phytates: Nature of Plants + Human Health Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment 7 Primary Electrolytes: Essential Ions & Health Wild violets Insects Plants also communicate with insects and other animals. VOCs emitted can attract helpful insects, such as pollinators and predators of pests. Cabbage plants, if attacked by caterpillars, can release VOCs to "call" parasitic wasps. The wasps paralyze and lay their eggs in the caterpillars. Types of VOCs Fatty Acid Derivatives These VOCs come from the breakdown of fatty acids and are often used as defense mechanisms. Fatty acid derivatives are released when a plant is attacked by pests. When a tomato plant is bitten by an insect, it emits fatty acids to alert nearby tomato plants to the encroaching threat. Tomatoes have an impressive arsenal. Their defenses include physical barriers like trichomes (hairs) and chemical defenses such as the VOC methyl jasmonate. Like cabbage they can put out a call for predators. Magnesium (Mg): Ecology & Human Health Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Cellulose: Plant Fibers of Structure & Strength Phenylpropanoids/Benzenoids This group of VOCs creates sweet plant scents. The fragrance of flowers is a rich blend of phenylpropanoids and benzenoids designed to entice bees, butterflies, and other pollinators. The corpse flower, in contrast, uses these chemicals to smell like death. Its goal is to attract flies and carrion beetles to pollinate its gigantic blossom. The stench is carried far and wide on the winds. Esters & Phenols in Brewing, Perfumes, Food Making Pheromones in Microbes, Plants & Animals Flavonoids: the Big Five of Aroma, Flavor & Color Titan arum , the corpse flower Amino Acid Derivatives These VOCs, originating from amino acids, are often associated with plant growth and development. They're important for signaling between different parts of the plant. Amino acid derivatives coordinate physiological processes and responses to environmental stimuli. They may also contribute to plant-to-plant communication related to stress responses. Triggered by stressors, these VOCs are cues for nearby plants. When a corn plant is under attack, it releases an amino acid derivative that signals neighboring plants to ramp up their defense mechanisms. Corn's physical defenses include the carbohydrate callose to block sap-sucking insects. Chemically, corn produces DIMBOA, which triggers callose formation, and MBOA to repel caterpillars. Some corn is genetically modified to release insecticidal Bt toxins.  Ammonium (NH+4): Nitrogen Needs of Plants Starch: Power of Plants & Human Energy Esters: Nature's Fragrance & Flavor Makers Terpenoids This is the most diverse group of VOCs. Terpenoids can attract beneficial insects, repel herbivores and unwanted microbes, and provide a defense mechanism against extreme heat. The characteristic scent of pine trees is due to the presence of terpenoids. Mint plants emit terpenoids to repel pests and also attract predator insects. Other Plant Communication Methods Electrical Signaling Similar to animals with a nervous system, plants can transmit electrical signals throughout their tissues. Signals can be triggered by environmental factors like touch, light or damage. They facilitate fast responses, enabling plants to rapidly arm themselves and coordinate defenses. Electrical signals travel through plants at a rate of up to 16 cm/s. Plant Health: Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria Phytochemicals: Natural Chemicals of Plants Cell Communication in Living Organisms Common Mycorrhizal Networks (CMNs) Plants connect below ground through a vast network of fungal hyphae, forming a Common Mycorrhizal Network. The network empowers plants to share resources, such as nutrients and water, and to exchange information. A plant under attack by insects can send a warning signal through the CMN to neighboring plants, preparing them for potential threats. If a willow tree is under threat, it signals neighboring willows to prepare for potential herbivore attacks through mycorrhizal connections. Willow trees have superior defenses against herbivores and pathogens. They use salicylic acid to deter predators, and have physical defenses like flexible branches and thick bark. Willow trees in the Sierra Nevada produce salicin, a chemical to repel browsing deer, opossums and many insects. Willows also talk to each other, sending signals to nearby plants through methyl salicylate (C8H8O3). Elderberry Tree: Germanic Nature Lore Biofuels: Creation & the Dark Side Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Willow trees Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol , is a clear, flammable liquid with a wine-like odor. It's produced by microbial fermentation of sugars, soluble or reduced from polysaccharides like starches. Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld Biofuels: Creation & the Dark Side Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy corn is a common feedstock for bio-ethanol Ethanol (C2H5OH) is widely used as a fuel additive and as a foundational ingredient in chemical processes. It can be made from biomass materials including corn, sugarcane and agricultural waste. Ethanol is the alcohol in beer, wine and other alcoholic beverages. It's created by yeast, who dine on sugars and excrete booze. Yeast also produce CO2, which in beer forms the fizz. In bioethanol production some bacteria are used to ferment as well. Bio-ethanol is denatured to make it undrinkable. Toxic or foul-tasting substances like methanol, benzene, pyridine, castor oil, gasoline, isopropyl alcohol or acetone are added to denature it.  Environment: Lithium-ion Battery Recycling Water Pollution: Eight Countries in Crisis How Wind Turbines Create Electricity Castor beans are toxic, containing ricin, but processed castor oil just tastes terrible How Ethanol Biofuel is Made Feedstock Selection: The most common feedstocks are corn in the United States and sugarcane in Brazil. Other feedstocks are wheat, barley, sugar beets, sorghum, and cellulosic materials like agricultural residues and wood. Pre-treatment: Cellulosic materials require pre-treatment to break down complex carbohydrates into simpler sugars which the yeast can ferment. Grains may be sprouted, as sugar content is highest then. Fermentation: The chosen feedstock is processed to extract sugars or starches. They're then fermented to convert them into ethanol and carbon dioxide. The most commonly used yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae . While yeast are famed for fermentation, certain bacteria can also ferment. They include Zymomonas mobilis and engineered bacteria like E. coli .  Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper How Solar Panels Work Plant Health: Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria   Saccharomyces cerevisiae Distillation: The fermented mixture, known as "beer" in grain fermentation, has a fairly low concentration of ethanol (5-20% depending on yeast strain and conditions). It is then distilled to separate the ethanol from the water and byproducts. Distillation separates ethanol from water and other compounds, increasing its purity and concentration for fuel use. Dehydration: The distilled ethanol contains a small amount of water. Dehydration removes remaining water to produce anhydrous ethanol, which can be blended with gasoline. Ethanol-blended fuels include E10 (10% ethanol), E15 (15% ethanol), or E85 (85% ethanol). Glutamates: Umami Flavors & Brain Cells Nuclear Energy: Power & Process Bioremediation: Organic Cleanup of Toxins Producers & Consumers United States: The US uses corn as its feedstock and is the world's leading producer and consumer of ethanol biofuel. A significant portion of its gasoline has ethanol blends. It's also the world's largest producer of gas. Brazil: Brazil uses sugarcane as its feedstock and is the second-largest producer and consumer. It has a long history of ethanol production including a well-established infrastructure for its use, such as flex-fuel vehicles able to run on gasoline, ethanol, or any blend of the two. Indonesia is the third-largest ethanol producer. As consumers, the EU and China are third and fourth respectively. The bioethanol market is valued at over USD 95 billion. Gravity: Celestial Bodies & Space Travel Laser Weapons in Modern Warfare Clean Rooms: Science & Technology sugarcane processing Pros & Cons of Ethanol Biofuel Pros Renewable Resource: Ethanol is derived from reasonably renewable sources, such as corn and sugarcane. Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions: When burned, ethanol produces fewer greenhouse gas emissions compared to gasoline, although lifecycle emissions may be higher. Higher Octane Rating: Ethanol has a higher octane rating than gasoline. A fuel with higher octane ratings resists knocking or premature ignition in engines. Job Creation: Ethanol production supports agricultural industries and boasts of job creation. Balance of job creation and loss is a hidden factor to be considered. Reduced Dependence on Fossil Fuels: Using ethanol helps reduce a country's reliance on foreign oil imports. The trend these days is deglobalization and national self-reliance. Nanotechnology: Nanoscale Power & Progress Sweet Root Vegetables: Sugar & Starch Sustainable Gardening: Compost & Old Beer fracking in the USA - fossil fuel extraction Cons Food vs. Fuel Debate: Using food crops like corn for ethanol production raises concerns about rising food prices and potential food shortages, especially in developing countries. Ethanol production drives up the price of food corn and restricts growing space for feed corn. Land Use Impact: Expanding biofuel production requires clearing land for agriculture, leading to deforestation and habitat loss. Hidden Costs: According to data from the Energy and Mineral Resources Ministry, the average market ceiling price for molasses rises 60% between 2018 and 2024, pushing bioethanol prices up by 40% while the gasoline price increase was only 30 percent. Water Usage: Ethanol production can be water-intensive, straining water resources in many regions. Lifecycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The overall lifecycle greenhouse gas reduction potential of ethanol has to be considered. Factors like fertilizer use, transportation and land use changes can influence the final effect. Los Angeles is the smoggiest city in the United States largely due to vehicle emissions. The ethanol consumption of California is second only to Texas, which also has toxic air pollution levels. Energy Balance: The energy required to grow, harvest, and process corn can be close to or even exceed the energy produced by the ethanol itself. Fertilizer runoff from mass agriculture is also a known pollutant. Infrastructure Limitations : Not every vehicle and fueling station can accommodate high ethanol blends. However, for every fueling station shut down, owner and employees can work in the ethanol refinery. That's job creation. Carbohydrates: Sugars of Nature & Health Ammonium (NH+4): Nitrogen Needs of Plants Ideonella sakaiensis : Plastic-Eating Bacteria Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Pheromones are communication tools. Chemical substances released by an organism into the environment trigger responses to relay information about mating, territory, danger or food. Cell Communication in Living Organisms Why Apples Turn Brown: Science & Nature Phytochemicals: Natural Chemicals of Plants Pheromones act on different sensory levels, using specialized organs for detection and translation. In many animals, the vomeronasal organ interprets the signals. The vomeronasal organ (VNO) is the peripheral sensory organ for the accessory olfactory system. In most amphibians, reptiles and mammals, paired organs are at base of the nasal septum or on the roof of mouth. Salamanders engage in nose-tapping behavior to stimulate their VNO. A snakes uses this organ to detect prey by extending its tongues to collect scent, then touching the tongue to the organ's opening when retracting it. Difference Between Oxidation & Fermentation Black Tea (Camellia sinensis): Harvest to Cup Yeast & Vineyard Microbes: Flavors of Wine Juvenile European grass snake ( Natrix natrix ) checks out its environment Microorganisms Pheromones in microorganisms are primarily used for mating and reproduction. For instance, Myxobacteria use pheromones to aggregate and form a fruiting body, where they reproduce. Likewise, in sexual reproduction yeasts use pheromones to attract mates and initiate the mating process. Pheromones influence behaviors such as mating, biofilm formation and virulence. An example is quorum sensing, a mechanism whereby bacteria secrete pheromones to gauge their population density. Once a specific concentration is detected, it triggers a collective response. Wine Making Process: Grape to Glass Fructose (Fruit Sugar): Sweetest Saccharide Yeast & Fermentation: the Crabtree Effect Quorum sensing lets some bacteria regulate pathogenicity. Pseudomonas aeruginosa  releases pheromones to coordinate virulence factor expression, increasing its infection efficiency. The bacterium causes about 10% of all hospital-acquired infections. Some bacteria exhibit social behavior like swarming, a collective movement enabled by pheromones. Species like Myxococcus xanthus move in unison to prey on other bacteria. Yeast quorum sensing research focusses on Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans . In S. cerevisiae , quorum sensing molecules (QSMs) are 2-phenylethanol, tyrosol, and tryptophol. In C. albicans , main QSMs are farnesol and tyrosol. Predators of the Microworld: Vampirovibrio & Lysobacter Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Eight Dye Plants & Natural Dyes in History yeast cooperate & secrete substances like EPS  to create a protective biofilm Plants Plant pheromones attract pollinators, helping plants reproduce. Those emitted by female flowers of the titan arum plant guide the male giant silk moth to a mate. He senses this pheromone for up to 22.5 km (14 mi). This isn't surprising as the flower of this plant, also called the corpse flower, can be over 3 meters (10-12 ft) tall and reeks. However it's selective about pollination. The matchmaking behavior ensures reproduction happens near the plant to produce more pollinators. Plants often use pheromones defensively as they can't flee from danger. When under attack from herbivorous consumers, some release volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to attract predators of the herbivore. Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment Catalase: Unseen Enzymes Essential to Life Lactic Acid Bacteria: Nature to Modern Uses Titan arum , the corpse flower When plants like jasmine face herbivore attacks, they release pheromones to attract predators of those pests. These scents can lure parasitoid wasps to caterpillars, helping reduce herbivore damage. Such mechanisms reflect the sophisticated survival strategies of plants. They often communicate with other species for mutual benefit. Plants can also communicate through chemical signals in their roots. When one plant suffers an attack, it can release pheromones into the soil, alerting nearby plants to prepare their defenses . Polyphenols: Plants & the Environment Yeast, Humans & Aerobic Respiration of Cells Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Animals In animals, pheromones serve various purposes such as mating, alarm signaling, and social organization. One classic example is the queen bee's pheromone, which maintains the hierarchy within the hive, preventing worker bees from reproducing. In mammalian species including humans, the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) odor can influence mate selection. Animals sniff out compatible mates based on their MHC pheromones. One compelling aspect of pheromones in mammals is the phenomenon known as the "smell of fear." Humans can't smell fear as in a distinct odor, but the body releases certain chemicals when a person is afraid. Maltose: Sweet Delight of Brewing & Energy Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Five Types of Resistant Starch: Fiber & Health These pheromones can be detected by others. This can trigger emotional and social shifts in response and behavior such as comfort-giving or protection; or aggression, avoidance, predation and bullying. Some animals can also smell or detect the threat of a predator. Known as an innate threat factor, this is 2,5-dihydro-2,4,5-trimethylthiazoline, a single molecule component of a predator odor. This can also be called a "sixth sense," or spider sense tingling in a certain action hero. Homeostasis: Internal Balance of the Body Corycian Caves, Bee Nymphs & Greek Gods Complexes: Psychology of the Psyche Social insects like ants and bees heavily depend on pheromones for communication. A queen bee, for instance, releases pheromones to regulate worker behavior, reproduction, and maintain colony harmony. Foraging ants mark paths to food sources with trail pheromones, resulting in a rapid influx of sister ants. This collective foraging strategy allows ant colonies to maximize their search for food. Termites use pheromones to guide each other to food sources and build complex nests. Archetypes - Personality & the Persona Honey Bees (Apidae): Nature & Myth Chicken Soup: Chickens in German Folklore worker termite Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Allelopathy is the natural production and release of chemicals, or allelochemicals, by plants and other organisms. It's only one of many ways plants cooperate or compete to get the best resources. Lignans: Nature's Weapons of Defense Is Cherry Laurel Poisonous? Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life This biological phenomenon is found in plants, microbes, insects and other animals. They produce biochemicals to enhance or suppress the growth, survival, development and reproduction of nearby organisms. In plants, allelochemicals are natural herbicides, growth regulators and insect deterrents. They help shape plant communities and ecosystems. Ammonium (NH+4): Nitrogen Needs of Plants Rhododendron & the Toxic Ambrosia Agrippina & Son: Poisonous Plots of Rome Chemical Power A diverse group of secondary metabolites, allelochemicals are found in plant tissue such as leaves, stems, roots, seeds, and flowers. They enter the environment by several pathways. Volatilization: Some allelochemicals are volatile, evaporating from plant surfaces and being carried by the wind to neighboring plants. Root Exudation:  Plants can actively release allelochemicals directly from their roots into the surrounding soil. This is a targeted strategy for influencing the immediate root zone and competing for resources. Leaching: Rainwater can wash allelochemicals from plant tissues and deposit them in soil. It's common in leaf litter decomposition, where chemicals released affect germination and growth of seedlings. 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Natural Purple Dyes: Ancient & Medieval Wolfsbane (Aconitum) Ancient Poisons beans sprouting Decomposition: As plant material decomposes, allelochemicals are released into the soil, potentially affecting subsequent generations of plants or other organisms. Beneficial Allelopathy: Good Neighbors Nutrient Cycling: Some allelochemicals, like phenolics, terpenoids, and alkaloids, aid in the decomposition of organic matter. This releases essential nutrients back into the soil to benefit nearby plants. Phenolic compounds can either stimulate or inhibit breakdown of organic matter in soil. Phenolics slow or accelerate decomposition by promoting microbial activity and production of enzymes such as cellulase. Death Cap Mushrooms: Deadly Poison Plant Perception: How Plants See the Light Sweet Root Vegetables: Sugar & Starch compost Pest and Disease Control: Certain allelochemicals have antimicrobial or insecticidal properties, providing natural protection against pests and diseases. These include alkaloids, especially nitrogen-containing compounds like those in opium poppies . Other examples include terpenoids, such as monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids, which are volatile and can deter pests, as well as phenolics like tannins . Glucosinolates are sulfur-containing compounds and can convert to isothiocyanates to become repellents. They're often found in cruciferous vegetables of the Brassicaceae family, like broccoli and cauliflower. Isothiocyanates may have antioxidant benefits for humans.  Seven Trace Minerals: Nature's Little Helpers Potash: Agriculture, Plant & Garden Health Mugwort (Wormwood) Medicine & Herb Lore cauliflower Detrimental Allelopathy: Chemical Warfare Thwarting the Competition: By inhibiting the germination, growth, or nutrient uptake of neighboring plants, allelochemicals allow the producing plant to gain a competitive advantage. This is particularly important in crowded environments where resources are scarce. Phenolic compounds, like coumarins and flavonoids, can inhibit seed germination and alter nutrient uptake. Terpenoids impair cell division and elongation.  Weed Control: Many agricultural weeds are susceptible to allelopathic compounds released by crop plants or cover crops. Sugar maple roots release allelochemicals to hinder nearby germination of other plants. Security Against Invasion: Some allelopathic plants are highly effective at preventing the establishment of invasive species, maintaining the integrity of native ecosystems. Goldenrod and bee balm are two examples. The common mint plant emits volatile organic compounds (VOCs) which help deter pests while promoting growth in companion plants. Once established, mint proves hardy and prolific. Scammony: Ancient Health & Medicine Broad Beans (Fava) - Bronze Age Crops Figs - Food of the Ancient World fresh mint More Examples of Allelopathy Black Walnut ( Juglans nigra ): This tree produces juglone, a powerful allelochemical. It inhibits growth of many plants, creating a characteristic "walnut shadow" where few can survive. Juglone can stunt the growth of over 600 plant species, including tomatoes and potatoes. Gardeners often plant non-sensitive species like roses or certain perennials nearby to avoid negative interactions. Black walnut enjoys the company of ferns, day lilies, jack-in-the-pulpit, bee balm, phlox, clematis, honeysuckle, elderberry and more. Plants like these brighten up the environs. Eucalyptus Trees ( Eucalyptus spp .): The volatile oils released by eucalyptus inhibit the growth of understory vegetation, reducing competition for resources. Polyphenols: Plants & the Environment Microhydro Energy: Sustainable Water Power Volatile Organic Compounds: Home & Away Eucalyptus with koala Eucalyptus oil is a complex blend of ingredients, primarily 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol) and alpha-terpineol. Other notable components include alpha-pinene and limonene. Oils are carried by volatilization, dispersal by breeze. Rice ( Oryza sativa ): Certain rice varieties have allelopathic properties to suppress the growth of weeds, a natural weed control strategy in rice paddies. Sunflower ( Helianthus annuus ): Sunflowers release allelochemicals from their roots to inhibit the growth of many weeds. Sunflowers will also try to annihilate rhubarb, potatoes and beans. Plants with shallow root systems will struggle to survive. Legumes: As their roots form, legume sprouts like peas and beans release flavonoids into the soil to call nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Plants need nitrogen but can't absorb it directly. How & Why to Ferment Green Beans Cellulose: Plant Fibers of Structure & Strength Phytic Acid: Mother Nature's Nutrient Secrets legume roots with nodules for nitrogen-fixing bacteria Nodules grow like little roundish houses on roots to protect the bacteria as they perform their vital task. They "fix" nitrogen, turning it into simpler ammonium, which plants can easily take up. Sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor ): Sorghum releases allelochemicals able to suppress weeds. It is a favored cover crop, improving soil health while controlling unwanted plant species. Garlic Mustard ( Alliaria petiolata ): This invasive plant produces allelochemicals to decrease the growth of native species, allowing it to dominate the forest understory. Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine Chamomile - Herbology & Folklore sorghum Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Lectins and phytates are compounds essential for plant health. In small amounts they benefit humans. Lectins protect plants, often with toxins, while phytates are storage vessels for phosphorus , a reactive element. Potassium (K): Human Health & Environment 7 Primary Electrolytes: Essential Ions & Health Magnesium (Mg): Ecology & Human Health beans sprouting What Are Lectins? Lectins are proteins found in many plants, especially legumes like beans, peas and lentils; grains or seeds and some vegetables. They bind to carbohydrates, enabling interaction with cell membranes. In nature, lectins are a defense against pests and diseases, helping repel hungry herbivores and protect from harmful microbes. Without this defense, plants would sicken and die. Natural Anti-Spasmodic Treatments for Muscle Spasms & Pain Amino Acids: Optimal Body Health & Energy Flavonoids: Sensory Compounds of Nature Lectins in vacuoles or protein bodies are released when a plant's cells are disrupted by an herbivore, microbe or insect. The effect can repel or even kill the pathogen or predator. For example ricin, a lectin from the castor oil bean , is deadly toxic. Lectins are the reasons people for thousands of years soak or ferment beans, peas, rice, soybeans, pumpkin seeds and other produce with hulls. Almonds, for instance, are best when soaked in their skins for 24 hours. Tannins: Complex Astringents of Nature Electrolytes: Vital Minerals of Human & Environmental Health Mold: Cultivation & Use in Food Fermentation almonds What Are Phytates? Phytates, or phytic acid, are the storage form of phosphorus in many plant seeds, grains, and legumes. When seeds germinate, phytates convert to usable phosphorus for the growing plant. They contain essential minerals but can also bind to these, potentially affecting nutrient absorption in humans and animals. Phytates affect such vital minerals such as iron, calcium and zinc. Like lectins, phytates are beneficial to plants. They help seeds and grains endure environmental stressors. In humans they might have antioxidant and anticarcinogenic properties. Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter Talc (Magnesium Silicate): Beauty, Art & Industry Pasteurization: Microbial Dominance & Destruction Sunflower seeds are a source of lectins and phytates Lectins and phytates are most often found in foods such as: Legumes : Beans, lentils, and peas are rich in both lectins and phytates. For instance, red kidney beans contain a particularly high level of phytohemagglutinin. A potent lectin, it must be inactivated by thorough cooking. Soaking legumes can also reduce 'bean farts'.    Grains : Whole grains like wheat, brown rice, barley and quinoa have high levels of lectins and phytates. For example, the phytic acid content in whole wheat can reach around 1.0 to 2.6% of its weight. Nuts and Seeds : Almonds, cashews, and sunflower seeds contribute to phytate intake. Phytate amounts can vary widely. For example almonds contain 0.4 - 9.1% phytic acid by weight. SCOBY & Mother of Vinegar: Cultured Cuisine 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Cherish the Chocolate: Sweet Fermentation rice husks contain phytates, lectins, indigestible silica and lignin These same foods provide nutrients such as proteins, fiber and vitamins. Health benefits are maximized through preparation techniques. They include soaking, hulling, fermenting, and/or cooking. Lectins and phytates are important to environmental balance. Like botanical bodyguards they help plants function and prosper. By deterring herbivores, lectins encourage tastier plant species to grow, thus promoting biodiversity. Phytates also contribute positively to soil health. As plants decompose, their phytate content enriches the soil by gradually releasing phosphorus, promoting overall soil fertility. Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Microbe pH Levels: Acidophiles, Neutrophiles & Alkaliphiles Spores & Yeast: Saccharomyces cerevisiae Effects on Human Health The effects of lectin and phytate consumption by humans are not fully known but may cause digestive discomfort, inflammation, and interference with nutrient absorption. Some research suggests they can have positive effects eaten in moderation as part of a balanced diet. Individual bodies can also respond differently to lectin. People consume lectin regularly as part of other foods. Malevolent Microfungi: Hazards of Health & Home Polysaccharides: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose Celandine: Plant Toxins & Medicine pumpkin seeds - soak them for 24 hrs before eating While phytates can inhibit the absorption of minerals such as iron, calcium, and zinc, populations with diets high in phytates are known to adapt to absorb these minerals more efficiently. Phytates are essential for plant growth, helping seeds and grains endure environmental stressors. Phytates, like lectins, might have antioxidant and anticarcinogenic effects in humans, but more research is needed. Song of the Loreley - Lethal Attraction Five Sugars: Glucose, Maltose, Fructose, Sucrose, Lactose Esters: Nature's Fragrance & Flavor Makers Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Alchemy uses natural processes, often driven by microbial forces. Unseen biological entities include bacteria, amoeba and flagellates. While some alchemists muse over hidden meanings, others use hidden microbes to create meanings. And cheese. The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Meet the Microbes - History of Microbiology Processes such as fermentation, digestion and putrefaction all appear in a day of the life of the alchemist. The alchemy lab doesn't smell so great, with flesh decomposing, urine fermenting and organic matter growing colonies of putrefying microbes. The alchemist dare not even open a window for fear of outside contamination, or someone interrupting a vital process. Some alchemists, like Caterina Sforza , turn to the more fragrant, cosmetic side of alchemy, while others like Dippel get stench complaints from neighbors. Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses Alchemy: How to Make Rosaceum Oil Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files Johann Dippel, alchemist of Castle Frankenstein 1. Fermentation: The Art of Transformation Fermentation is a vital process in alchemy. Alchemists experiment with various materials, from fruits to grains, creating products such as cheese, beer, and vinegar. Fermentation is perhaps one of the oldest alchemy processes, as humans learn to make honey mead c. 8000 BCE. Fermentation along with distillation is practiced by alchemical friars in convents to make medicines and patent brews. Beer is commonly created due to the obligation of friars and nuns to provide food and drink for travelers. It's later distilled into whisky and still made today. Great Women Artists - Käthe Kollwitz Honey Mead: Most Ancient Ambrosia Secret Life of Rust: Power of Bacteria Microorganisms, most commonly bacteria and yeast, convert sugars into acids, gases or alcohol. This transformative technique produces beloved culinary delights and is also important in the preservation of food and the creation of complex flavors. In fermentation, yeast and bacteria convert sugars into acids, gases or alcohol in anaerobic conditions. In beer brewing, yeast (usually Saccharomyces cerevisiae ) ferments the sugars in malted grains to produce carbon dioxide and ethanol. Flowers of Sulfur (Brimstone): Creation & Uses Kerotakis: Ancient Alchemical Equipment Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe In cheese production, starter cultures containing specific strains of bacteria and molds initiate fermentation, breaking down lactose into lactic acid. This contributes to flavor and texture. Vinegar production involves the oxidation of ethanol into acetic acid by acetic acid bacteria. 2. Digestion: The Slow Burn Alchemical digestion, often referred to as "the philosophical process," involves slow cooking substances within a flask or container. The sealed flask is buried in organic matter such as horse manure. This natural slow cooker stays hot due to the action of decomposition bacteria and other microbes. The digestion process can last hours or even weeks. Digestion & Horse Manure: Alchemy Process Vinegar Eels: Life Cycle & Survival in Vinegar Seven Deadly Diseases of the Renaissance Horse Manure - like compost , it creates heat as it matures In this alchemy method the manure is a source of heat created by activities of decomposition bacteria, fungi and protozoa. Alchemical digestion simulates natural digestion in the body, where complex organic matter is broken into simpler compounds and nutrients. Digestion can also be done in a furnace or oven, involving direct heat instead of microbial. In ancient alchemy the apprentice spends long hours rotating the flask and/or keeping ovens at the critical temperature. 3. Putrefaction: Decomposition of Animal Substances Putrefaction, characterized as the decomposition of animal remains, is considered an essential phase in the cycle of life. It's associated with transformation and rebirth, the concept of new life after death. Alchemists observe the decay process from beginning to end, a microcosm of the greater scheme. In this natural biological event, putrefaction is the breakdown of proteins and organic material by microorganisms. Glauber: Preparation of a Golden Spirit of Wine Alchemical Salt: Essential Salts of Alchemy Volatile Organic Compounds: Home & Away This process is primarily facilitated by anaerobic bacteria, including species like Clostridium and Fusobacterium , that thrive in low-oxygen environments. During putrefaction, proteins are decomposed into simpler compounds. These include amino acids, gases such as ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and methane, which contribute to the characteristic odor of decay. The putrefactive process is crucial in the nutrient cycle and powers of life and death. Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Soot & Lampblack: Beauty, Art and Medicine Antimony (Stibnite, Kohl) Ancient Metal of Science & Beauty the cosmos of mold As organic matter breaks down, essential nutrients are released back into the ecosystem, providing nutrition for plants and promoting biodiversity. In essence, putrefaction transforms dead matter into constructs sustaining life, closing the loop of biological systems. In each process, remarkable teamwork of microorganisms, enzymes, and biochemical reactions takes shape. The biological science behind fermentation, digestion, and putrefaction reveals the complexity of nature's design. 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Plants are dynamic participants in their environments. They sense and respond to stimuli like light, using specialized photoreceptors to give them a spectral view. Sweet Root Vegetables: Sugar & Starch Sustainable Gardening: Compost & Old Beer How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts Plants perceive their surroundings and respond in ways crucial for survival. Some secrete toxins or foul tastes, some have thorns, but all plants turn toward the light using sophisticated light detection systems. Plant vision relies on photoreceptors, highly sensitive protein molecules designed as light sensors. They detect specific wavelengths of light. Plants can perceive the presence or absence of light, and also its color, intensity and direction. These factors influence botanical processes like growth, flowering and photosynthesis . Earthworms: Soil Health & Ecosystem Balance Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Potash: Agriculture, Plant & Garden Health Types of Photoreceptors The best known photoreceptors include: Phytochromes These are red and far-red light specialists. Phytochromes are like the plant's internal clock, helping track the changing seasons and regulate processes like flowering, germination, and stem elongation. In a seed germinating beneath soil, phytochromes detect the ratio of red to far-red light filtering down from above. A high ratio signals plenty of direct sunlight, indicating that it's safe to begin growing. Conversely, a low ratio, as in shaded environments under a dense canopy, might cause the seed to stay dormant or prioritize stem elongation to reach for more light. This aids survival in competitive environments. Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Hormones in Microbes, Plants & Animals Black Tea ( Camellia sinensis ): Harvest to Cup Cryptochromes These photoreceptors are sensitive to blue and UV-A light. They influence a range of developmental processes, such as stem elongation, phototropism (growth towards light), circadian rhythms and UV-A radiation protection. Cryptochromes keep a plant's internal clock is synchronized with the external environment. Growth direction aligns with maximum sun exposure, necessary for photosynthesis. The plant can anticipate and prepare for daily changes in light and temperature. Plants exposed to blue light grow more efficiently than those in the shade. How to Grow Carrots Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper Polysaccharides: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose Phototropins Phototropism is the directional growth of plants in response to light. Triggered by blue light, phototropins cause cells on the shaded side of the stem to elongate faster than those on the illuminated side. This causes the plant to bend towards the light source. Phototropins are mainly responsive to blue light. Ultraviolet-B (UV-B) Receptors Plants can detect harmful UV-B radiation. The receptors trigger defense mechanisms to protect the plant from DNA damage and oxidative stress. These include protective pigments like anthocyanins as natural sunscreens. Gardening: Grow Beautiful Morning Glories Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Hydroelectric Energy: Power of Water Light & Plant Behavior By manipulating the light environment, scientists can influence plant growth, development and defense systems. This info helps optimize crop yields, improve plant quality and develop new strains. In herbology and traditional medicine, the light environment of a plant affects its chemical composition. Light can change the concentration of bioactive compounds responsible for its health properties. Growth & Development Light perception drives processes, such as germination and flowering. Seeds need specific light wavelengths, especially red light, to germinate properly. Flowering in many species is linked to light exposure. Long-day plants like spinach need at least 14 hours of light to flower. How Wind Turbines Create Electricity Compost: Teeming Metropolis of Life & Death Carbon Fixation: Environmental Heath & Ecology Spinach, botanical illustration Adaptive Mechanisms Plants have several adaptive strategies in response to light conditions. In dense forests, where sunlight is limited due to competition, plants can detect their neighbors through light signals. This prompts plants to modify growth patterns, improving their light access and survival chances. In forests, spruce often lose their lower branches to focus on canopy growth. Plants in Space: ISS Microgravity Gardening Herbology & Lore: Plantain Plant (Plantago) Edelweiss: Alpine Flower of True Love Logging road Some plants change color due to light as the day goes on. In blue morning glories the major anthocyanin is peonidin 3-(dicaffeylsophoroside)- 5-glucoside. It creates the colors for sun regulation and protection. Flowers are bright blue in the morning and intense purple when the sun is high, blocking harmful UV rays. The blossoms turn pink, with a lower concentration of anthocyanin, to allow more light as the sun dips down. Plants can synthesize defensive compounds, like phenolic compounds, in response to increased UV-B exposure. These adaptations are also barriers against herbivores and diseases. 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Scammony ( Convolvulus scammonia ) is a powerful purgative, used to treat constipation and other health problems. It's taken as resin, used in Unani healing traditions and ancient Roman medicinal wine. Dioscorides: Natural Medicine of Ancients Natural Health: Paracelsus & Hermetic Principles Alkahest: Alchemy Panacea & Solvent About Scammony Scammony is a perennial climbing plant of the Convolvulaceae family, the same family as morning glories. It's a type of bindweed, primarily known for its resin, a potent purgative substance extracted from the roots. Virgin scammony or scammonium is harvested from the living root and dried for use in traditional medicine. Due to lack of quality control, scammoniae resina is more standardized, obtained from the dry root by digestion with alcohol. 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine Chamomile - Herbology & Folklore Powder of Algaroth: Antimony Oxychloride Purgative A type of bindweed, scammony is related to morning glories In alchemical digestion a sealed flask of matter is put into a heat source. In ancient times this is often horse manure. Heat generated by microbial activity in the manure slowly cooks the flask contents. Digestion can be done in a fire-heated oven but temperature must be kept stable. The process is time-consuming. Many an apprentice labors six or more hours over the digestion flask if it's heated with flame. Today there are other options. Also called scammony gum, the resin is valued as a laxative. Besides treating constipation, laxatives are commonly used as purgatives to detoxify the body. Purging includes intense sweating, vomiting, urination and defecation, with medicines available to meet these needs. Scammony is also used for anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties. 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Renaissance Purgatives & Ancient Remedies Egyptian Blue Lotus: Visionary Beauty Scammony resin Habitat Scammony is native to the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia. It enjoys warmer climates of countries like Syria, Turkey, Greece and Iran. It takes 2-3 years for scammony to grow to full glory. Climate: Warm, dry summers and mild winters with annual rainfall of less than 300 mm. Soil Type: Well-drained, sandy, or loamy soil. Sunlight: Plenty of sunshine. Temperature: Scammony prefers temperatures between 20-30°C. It needs frost protection in colder months. It favors open areas and hillsides, with a preference for dry environments. It can be found in bushy waste areas. Scammony can grow as a ground vine but often climbs other plants. Celandine: Plant Toxins & Medicine Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Glutamates: Umami Flavors & Brain Cells Scammony root Scammonin (C34H56O16) The active ingredient in scammony resin is the glycoside scammonin. This complex compound causes the herb's strong purgative effects. When consumed, the resin is inactive until it moves from the stomach to the duodenum, where it comes in contact with bile. The taurocholate and glycocholate in bile create a chemical reaction to make a drastic gastrointestinal irritant. Phytochemical analysis of the root shows it contains 8% resin. Other components include beta-methyl-esculetin, dihydroxy cinnamic acid, ipuranol, sucrose, reducing sugar and starch. Soap & Medicine Herb of Ancients Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Rosemary: Immortal Essence & Balm of Kings Duodenum, the small intestine at the stomach Toxic Properties Scammony requires careful handling and dosage control. Doses over 5 grams can cause such symptoms as: Severe diarrhea Dehydration Electrolyte imbalance Abdominal cramping Ancient Uses of Scammony Relieves constipation: Scammony's extreme laxative action is a common remedy for constipation in ancient times. Expels parasites: Scammony is considered effective against roundworm and tapeworm, used as an anthelmintic. Balances humors: In Galenic medicine scammony is used to treat the believed imbalance of bodily fluids or humors , which is thought to cause a slew of different illnesses. Reduces fever: It's used as an antipyretic. Mugwort (Wormwood) Medicine & Herb Lore Broad Beans (Fava) - Bronze Age Crops Herbology & Lore: Stinging Nettle Four Humors top left clockwise: phlegm, yellow bile, black bile, blood Roman physician Dioscorides , a surgeon in Nero's army and author of De Materia Medica (50-70 AD), documents the use of scammony in wine. "The root of scammony is dug up at the time of harvest, then pounded finely and bound in a linen cloth. Throw fifteen teaspoons of it into six pints of must [fresh-pressed grape juice] for thirty days. It purges the bowels, expelling bile and phlegm." It's also an ingredient in a Greek variation of the Roman drink posca. Posca is a mix of water and wine vinegar imbibed by soldiers and peasants. The word becomes phoushka in the Greek Byzantine army by 6th century AD. Greek physician Aëtius uses a recipe for a "palatable and laxative phouska". The drink includes fennel seed, cumin, pennyroyal, anise, thyme, celery seed, scammony and salt added to oxykraton or diluted vinegar. Pretty Poisons: Holly, Yew, Mistletoe Polyphenols: Plants & the Environment Gum Arabic, Guar, Xanthan: Guide for Artists & Artisans Pink and white scammony An excerpt from King's American Dispensatory, 1898, by Harvey Wickes Felter, M.D., and John Uri Lloyd, Phr. M., Ph.D: "Scammony is usually given in the form of an emulsion with sugar or sweet almonds. But when triturated with milk it is considered a superior preparation, as follows: "Seven grains of pure scammony to be gradually triturated with 3 ounces of unskimmed milk, to which a few grains of ginger may he added, forms a safe purgative. Another form of using this gum-resin is that of biscuit. "A paste is made of scammony, 1 drachm; Venice soap, 5 grains; sugar, 9 grains; biscuit, in powder, 1 ounce; and a few drops of water. Mix together, divide into 2 biscuits, and let them dry; 1 biscuit acts energetically. The dose of powdered scammony is from 3 to 12 grains; of the pure resin, half this quantity. Its use is always contraindicated by intestinal inflammation." Herbs & Natural Remedies - Ancient Egypt Periwinkle: Magic & Medicine of Europe Elderberry Tree: Germanic Nature Lore Unani Medicine Unani medicine, or Unani Tibb, is a traditional healing system originating in ancient Greece with further Arab and Persian influences. It's practiced in South Asia and regions of the Middle East. Unani physicians prescribe Saqmunia or resin of scammony for treatment of various illnesses such as skin diseases, chronic headache, bilious fever, conjunctivitis and jaundice. It's also added to other herbal preparations. Saqmonia is used as a contraceptive for both male and female. A purgative drink is made by mixing of scammony and sugar in water. The drink is considered to expel all depositions and poisons. Flowers of Antimony: Pure Medieval Purgative Caraway Spice - Herbology & Folklore Five Major Proteins of Nature & Human Health Scammony Incense Scammony resin is incorporated into incense. It's categorized as a gum resin, similar to other resins like myrrh and frankincense, all with strong aromatic qualities. Facts about Scammony Adulteration Concerns: Due to its value, scammony is often adulterated with other substances. Botanical Beauty: Convolvulus scammonia is a visually appealing plant with delicate white, yellow or pink flowers, typical of the Convolvulaceae family. Cultural Importance: Scammony is highly regarded in the ancient world, often compared to the prized resin of the mastic tree for its medicinal qualities. Agrippina & Son: Poisonous Plots of Rome Hydroelectric Energy: Power of Water Vinegar Cures of Physician Dioscorides incense is used in rituals, medicine, to scent the air and convey mood Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top