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Nanotechnology is redefining the way of the world. On a level beyond microscopic, nanotech manipulates matter from 1 to 100 nanometers. It shapes nanorobotics , medicine, finance, environmental health and daily life. Nanorobots: Micro Robotic Tech, Ecology, Health Aluminum (Al): Metal to the Stars MLI: Gold & Silver Foil on Spacecraft The properties of materials change dramatically at the nano scale. One millimeter comprises a million nanometers. A human hair is up to 800,000 nanometers wide. At nano level scientists can use the natural behavior of substances to drive reactions. The global nanotechnology market size is projected to grow from $91.18 billion in 2024 to $332.73 billion by 2032, at a CAGR of 17.6%. Many consumer products now feature nanotechnology. Top 5 Countries of the Global Space Race Rare Earth Elements (REEs): Science & Environment Electric Vehicles (EVs): Creation & Operation Nanotechnology in Daily Life Nanotech produces include sunscreens with nanoparticles, like zinc oxide (ZnO) and titanium dioxide (TiO2) for better UV protection. As nano-sized particles they're conducive to transparent and lightweight formulations.  Silver nanoparticles are used in fabrics for their natural antibacterial properties. Silver-infused clothing and products help with moisture-wicking and odor control as it kills the odor-causing bacteria. Moisture-wicking is a fabric's ability to draw sweat or moisture away from the skin to the outer surface. There it can evaporate to help keep the wearer dry. Aluminum(III) Oxide: Secrets of Precious Gemstones Zinc (Zn): Essential Metal in Alchemy & Medicine Artificial Intelligence: Power of Prediction Each advancement moves deeper into the true power of nanoscale worlds. As research continues and new techniques develop, nanotech emerges in ways never before thought possible. In medical treatments nanotechnology helps develop treatments and address disease. Researchers have created nanoparticles specifically designed for targeted drug delivery for medication effectiveness. In energy, nanotechnology increases efficiency and aids environmental protection. For instance it improves efficiency of membranes used in fuel cells to separate hydrogen ions from other gases, like oxygen. Cryptocurrency: Finance in the Space Age Fossil Fuels: Ecology & Economy Rare Earth Elements (REEs): Science & Environment Nanotech enables such features as increased surface area for better energy absorption and storage, and improved catalytic activity for efficient energy conversion and combustion. This helps reduce energy waste and pollution. At nano-size, materials exhibit properties very different from those of their larger counterparts. For instance, bulk gold appears as a bright yellow metal. When reduced to nanoparticles, it can appear red or purple. This is due to its unique optical attributes. Factors like greater surface area and quantum effects change the color perceived by the human eye. Make an AI for Stock Market Analysis & Prediction Sweet Root Vegetables: Sugar & Starch Women Scientists of the Ancient World yellow gold flakes Self-Cleaning Substrates:  Some fabrics and surfaces are treated with nanoparticles to self-clean. The nanoparticles break down dirt and grime and prevents them from adhering to the material. How Nanotechnology Works: Science of Molecular Manipulation Nanotechnology isn't a single discipline but an umbrella term covering related scientific and engineering fields. Techniques used to manipulate matter at the nanoscale are diverse and dynamically evolving. They include Top-Down Approach: miniaturizing existing structures and materials through processes like etching, cutting, and grinding. While conceptually simpler, it can be limited by precision and is vulnerable to imperfections. Metalloproteins: Biochemistry of Nature & Health Food to Energy: Krebs Cycle & Cell Balance Calcium (Ca): Earth Metal of Structure & Strength Bottom-Up Approach: This method focuses on building structures atom by atom or molecule by molecule. Techniques like self-assembly and directed assembly are used. Self-assembly relies on inherent properties of molecules to spontaneously arrange themselves in desired structures. Directed assembly uses external forces to guide molecule placement. China: Politics, Economy, Military & Modern Life Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back Corundum: Secrets of Valuable Gemstones Nanomaterials Synthesis: creating new materials with nanoscale structures. These include nanoparticles, like gold used for drug delivery; nanowires in electronics, and nanotubes, strong and lightweight. Enhanced Surface Properties: The surface area-to-volume ratio is significantly larger at the nanoscale, allowing for more reactive sites. This is important in fields like catalysis; for example platinum nanoparticles can increase chemical reaction speed at higher rates than standard platinum. Quantum Mechanics: At the nanoscale, quantum mechanics governs how materials behave. Electrons act differently, with changes in conductivity and reactivity. For example, cobalt nanoparticles show superior catalytic activity to bulk cobalt. Cryptocurrency: How to Buy & Use Bitcoin Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Antimony (Stibnite, Kohl) Ancient Metal of Science & Beauty cobalt is a transition metal & active component of Vitamin B12 Self-Assembly: Nanomaterials can self-organize into structured patterns. This can be used in applications like drug delivery systems. For instance, dendrimers are gaining recognition. These which are branched nanoscale polymers. Dendrimers can be engineered to deliver drugs directly to cancerous cells, leaving healthy cells unharmed. Uses Across Industries Medicine: Nanotechnology revolutionizes diagnostics and treatment. Nanoparticles can deliver drugs directly to cells, minimizing side effects. Nanosensors detect diseases at earlier stages, and regenerative medicine uses nanomaterials to repair damaged tissues. Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Sustainable Gardening: Compost & Old Beer Five Types of Resistant Starch: Fiber & Health Researchers create nanoparticles coated with antibodies that target specific cancer cells. Once attached, these particles release chemotherapy drugs directly into the tumor, reducing harm to healthy cells. Gold nanoparticles can improve the efficacy of chemotherapy drugs by concentrating them where they are needed most, the cancer cells. This significantly reduces side effects. Nanoparticles are increasingly used in cancer treatment, with several nanotechnology-based therapies already in clinical use, including targeted drug delivery, immunotherapy and supporting other treatments. Advancements in imaging techniques, such as MRI, use nanoparticles to improve contrast, enabling clearer visuals of tissues. Canada in Space: Canadarm(s) & Dextre Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas How Solar Panels Work Electronics: Nanomaterials offer improved performance, smaller sizes, and lower energy consumption for electronic devices. This brings a revolutionary restructuring of traditional concepts. Nanowires and quantum dots are replacing silicon-based components in transistors and displays. Quantum dot displays provide brighter colors, higher contrast, and better energy efficiency than traditional LCD screens. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), known for impressive electrical properties, used in transistors and sensors. Carbon nanotubes in electronic devices can reduce energy consumption by over 50%. Indus River Valley Civilization: Bronze Age Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Human Warfare Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology Carbon nanotubes are currently used in industry and consumerism. These include battery components, polymer composites, and highly absorptive black paint. Nanotechnology is being used to improve solar cell efficiency, develop advanced batteries with longer lifespans and faster charging times, and create more efficient fuel cells. Nanoporous materials enhance the surface area of electrodes in batteries, for more efficient energy storage. Pakistan: Ancient Cultures to Nuclear Power Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk Materials Science: Nanoparticles can be incorporated into materials to enhance their strength, durability, and resistance to wear and tear. Adding carbon nanotubes to polymers creates strong lightweight composites for aerospace and automotive industries. Environmental Science: Nanotechnology contributes to water purification, air pollution control and remediation of contaminated sites. Nanofiltration membranes purify water more effectively than traditional filtration. Nanoscale zero-valent iron has shown success in treating contaminated groundwater by breaking down harmful pollutants. Nanotechnology is a strong force in remediation. 10 Ancient Spices of Trade, Health & Beauty Ancient Traders & Buyers: Art of Testing Metals Science of Onion Tears: Demystifying Acids Facts about Nanotechnology One nanometer is about the width of three atoms lined up side by side. One million nanometers make one millimeter. An enzyme , produced in miniscule organelles of cells or by scientists, measures 3-7 nanometers in diameter. The "Buckyball": The buckminsterfullerene, or "buckyball," is a spherical carbon molecule. It's made of 60 carbon atoms arranged like the seams of a soccer ball. Its unique properties make it a contender in drug delivery and materials science. The discovery of buckyballs in 1985 sparks great interest in the field of nanotechnology. Democritus - Atomic Theory 400 BCE Science of Rust Earth Pigments & Colors Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Nanorobots are machines of incredibly small size, about one nanometer or 100,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair. Nanobot technology dramatically affects industry, economy, security, environment and health. Aluminum (Al): Metal to the Stars Top 5 Countries of the Global Space Race Rare Earth Elements (REEs): Science & Environment nanobots can access and engineer tiny semiconductors and other technology Nanorobotics is a cutting-edge field in engineering and technology. It's focused on development of machines and robots known as nanorobots or nanobots, with components at or close to the scale of a nanometer. There are a million nanometers in one millimeter. The possibilities are endless. This emerging technology changes medicine, manufacturing, environmental science and countless factors from world affairs to daily life. The field of nanorobotics goes back to 1959 and has made ever more lucrative progress. Almost fifty years later advancements in world science help grow research and development. Today, nanotechnology enables creation of ever smaller, more efficient electronic devices. Nanoscale transistors and memory chips enhance computing power and storage capabilities. Cryptocurrency: Finance in the Space Age Electric Vehicles (EVs): Creation & Operation Artificial Intelligence: Power of Prediction Nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and graphene demonstrate vast potential in developing flexible and transparent electronics. These are also fundamental to nanorobots. Back the 2010s scientists at the University of Mainz in Germany create a molecular-sized nanobot. It's a motor powered by heat, using a single atom vibrating in a nano-sized cone of electromagnetic radiation. It operates on the same principles as a car engine: expanding, cooling, contracting and heating. Success brings enthusiasm and further innovations. Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space Survival of Bacteria in the Extremes of Space Look! You can't see it! Nanorobots are small enough to navigate the human bloodstream and deliver targeted therapies directly to cells. Self-assembling robot structures can be built in vitro atom by atom, creating materials with new properties. Nanorobotics uses natural materials like proteins and DNA. These are biocompatible, enabling delicate actions in complex settings. Scientists already create synthetic enzymes , microproteins geared to specific actions, For size comparison, an enzyme has a diameter of 3-7 nanometers. They catalyze metabolic actions. In nature they're produced by ribosomes, tiny organelles in cells from bacterial to human. Nine Countries with Nuclear Weapons Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities Agriculture: Calvin Cycle in Photosynthesis Human cell - enzyme production happens in the ribosomes Defining Nanorobots The defining characteristic of nanorobots is of course size. While no strict size definition exists, the machines can operate on a scale between 1 and 100 nanometers. At this scale, the laws of physics behave differently. Nanobots can be 1000x smaller than the average bacterium. Phenomena like surface tension and Van der Waals forces, attraction of intermolecular forces between molecules, are dominant factors in nanorobot operation. Building and controlling machines at this size inspires engineering innovation. Unlike conventional robots, nanorobots cannot be assembled using traditional methods. Bdellovibrio: Lifestyles of Predatory Bacteria Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Almadén Mines: Ancient Mercury Extraction trad computer circuit board assembly Instead, researchers rely on complex techniques like self-assembly, in which individual components are designed to arrange themselves into a desired structure. These machines can be powered in different ways. Mechanical Nanobots : These use principles of motion. For example, a nanobot can have tiny motors to move with precision. Chemical Nanobots : Inspired by biological processes, these nanobots use chemical reactions to function. DNA-based nanobots able to respond to environmental changes can be designed to activate in the presence of a virus, specific bacteria, or cancer cells, delivering medication where needed. Silver (Ag): Ancient Trade to Modern Tech Killer Yeast: Assassins of the Microworld Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future Technologies Driving Nanorobotics Nanomaterials: These materials, such as carbon nanotubes, graphene, and nanoparticles, are the "building blocks" for nanorobots. Their strength, conductivity, and reactivity are factors in functionality. Self-Assembly: This technique builds complex nanostructures. By carefully designing interactions between individual components, researchers encourage them to assemble into the desired shape. Nanofabrication: This encompasses techniques for creating and manipulating structures at the nanoscale. Methods like electron beam lithography, self-assembled monolayers, and atomic layer deposition are used to fabricate components and integrate them into functional nanorobots. Cryptocurrency: How to Buy & Use Bitcoin Super Alloys in Space Exploration What Robots Need to Function & Survive nanobots have a variety of purposes from technology to ecology (concept art) Nanomanipulation: This involves precisely controlling individual atoms and molecules using tools like atomic force microscopes (AFMs) and scanning tunneling microscopes (STMs). Nanomanipulation is necessary to build and test the functionality of nanorobots. Power and Control: It's necessary to supply power and control movement of nanorobots. Powering methods include chemical reactions, external magnetic fields, ultrasound, and light. Magnetic fields power robots, EVs, motors and are used on microscopic levels. Techniques like magnetic force microscopy (MFM) and electron microscopy enable manipulation of magnetism at the atomic scale Canada in Space: Canadarm(s) & Dextre Pharos Lighthouse: Ancient Wonder of Alexandria China: Politics, Economy, Military & Modern Life Magnetic fields use the power of repulsion and attraction Uses of Nanobots Medicine Targeted Drug Delivery: Delivering drugs directly to cancerous cells, minimizing side effects. Early Disease Detection: Detecting diseases at their earliest stages by sensing biomarkers in the bloodstream. Microsurgery: Performing precise surgical procedures at the cellular level. Repairing Damaged Tissues: Stimulating tissue regeneration and repairing damaged organs. Clearing Arteries: Removing plaque buildup in arteries to prevent heart attacks and strokes. Researchers have developed nanobots able to locate and destroy tumor cells without harming nearby healthy tissue. This targeted approach can show higher recovery rates and better overall outcomes. Yellow River Civilization: Ancient China Carbon Sequestration: Environmental Health Make an AI for Stock Market Analysis & Prediction cancerous cells & biofilms Manufacturing Atomically Precise Manufacturing: Building materials and devices with unprecedented precision and control. Self-Repairing Materials: Creating materials to automatically repair damage at the nanoscale. Faster and More Efficient Production: Accelerating production processes and reducing waste. Environmental Science Cleaning up Pollutants Monitoring Environmental Conditions Carbon Capture Nanorobotics has great potential for environmental protection. As industrialization continues to pollute the world, innovative solutions are needed. Indus River Valley Civilization: Bronze Age Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Microbe pH Levels: Acidophiles, Neutrophiles & Alkaliphiles Not all countries agree to environmental cleanliness standards. For example in 2023 China reneges on a world agreement designed to lower CO2 emissions. The same year it's the biggest CO2 producer in the world. Companies in other countries are also eager to pollute at will if these little cleaners are available to remediate their contaminated environments. Nanobots monitor pollution levels and clean up hazardous waste. Just like toxin-eating bacteria, they may be viable in wastewater, acidic and highly saline environments. Some bacteria consume heavy metals and render them less harmful. Cupriavidus metallidurans even creates 24k gold. Bioremediation: Organic Cleanup of Toxins Predators of the Microworld: Vampirovibrio  & Lysobacter Silent Destroyers: Microbes of Concrete Corrosion gold-making bacteria - nanobots may achieve similar feats, not restricted to gold Some microbes tackle water toxins. These bacteria and related archaea also handle pollutants and have been used to help clean up pollution like oil spills, starting with the 1989 Exxon Valdez disaster. Defense and Security Enhanced surveillance Detecting and neutralizing threats Developing new materials Nanobot warfare is a real possibility and concern. Nations owning this technology have massive global political power. Problems & Considerations Complexity: Designing, building, and controlling nanorobots is complex, specialized and interdisciplinary. Mineral Oil: Technology & Ecology How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts Photosynthesis: Nature's Energy Production Powering and Communication: Supplying power and communicating with nanorobots in the living body remains a conundrum. Biocompatibility: It's important to ensure nanorobots are biocompatible and do not cause adverse reactions. Scalability: Scaling up the production of nanorobots to meet the demand for various applications can be achieved as prototypes continue to be tested and refined. Copper (Cu) Effects on Human & Plant Health Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Human Warfare Robot Lubrication: Grease the Machine concept art Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Aluminum is lightweight, strong and resistant to corrosion. The most abundant metal in the Earth's crust, it's used in spacecraft, vehicles, robots, computers and phones. It creates striking sapphires and rubies. Aluminum(III) Oxide: Secrets of Precious Gemstones Zinc (Zn): Essential Metal in Alchemy & Medicine Artificial Intelligence: Power of Prediction About Aluminum Aluminum (Al), with an atomic number of 13, is a silvery-white, lightweight metal belonging to the boron group in the periodic table. It's the most plentiful metallic element in the Earth's crust, at 8% of weight. Its formed after the fusion of carbon in massive stars destined to become Type II supernovas. The fusion produces 26Mg, which, after capturing free protons and neutrons, transforms into aluminium. Aluminum, belongs to the group known as post-transition metals. It doesn't exist in its pure, metallic form naturally. I’s bound up in various minerals, primarily bauxite ore. Bauxite is the main source of aluminum. Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back Sapphire Gemstones: Colors, Myths, Origins & Gemology Ruby, Rubies: Passion, Blood and Fire Bauxite This mineral is found in tropical and subtropical areas. Bauxite contains 30 - 60% aluminum oxide (Al2O3). The rest is a mix of silica , titanium dioxide, and iron oxides. In extraction aluminum oxide is separated. Extraction Crushing and refining: Bauxite is crushed and processed using the Bayer process, which separates aluminum oxide from impurities. A detailed explanation of the Bayer Process is here . Then comes the Hall-Héroult process, the popular method of modern aluminum production. Alumina (aluminum oxide) extracted from bauxite ore is set in a molten bath of cryolite (sodium aluminum fluoride). An electric current is then passed through the mixture, separating the aluminum from the oxygen. The molten aluminum is collected at the bottom of the electrolytic cell and can then be cast into ingots. Electric Vehicles (EVs): Creation & Operation Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space Transition Metals in Science and Health Aluminum sheets This process, while efficient, is energy-intensive. Recycling aluminum can greatly conserve resources and reduce environmental effects. In 2023, the global aluminum production is 70 million tonnes, up from 65 million in 2020. Properties Lightweight: About a third the weight of steel. High Strength-to-Weight Ratio: Can be alloyed for impressive strength while maintaining light weight. Excellent Corrosion Resistance: Forms a thin, protective layer of aluminum oxide on its surface, preventing further oxidation. Good Electrical Conductivity: Although not as conductive as copper, it's a far lighter conductor for a given electrical resistance. Non-Magnetic: Makes it suitable electronic equipment and environments where magnetic interference is a concern. Highly Malleable and Ductile: Can be easily formed into various shapes and drawn into wires. Recyclable: Can be recycled repeatedly without loss of quality. Robot Lubrication: Grease the Machine MLI: Gold & Silver Foil on Spacecraft Cryptocurrency: How to Buy & Use Bitcoin Aluminum cans Alloys Pure aluminum forms alloys with other elements like copper , magnesium , silicon , zinc and manganese. These alter its properties, enabling creation of aluminum alloys geared to specific applications. Aluminum-Copper Alloys: Higher strength and good machinability, often used in aerospace. Aluminum-Magnesium Alloys: Excellent corrosion resistance, even in marine environments, used for shipbuilding. Aluminum-Silicon Alloys: Improved casting characteristics, ideal for intricate shapes and automotive components. Aluminum-Zinc Alloys : Ideal for aerospace applications, combining high strength with a lightweight structure. Corundum: Secrets of Valuable Gemstones Seven Metals of Antiquity - Metallurgy Electrolytes: Vital Minerals of Human & Environmental Health Aluminum in the Modern World Aerospace: Aircraft fuselages, wings, and engine components rely on lightweight, high-strength aluminum alloys. Robotics: Robot frames and structural elements benefit from aluminum's lightweight nature, enabling faster and more agile movements. Spacecraft and Satellites: Used extensively in spacecraft construction for its lightweight, strength and ability to withstand extreme temperature variations. China: Politics, Economy, Military & Modern Life Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad What Robots Need to Function & Survive Electronics: Mobile phones, laptops, and other electronic devices use aluminum for their casings, heat sinks, and internal components. Construction: Aluminum frames, roofing, cladding, and windows are durable, corrosion resistant, and easy to install. Aluminum is widely used in architecture and construction, especially in windows and facades. Transportation: Cars, trucks, trains, and ships use aluminum to reduce weight and improve fuel efficiency. Packaging: Aluminum foil, beverage cans, and food containers are lightweight and recyclable. Patented in 1903, aluminum foil is a household basic. How Astronauts Breathe in Space Lithium Ion Batteries on Earth & in Space Building Robots: Elastomers, Metals & Plastics Facts About Aluminum Rubies and sapphires are made of aluminum oxide. Minerals seeping into the aluminum oxide give dramatic hues. Chromium creates the deep red of rubies, and iron or titanium yield sapphire blues. Aluminum is a key component in many antacids used to neutralize stomach acid. The Washington Monument, one of Washington D.C.'s most iconic landmarks, is originally capped with a small pyramid of aluminum. Recycling aluminum needs only 5% of the energy to produce new aluminum from bauxite ore. Aluminum is used in some types of fireworks to create bright silver sparks and flashes. Duralumin: This specific aluminum alloy, introduced in 1909, is popular in contemporary aircraft design and engineering. Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Canada's space program includes the Canadarm2, an extendible arm on the International Space Station, and multitalented robot Dextre. Canada is known for cutting-edge robotics and strong space mission support. How Spacecraft Produce Water for Astronauts MLI: Gold & Silver Foil on Spacecraft Fossil Fuels: Ecology & Economy Dextre on the International Space Station with Canadarm Canada's space program establishes a reputation for reliability and ingenuity. This dedication advances space science, fosters a vibrant domestic space industry and inspires generations of young Canadians. Canada’s investment in space exploration begins the 1960s, motivated by a desire to be part of worldwide scientific efforts and increase tech capabilities. The Canadian Space Agency (CSA) is founded in 1989. Canadian flag and the parliamentary Peace Tower The CSA is the central body responsible for coordinating national space activities. One of its hallmark strategies is fostering international collaborations, especially with NASA and other global agencies. In robotics, Canada is a leader of space innovation. The Canadarms and Dextre are significant technological advancements in the history of space exploration. China: Politics, Economy, Military & Modern Life Top 5 Countries of the Global Space Race Rare Earth Elements (REEs): Science & Environment Canada's ISS contribution includes: The Space Station Remote Manipulator System (SSRMS), known as Canadarm2. the Mobile Remote Servicer Base System (MBS). the Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator (SPDM, also known as "Dextre" or "Canada hand") Two or more Canadian astronauts have missions aboard the space station in 2025. Canadarm 1 and 2 and ... The Canadarm is officially known as the Shuttle Remote Manipulator System (SRMS). The revolutionary robotic arm first flies aboard the Space Shuttle Columbia in 1981. Though referred to as singular there are actually five original Canadarms. North Korea (DPRK): Total Control Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas How Solar Panels Work NASA shuttle launch Developed by Spar Aerospace (now MDA), the Canadarm is designed to deploy and retrieve payloads, help with spacewalks, and do repairs on the Shuttle. It provides unprecedented dexterity and control in space. About 15 m (49 ft) long, the Canadarm can lift items weighing up to 30 metric tons. Astronauts on the shuttle can use it to manipulate large and delicate objects with an intuitive joystick and set of precise controls. During its operation, the Canadarm deftly captures satellites for servicing. Its accuracy enables increasingly complex missions. Indus River Valley Civilization: Bronze Age Electric Vehicles (EVs): Creation & Operation Robot Lubrication: Grease the Machine Canadarm 1 Space Shuttle The Canadarm is a boon to research and experiments. It facilitates more than 90 missions, leading to groundbreaking discoveries, such as better understanding of microgravity effects. But that's not all. Launched in April 2001, Canadarm 2 is a larger, more advanced version of the Space Shuttle's original Canadarm, for use on the International Space Station (ISS) . Canadarm 2 is 17.6 m (58 ft) when fully extended and has seven motorized joints. They are 'elbow' hinge in the middle, and three rotary joints at each of the 'wrist/shoulder' ends. Canadarm and Canadarm 2 work together until Canadarm's retirement. Also built by MDA, Canadarm 2 is used in the space station's assembly, maintenance, and operation. Unlike its predecessor, Canadarm2 is mobile. Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Human Warfare Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology Copper (Cu) Effects on Human & Plant Health Canadarm2 carries astronaut Steve Robinson outside the ISS It can move along the exterior of the ISS using a "hand-over-hand" technique. This allows it to reach any part of the station's exterior. It's an indispensable tool for astronauts and ground controllers. In June 2024, MDA Space is granted the complete contract for the design and construction of Canadarm3. This smaller arm is planned to be used for docking the modules and inspecting the Lunar Gateway. Also begun in 2024, the Lunar Gateway is an inhabited space satellite meant to orbit the moon. Fourteen space agencies are involved in its production. S tudies on the Gateway are to include planetary science, astrophysics, Earth observation, heliophysics, fundamental space biology, human health and performance. Mineral Oil: Technology & Ecology Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health CubeSats: Science, Technology & Risky Business Artists' concept, Lunar Gateway orbiting moon Dextre Canada introduces Dextre in 2008. It's a highly sophisticated robotic system designed for specialized tasks aboard the ISS. Known as the Special Purpose Dextrous Manipulator, Dextre is launched on the Space Shuttle Endeavour. It represents a mighty leap in robotic capabilities. Design and Functionality At 3.5 m tall, Dextre has two articulate arms capable of fine movement and an arsenal of interchangeable tools. It handles cargo and does repairs without astronauts having to conduct spacewalks. Dextre's impressive 17 degrees of freedom enable complex operations, from changing out batteries to fixing critical components. Since its introduction, it has contributed to more than 100 operational tasks. Tardigrades (Water Bears): Extreme Survivors Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk What Robots Need to Function & Survive Dextre rides the Canadarm Dextre greatly extends the operational life of the ISS. By taking over tasks previously done by astronauts during spacewalks, Dextre aids crew safety and maximizes scientific output of the station. Astronauts can focus on experiments, with Dextre on maintenance. It can be remotely controlled from the ground. Mission control can have it change small parts on the station's exterior, inspect equipment and do repairs. Beyond robotics, Canada's space program encompasses a range of activities, including: Space Science: Canadian researchers are actively involved in space-based scientific investigations from studying Earth's atmosphere to distant galaxies. Artificial Intelligence: Power of Prediction Super Alloys in Space Exploration Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future Earth Observation: Canada has developed several satellites dedicated to monitoring the Earth's environment, providing valuable data for climate change research, resource management, and disaster response. Satellite Communications: Canada is a leader in satellite communications, with a well-established industry providing services to remote communities and supporting various sectors, including navigation, broadcasting, and internet access. Canada's space program continues to develop robotic expertise and contribute to international missions exploring the Moon and beyond. The country develops new technologies, such as artificial intelligence and autonomous systems, to fortify human abilities in space. Pakistan: Ancient Cultures to Nuclear Power History of China: Ancient Days to Space Race Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Pakistan is one of the world’s oldest civilizations and a modern nuclear power rising in the world space race. Pakistan's history is forged of empires, migrations, conflict and innovation. Indus River Valley Civilization: Bronze Age Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space Rare Earth Elements (REEs): Science & Environment Pakistan Monument, Islamabad, capital city of Pakistan Ancient Cultures The history of Pakistan goes back to the Indus Valley Civilization (3300 - 1700 BCE). The Indus River flows from Tibet to the Adriatic Sea with a vast and fertile watershed. The cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro grow at this time. They feature detailed urban planning, standardized baked brick houses and sophisticated drainage systems. Trade routes established by early people create links to Mesopotamia and Egypt, civilizations growing at the same time. These two regions are especially prominent in early economic activities and cultural exchanges. The artifacts unearthed, including seals and pottery, reflect a sophisticated society where commerce flourishes. E arly inhabitants are Dravidian speakers. Fossil Fuels: Ecology & Economy Artificial Intelligence: Technology & Society Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back Mohenjo-Daro, Indus Valley Civilization Dravidian languages are a family spoken in South India, northeastern Sri Lanka, and parts of southwest Pakistan. They include Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam. The people of the Indus Valley gradually vanish in the 18th century BCE. They leave a legacy of craftsmanship, standardized weights and measures, and a unique script still undeciphered today. After the decline of the IVC, Indo-Aryan peoples arrive. They bring Vedic traditions, the foundation of later Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms. The Achaemenid Empire under Darius I in 6th century BCE brings parts of the region under Persian rule. Transition Metals in Science and Health Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure Top 5 Countries of the Global Space Race Vedic medicine (Ayurveda) The 326 BCE campaign of Alexander the Great briefly comes through. It influences the rise of the Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta Maurya. The Mauryan Empire (322–185 BCE), especially under Ashoka, promotes Buddhism and non-violence. Stupas and monastic centers arise. His edicts, inscribed on rocks and pillars, communicate ethical governance. After the Mauryan Empire declines, the region is occupied by the Indo-Greek Kingdom, Kushan Empire, and the Gupta Empire. The Gupta Empire (c. 320–550 AD) promotes fields like literature, mathematics and astronomy. During this period the concept of zero is popularized. It changes mathematics and science in the region, and later internationally. How Bacteria Survive a Nuclear Explosion Bioremediation: Organic Cleanup of Toxins Ancient Cultures: Yamnaya Steppe People Rise of Islam & Medieval Period The arrival of Islam in the 8th century AD is a turning point. Muhammad bin Qasim's conquest of Sindh introduces Islamic governance and culture, which gradually spreads through the region. In subsequent centuries powerful Islamic dynasties rise and fall. These include the Ghaznavids, the Ghurids, and the Delhi Sultanate. The dynasties infuse Persian and Central Asian influences, enriching the region's art, architecture, and literature. The rise of Islam invokes major transformations in politics and culture. House of Wisdom: Medieval Scholarship in Baghdad Avicenna (Ibn Sina) Medieval Islamic Scientist Turmeric (Curcuma longa): Ancient Uses & Medicine Dates, abundant in Pakistan, are symbols of prophet Muhammed The Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates reshape governance with advanced administrative practices and religious philosophies. By the 11th century, the Ghaznavid Empire establishes centers of learning, art, and architecture. The Mughal Empire of the 1500s is a golden age. Under rulers like Babur, Akbar and Shah Jahan, the empire prospers. Shah Jahan is known for the Taj Mahal, a tomb for his beloved wife, where he's also interred. Architecture blends Persian, Central Asian and Indian styles, also seen in the Badshahi Mosque and Shalimar Gardens in Lahore. Cultural synthesis between Muslims and Hindus adds to Pakistan’s national identity, influencing festivals, languages and daily life. Active Imagination: Creative Therapy Women Scientists of the Ancient World Electric Vehicles (EVs): Creation & Operation Taj Mahal mid 17th century (it's now in India) - Mughal architecture British Raj & the Partition By the 18th century, the decline of the Mughal Empire leads to the rise of the British East India Company. Through a combination of diplomacy and military conquest, the British gain control of the Indian subcontinent. The British Raj introduces modern education, infrastructure development, and new legal and administrative systems. It also promotes economic exploitation and suppression of indigenous industries. The rise of Indian nationalism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries pushes for independence. Deep communal tensions between Hindus and Muslims express the need for a separate homeland for Muslims. Nickel (Ni): Metallurgy Facts & Folklore Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Mars Curiosity Rover: Success & Longevity The British export vast amounts of cotton Under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the All-India Muslim League champions Pakistan, arguing for a separate nation where Muslims can freely practice religion and preserve their culture. In 1947, the British partition the Indian subcontinent, creating the Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan, as per the Indian Independence Act. The partition is accompanied by immense violence and displacement. Fourteen million people have to to migrate across the newly drawn borders. The hostilities scar the relationship between the two nations up to present day. Citric Acid: Nature, Health & Science Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health Brown bears live in both Pakistan and India Muhammad Ali Jinnah becomes the first Governor-General of Pakistan. The initial years are tumultuous as refugees are resettled, a stable government formed and territorial disputes with India resolved, such as Kashmir. The Kashmir conflict goes back to the 1947 Partition of British India. The princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, with a Muslim-majority population ruled by a Hindu Maharaja, has the option to join either India or Pakistan.  When the Maharaja chooses India, war erupts and disputes continue to this day. Kashmir is now owned 55% by India, 30% by Pakistan and 15% China. Magnesium (Mg): Ecology & Human Health How to Make an Artificial Intelligence System Robot Lubrication: Grease the Machine Kashmir fresh harvest Pakistan: Formation & Early Years Pakistan initially adopted a parliamentary system of government, but early years are characterized by political instability and military interventions. The country has periods of both civilian rule and military dictatorship. Despite a difficult beginning, the nation rapidly establishes its identity. Art & Architecture Pakistan's culture is a vibrant blend of indigenous traditions and influences from Persia, Central Asia, and the Middle East. Art and architecture reflect a complex heritage. Mughal architecture, with its intricate carvings, domes, and gardens, is a prominent feature. Traditional crafts include pottery, carpets, textiles, and woodwork. Alchemists of Ancient Alexandria Famous Women of Renaissance Alchemy How Solar Panels Work Pakistani music is diverse, ranging from classical forms like Qawwali and Ghazal to folk music and popular genres like pop and rock. Literature, both in Urdu and regional languages, is a popular art form. Frescoes from 5th century BCE - 2nd century AD are found at the ancient Buddhist sites in Taxila, historical treasure from Neolithic times. The region is now a World Heritage Site. Ornate tile work of Mughal structures like the Badshahi Mosque evolve into modern art galleries as in Karachi and Lahore. Many modern artists incorporate traditional techniques while addressing contemporary issues. Sistrum (Sistra) Music: Ancient Egypt Sacred Music of Ancient Mesopotamia Hildegard von Bingen: Nature, Music & Beer Badshahi Mosque (1671 - 73 AD) Religion and Society Islam is the state religion of Pakistan. The vast majority of the population are Muslims. The country also has significant minorities of Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, and other religious groups. Pakistan's constitution guarantees religious freedom. The implementation of these rights is a subject of ongoing debate. Pakistani society is largely patriarchal, with traditional values. There is a growing movement for women's rights and social equality. Major religious festivals, including Eid and Diwali, highlight diversity. The annual Punjabi Basant festival celebrates the arrival of spring and is marked by kite flying. Carbon Sequestration: Environmental Health Phytoplankton: Environment & Human Health Inara & the Dragon - Purulliya Festival Due to massive amount of kites the festival is banned for safety. Religious protests are also a factor. Modern Pakistan: Governance, Economy & International Relations Pakistan operates under a parliamentary republic system. The President Asif Ali Zardari is head of state, while the Prime Minister Shehbaz Sharif is head of government. Pakistan's economy is developing. Agriculture, textiles, and manufacturing are major sectors. The country faces challenges such as poverty, unemployment, scarce education, and energy shortages. Pakistan is a member of the United Nations, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), and the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). Its interactions with other countries are complex. Plutonium (Pu): Nuclear Weapons & Space North Korea (DPRK): Total Control Electrum: Metal of Money & Myth Wheat is the most important food crop The relationship with India remains strained due to the ongoing dispute over Kashmir. Pakistan has historically been a close ally of China, and the two countries have strong economic and strategic ties. China is currently mad at India due to border disputes, so the bond grows closer. Pakistan’s geographical positioning greatly influences its foreign relations. Sharing borders with India, Afghanistan, Iran and China creates both conflict and opportunity. Strategic partnerships with powers like China and the European Union improve economic and military cooperation. Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology China: Politics, Economy, Military & Modern Life Buddhist Violence in Rakhine State Myanmar Flag of Pakistan Pakistan actively seeks to foster ties with neighboring countries. Projects like the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), part of China's Belt and Road initiative, hope to promote stability and economic development. Major Imports and Exports Pakistan's major imports include petroleum products, machinery, chemicals, and food items. Pakistan has abundant natural resources, including natural gas, oil, coal, chromite, copper, and iron ore. Agriculture is integral to the economy. Its main exports are textiles, rice, leather goods, and sports goods. Textiles make up about 60% of total exports. Agriculture: Calvin Cycle in Photosynthesis Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Sustainable Gardening: Compost & Old Beer Textiles are major Pakistani exports Science & Tech Pakistani scientists make important contributions to physics, mathematics and medicine. Notable figures include Dr. Abdus Salam, a theoretical and particle physicist and first Pakistani to win the Nobel Prize in Physics. Today, ongoing efforts focus on enhancing capabilities in areas such as agriculture technology, potentially increasing crop yield and security during the process of climate change. Space Pakistan has a developing space program, managed by the Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO). The country has launched several satellites for communication and remote sensing. The space program, initiated in the 1960s, reflects national pride. The launch of Badr-A in 1990 is a milestone, making Pakistan the first Islamic country to send a satellite into space. Prussic Acid: Secrets of Hydrogen Cyanide Microfungi: Mysterious Web of Life & Death Super Alloys in Space Exploration Badr-A satellite before launch Pollution Pakistan is the third or fourth most polluted country globally, depending on statistics used. Fine particulate air pollution (PM2.5) reduces average life expectancy of Pakistani residents by 3.9 years compared to expectancy at the the World Health Organization (WHO) standard of 5 µg/m3. Nuclear Arsenal Pakistan is a nuclear power, conducting its first nuclear tests in 1998. Its nuclear arsenal is a matter of international concern. The country has taken steps to ensure safety and security of its nuclear weapons. Pakistan develops its arsenal in response to regional security dynamics, particularly concerning India. It adopts a "no first use" policy. Its national security strategy balances deterrence with diplomatic efforts. MLI: Gold & Silver Foil on Spacecraft Ammonium (NH+4): Nitrogen Needs of Plants Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future Pakistan street scene Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

The Indus River Valley Civilization emerges around 3300 BCE in what is now Pakistan and northwest India. From advanced urban planning to intricate trade networks, the Indus Valley people leave a vibrant legacy. The Great Library of Alexandria Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Cinnamon - Spice Trade of Ancients Also called the Harappan Civilization, The Indus River Valley cultures are among the earliest urban societies in human history. The civilization grows from c. 3300 to 1700 BCE, throughout most of the Bronze Age. At the same time, Egypt and Mesopotamia come into power, and Indus Valley artifacts are often found in excavations. The Indus Valley Civilization is known for urban planning, canny trade and superior craftsmanship. The region's geography is diverse ranges from the towering Himalayas in the north to the arid Thar Desert in the east. The Indus River and its tributaries provide water for agriculture and transportation. Hurrians: Bronze Age Warrior Kingdom The Way to Aaru - Egyptian Paradise Pistachio: Turpentine, Resin & Nuts The climate is generally warm, with monsoon season bringing torrential rain to replenish the river system and support crop growth. The first people of the Indus Valley are indigenous populations from surrounding areas. Gradually, they coalesce into a distinct cultural identity. Their origins remain a subject of ongoing research, but genetic studies slowly shed light on early ancestry and connections to other ancient populations. The Indus River travels 3200 kilometers from Tibet through India and Pakistan to the Arabian Sea. Its fertile plains encourage agriculture, while surrounding deserts and mountains shape settlement patterns. Famous Women of Ancient Rome Ancient Deities: Proto Indo European Gods Khaos: Primal Goddess of Greek Myth wheat is an important crop Monsoons come from June to September to inspire growth of wheat and barley. Flooding from the river enriches the soil with nutritious silt. Farmers are able to produce multiple harvests annually. Besides wheat and barley the people grow peas, lentils, sesame and cotton. Irrigation systems, including canals and wells, help manage water resources and ensure consistent harvests. Livestock like cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats and pigs are domesticated, providing meat, milk, and hides. Oxen and buffalo are used for ploughing fields and transporting goods. Before the Vikings - Early Northern Cultures Ugarit Royal Palace: Romancing the Ruins Fossil Fuels: Ecology & Economy buffalo The Indus Valley Civilization is renowned for well-planned cities. Urban centers feature grid-like street layouts, drainage systems, and standardized brick sizes. Writing appears around 2300 BCE. The Indus Valley Civilization's script remains undeciphered despite ongoing scholarly efforts and modern AI attempts. This inhibits a thorough understanding of culture and life. Government It's thought the civilization is governed by several rulers. They're not elected but gain power through wealth and influence, like the Renaissance Italian families. Nonetheless, tools, weapons, bricks, seals and urban construction are uniform across several regions. This may indicate the presence of a centralized political authority. Baltic Aetsi & the Roman Amber Texts Pagan Solstice Fests: Saturnalia Carnelian - Sunny Gems of the Ancient World Indus Valley Script Trade & Economy The Indus River Valley Civilization is a major trading power in the ancient world. The people establish extensive networks connecting them to regions such as Mesopotamia and Central Asia. Trading hubs include the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. Imports are precious stones such as lapis lazuli, turquoise, and jade, as well as metals like copper, tin and gold for crafting tools, weapons and ornaments. Exports include agricultural products like grains and cotton, finished goods like cotton textiles, terracotta figurines and carnelian beads. Dockyards and trading posts along the coast bespeak a healthy maritime trade. The civilization uses a system of standardized weights and measures. Etch Carnelian Beads Like It's Indus Valley 2500 BCE Chalcedony Gems: Secrets of Silicon Dioxide Phytoplankton: Environment & Human Health Carnelian Beads from Indus Valley - the white etching is particular to the civilization War & Peace There is limited evidence of large-scale warfare or organized armies. While peace and diplomacy seem the norm, defensive walls surrounding some cities show a need for protection against potential threats. Fortified structures have been found at some sites. Lack of weaponry indicates conflict is not a central aspect of society. Indus Valley Civilization Art The Indus Valley Civilization has a great art and craft culture. Terracotta figurines unearthed from different sites depict animals, humans and deities. Jewelry of beads, shells, and precious stones find worldwide markets. Metalwork was another significant achievement. They used copper, bronze, and other metals to create tools, weapons, and ornaments. The "Dancing Girl" bronze statue from Mohenjo-daro is a famous artifact. Carbon Fixation: Environmental Heath & Ecology Yellow River Civilization: Ancient China Lapis Lazuli: Creating Ultramarine Artifacts include beautifully crafted seals, intricate pottery, and ornamental jewelry. Metalwork, especially copper and bronze, is popular. Iconic bronze figurines depict animals and human forms. Religion and Spirituality Religious beliefs and practices of the Indus Valley people are unclear due to the undeciphered script. Archaeologists find female figurines. These are often interpreted as mother goddesses, suggesting worship of fertility deities. Seals depicting animals and mythical creatures can represent religious symbols or totems. The "Pashupati Seal," a seated figure with animals, is often interpreted as a proto-Shiva, a possible connection to later Hindu tradition. Evidence shows a complex system of beliefs around nature, fertility and animal symbolism. Rare Earth Elements (REEs): Science & Environment Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy The Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro is linked to ritualistic practices like purification. Most Populous Regions The most populous regions are along the Indus River and its tributaries. Major cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, with their well-planned urban layouts and sophisticated infrastructure, have the largest populations. Settlements grow along the coast, facilitating trade, fishing and exploration. Life in urban areas is a mixture of trades, crafts, and community activities. The population of Mohenjo-Daro is around 40,000 at its peak. Decline By around 1900 BCE, agricultural production goes into decline, possibly leading to food shortages. Many cities gradually decrease in population, leading to widespread abandonment. Exact causes are unknown. Tanning Hides - Ancient Techniques Soap & Medicine Herb of Ancients Seven Metals of Antiquity - Metallurgy Mohenjo-Daro, Pakistan Possible factors include Climate Change: Shifts in rainfall patterns, leading to droughts and floods, may have disrupted agricultural production. Environmental Degradation: Overuse of land and resources could cause soil erosion and deforestation. Changes in River Courses: Alterations in the course of the Indus River could affect irrigation and trade. Ideonella sakaiensis : Plastic-Eating Bacteria Scorpion Men of Babylonia Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas Invasions: While there is limited evidence, some suggest threats by Indo-European groups contribute to the decline. Internal Strife: Social or political unrest may have weakened the civilization from within. The decline is gradual, with some settlements shrinking or forsaken, while others continue to flourish a while. Eventually, the distinct urban features of the Indus Valley Civilization fade away. Nine Countries with Nuclear Weapons Myanmar (Burma): Beauty & Brutality Pyrometallurgy: Ancient Processes of Modern Alchemy Pakistan water well today Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Multi-layer insulation (MLI) creates the shiny crinkled gold and silver foil look on spacecraft and space equipment. MLI helps protect spacecraft from the hostile conditions of outer space. Top 5 Countries of the Global Space Race Rare Earth Elements (REEs): Science & Environment Electric Vehicles (EVs): Creation & Operation Lithium ion battery with Kapton MLI Multi-Layer Insulation (MLI) is a carefully engineered blanket constructed of multiple thin layers of plastic such as polyimide films. They're coated with a reflective metal, often aluminum. MLI maintains the health and functionality of spacecraft. The multi-layered design helps regulate temperature By managing heat transfer, MLI protects sensitive instruments and equipment. In space, temperatures can fluctuate from -157°C (-250°F) to more than 121°C (250°F). The layered structure traps heat while reflecting solar radiation. Fossil Fuels: Ecology & Economy Mineral Oil: Technology & Ecology Silver (Ag): Ancient Trade to Modern Tech Materials include polymers like polyethylene and reflective metals like aluminum. Aluminized polyimide, or Kapton, is the gold colored MLI. It reflects longer wavelengths of infrared radiation, creating a thermal barrier. When a thin layer of aluminum is deposited on Kapton, the material takes on a distinct golden hue. This is a visual effect caused by the way light interacts with the thin metallic layer and the underlying polyimide film. Aluminum is another component widely used in MLI. Its lightweight shiny surface is much coveted in spacecraft design. Aluminum has outstanding thermal conductivity and reflects up to 85% of solar energy. Artificial Intelligence: Power of Prediction Mars Curiosity Rover: Success & Longevity Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health Temperature fluctuations have serious effects. They can Damage Sensitive Electronics:  Electronic components have specific operating temperature ranges. Affect Scientific Instruments:  Many instruments need precise temperature control to work accurately. Degrade Structural Integrity:  Temperature variations cause materials to expand and contract, causing stress fractures and structural damage. The primary function of MLI is to control temperature of the spacecraft by managing heat transfer. In the vacuum of space, heat transfer is achieved through radiation. Reflecting Solar Radiation: Many surfaces are directly exposed to the sun. The metal coating reflects a significant portion of intense solar radiation, which otherwise heats spacecraft to extreme temperatures. Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials Building Robots: Elastomers, Metals & Plastics Calcite: Metal-Eating Bacteria to Coral Reefs Minimizing Heat Loss: Conversely, MLI also helps prevent the loss of internal heat generated by the spacecraft's electronics and other systems. Multiple layers of insulating material trap heat. MLI is used in craft for exploration, scientific research and human spaceflight. It's part of the Hubble Space Telescope, weather satellites, and on the International Space Station (ISS). In missions to Mars and beyond, the importance of MLI increases. For example, the Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover relies on MLI to protect its instruments from extreme Martian temperatures. How to Make an Artificial Intelligence System Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

The global space race begins during the Cold War (1947-1991). Today, competition and collaboration rise among countries seeking universal wisdom and international power. Here are five, and an honorable mention. Rare Earth Elements (REEs): Science & Environment Electric Vehicles (EVs): Creation & Operation Fossil Fuels: Ecology & Economy United States (Middle North America) The USA's space history spikes by with the Apollo program, landing humans on the moon in 1969. Today, the space program is a growing entanglement of NASA and private commercially oriented companies. Mars Exploration : NASA's Perseverance rover lands on Mars February 2021. It's equipped with advanced technology to search for signs of ancient life and collect rock samples for future return to Earth. Its forerunner, Curiosity, launching Nov 2011, is initially planned to last only three months. Almost fourteen years later it's still diligently trundling along, sending data back to Earth. Mars Curiosity Rover: Success & Longevity Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk Curiosity Mars Rover selfie Artemis Program : This initiative hopes to send humans around the moon and back to earth after 2026. Space Shuttle Program:  Revolutionizes spaceflight with reusable spacecraft. International Space Station (ISS):  The country is a partner in the ISS, contributing to research and operations. The current situation in the US is highly volatile. Its extreme right position, anti-abortion laws, mass government firings, blatant cronyism and trade war attacks on former allies create hostility. Lithium Ion Batteries on Earth & in Space How Solar Panels Work Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry NASA space shuttle launch American deportation of immigrants, suppression of gay and women's rights and its other recent actions are condemned by many. Fearful citizens attempt to refugee to Canada, America's major trade war target. The involvement of US billionaires in politics promotes extreme right views and ongoing destruction of Middle North America. This sets precedents for private commercial billionaires to overtly, rather than covertly, influence puppet politics and exploit the space race. Mineral Oil: Technology & Ecology Make an AI for Stock Market Analysis & Prediction Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Russia Russia sends the first dating back to the launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957. A satellite, it's the first successful artificial orbit of earth. The launch begins the Space Age and the US/USSR space race. Today, the Russian space agency, Roscosmos, remains influential. Accomplishments include: Soyuz Spacecraft : This vehicle has been transporting astronauts to the International Space Station (ISS) for over 20 years, providing about 50% of access to the ISS. How Bacteria Survive a Nuclear Explosion Bioremediation: Organic Cleanup of Toxins Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health Sputnik satellite makes the first earth orbit First Human in Space (Yuri Gagarin):  A historic achievement defining Soviet leadership in early days of human space flight. Mir: The first modular space station, Mir is assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It operates until 2001, first by the Soviet Union and later by the Russian Federation. A microgravity research laboratory, Mir supported experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and craft systems. Its goal was to develop technologies for permanent occupation of space. Robot Lubrication: Grease the Machine Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Human Warfare Russo-Ukrainian War: Motives, Propaganda & Technology Mir Space Station Lunar Exploration : Russia is developing the Orel spacecraft for lunar missions launching no sooner than 2028. Continued Development of Rocket Technology:  Russia continues to develop advanced rocket technology for future lunar and deep-space missions. Russia has contributed to various international missions, focusing on Mars and other celestial bodies. The 21st century ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War channels Russia's budget into warfare and weapons. Russia has paused active involvement in Mars exploration. Despite political conflicts and violence on Earth, European, Russian and other astronauts work together harmoniously aboard the ISS. Drone Warfare: Unmanned Combat Vehicles CubeSats: Science, Technology & Risky Business Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials China China has rapidly become a powerful force in space with the China National Space Administration (CNSA) at the forefront. Noteworthy achievements include: Tiangong Space Station : Launched in 2021, this modular space station is fully operational by 2022, China with an ongoing presence in low Earth orbit. The permanent space station is a milestone in China's independent space program. China is not a partner in the ISS. Plutonium (Pu): Nuclear Weapons & Space Yellow River Civilization: Ancient China Women Scientists of the Ancient World China's Tiangong Space Station Mars and Lunar Missions : The Chang’e 5 mission in December 2020 bring back lunar samples to Earth. Tianwen-1 successfully operates a rover on Mars, making China the second country to achieve this feat. The Mars Rover Zhurong surpasses life expectancy of two months to spend over a year investigating the surface of Mars. Though Zhurong succumbs to space dust, its accompanying satellite continues to orbit. China: Politics, Economy, Military & Modern Life Sirius the Dog Star: Stellar Mythology AI: Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) Mars Human Spaceflight Program (Shenzhou):  Successfully launches taikonauts into space, establishing China as a major participant in the evolution of human spaceflight. Lunar Exploration (Chang'e Program):  Successfully lands rovers on the far side of the moon, a world first. Development of Advanced Rocket Technology:  Actively developing advanced rocket technology, including the Long March series, capable of launching heavy payloads into orbit. Artificial Intelligence: Power of Prediction Survival of Bacteria in the Extremes of Space Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Shenzou 14 prelaunch testing China plans manned lunar missions in the coming decade. China prioritizes self-reliance and national development, while seeking to maintain a strong hold in politics, world influence and warfare. In Dec 2024 China takes advantage of US political upheaval. It bans export of materials such as tungsten, antimony, gallium, germanium and more needed in technology, robotics and space exploration. India India's space program, managed by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), is characterized by cost-effectiveness and focus on practicality. Key achievements include: Chandrayaan-1 (Lunar Orbiter 2008):  Confirms presence of water molecules on the moon. Silver (Ag): Ancient Trade to Modern Tech Building Robots: Elastomers, Metals & Plastics Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology Mangalyaan (Mars Orbiter Mission 2013):  India becomes the first country to reach Mars on its first attempt and does so on a comparatively low budget of 6.5 billion rupees or $74 million US. Chandrayaan-2 moon mission in 2019 hopes for a soft landing but a software error causes the lander to crash. The satellite continues to orbit the Moon. Nine Countries with Nuclear Weapons Metalloproteins: Biochemistry of Nature & Health Zinc (Zn): Technology, Nature & Health Chandrayaan-2 with Vikram lander mounted on top PSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle):  A reliable launch vehicle known for cost-effectiveness and success rate. GSLV (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle):  Able to launch heavier payloads into geostationary orbit. Remote Sensing and Communication Satellites:  Providing crucial data for weather forecasting, disaster management, and communication services within India and the region. How to Make an Artificial Intelligence System Super Alloys in Space Exploration How Spacecraft Produce Water for Astronauts European Union The European Space Agency (ESA), an alliance of multiple European countries, exemplifies international cooperation in space exploration. Significant achievements include: Rosetta Mission : In 2014, this mission successfully lands the Philae probe on a comet, yielding data about the composition of the solar system and origins of comets. Copernicus Program : With over 30 satellites, ESA monitors climate change and collects environmental data. Polish Renaissance polymath Copernicus develops the heliocentric theory in 1543. Despite support from followers, he fears repercussions dares not publish it until he's on his deathbed . Ariane Rocket Family:  A launch system to put satellites into orbit. What Robots Need to Function & Survive Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back De-Orbiting Satellites: Problems & Processes Gaia Mission:  Mapping over a billion stars to create the most detailed ever 3D map of the Milky Way. Partnership with the ISS:  Significant contributions to the ISS, including the operation of the Columbus module. The module is a pressurized lab on the International Space Station (ISS) supporting scientific research. The Columbus module's functions include: Study how long-term microgravity affects the human body Research new metals Grow plants Probe astronauts' blood, bodies, and brains The European Space Agency (ESA) is a collaborative effort among European nations. It combines expertise and resources for ambitious projects. Among other accomplishments, the ESA is known for its successful experiments with bacteria in space. Carbon Sequestration: Environmental Health Phytoplankton: Environment & Human Health North Korea (DPRK): Total Control Honorable Mention (Miss Congeniality): Canada Canadarm or Canadarm1 , officially Shuttle Remote Manipulator System or SRMS, also SSRMS. It's a series of robotic arms used on Space Shuttle orbiters to deploy, maneuver and capture payloads. Canadarm2 is permanently attached to the ISS. It grapples and relocates modules, moves astronauts into position, adds and moves new modules, services and maintains the space station Dextre is a versatile robot maintaining the International Space Station. Part of Canada's contribution to the Station, it is the most sophisticated space robot ever built. Silicon (Si): Fueling the Robot Apocalypse Alchemy: How to Make Emerald from Quartz Khaos: Primal Goddess of Greek Myth Dextre on the Canadarm Dextre's tasks include: install and replace small equipment, like exterior cameras or the 100-kg batteries used on the Space Station replace defective components in the Station's electrical system test new tools and robotics techniques Dextre can move on the exterior of the ISS or ride on the end on the Canadarm. These innovations are of vast help to space exploration, universal understanding and astronaut safety. Buddhist Violence in Rakhine State Myanmar Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad First Life on Earth: Microbes & Stromatolites Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

The Pill of Immortality or Immortality Pill is a life-giving substance in Chinese alchemy . Also called xiandan (仙丹), jindan (金丹), or dan (丹) in general. The desired elixir or pill by sought by Chinese alchemists grants physical or spiritual immortality. Ge Hong: Teachings Alchemy Medicine Gold - Precious Metal of the Sun Nüwa: Chinese Primordial Snake Goddess Lucky Red Lanterns The Pill of Immortality It's commonly pictured as a round, dark-colored pill with a consistent texture, crafted from refined medicinal ingredients. Informally and in the realm of Chinese medicine, this term can also denote a highly effective remedy, a potion or elixir. The quest for the Pill of Immortality began many centuries ago and persists to c. 500 AD. The formula often revolves around metals like mercury and gold . This pursuit receives backing from Chinese emperors and nobles, who have a deep Taoist heritage and desire to live forever. Chinese Alchemy: Mind Body Spirit Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Mercury: Miracle Metal of Madness Mercury (Quicksilver) Hg In the Qin dynasty, Emperor Qin Shi Huang seeks advice from wise men and alchemists in his quest for the elusive pill or elixir promising eternal life. The ancient Chinese alchemical tradition was split into two schools in the pursuit of the elixir of immortality. Taoist groups in the 2nd century AD, particularly during the Eastern Han dynasty, promote achieving immortality through ingesting substances. These are collectively known as the "external pill" or Waidan. Fuxi: Chinese Primordial Emperor God Chinese Alchemical Elixir Poisoning Reishi or Lingzhi - Mushroom Magic Emperor Qin Shi Huang seeks the miracle of everlasting life In contrast, "internal alchemy" or Neidan is the practice of cultivating an immortal body within the physical body. This is done through various methods like diet, breathing and sexual hygiene, as well as mental practices such as meditation. Texts c. 4th century AD show the Yellow Emperor finding the elixir in Huangshan mountain range, near the end of his reign. He establishes the 72 mountain peaks as the abode for immortals. Notable residents include the Yellow Emperor, Dragon King and Eight Immortals. Immortal - Quest for the Elixir of Life Alkahest: Alchemy Panacea & Solvent Synchronicity: Psychology of Coincidence Huang Shan (Huangshan) Mountains, Home of Immortals The earlier Liexian Zhuan writings recount the story of Wei Boyang, who is said to create such a pill or elixir of immortality. The Legend of Wei Boyang According to the Shenxian zhuan (Chinese: 神仙传; Biographies of the Divine Immortals), a work attributed to Ge Hong (283–343), he and two disciples retire to a mountain. There, they succeed in making an elixir of immortality. Shennong Primordial Farmer & Healer Quintessence: Elemental Life Force Chun Yuyan & Death of Empress Xu Wei Boyang as illustrated in the book 仙佛奇踪 lit: "Miracles of Immortals and Buddhas" AD 1602 His disciples are excited and frightened. Wei Boyang then leaves and returns with a white dog. The white dog is fed the pill and promptly dies. Despite this, Wei Boyang claims: "Fear has no place in practicing alchemy. The dog died because it did not have a clear mind. If one takes the pill while afraid like the dog, wouldn't that produce the same result?" Women Scientists of the Ancient World Emerald Tablet - Sacred Alchemy Text Anqi Sheng & the Elixir of Immortality The disciples then ask whether their master would take it or not, after which Wei Boyang says: "We went against society's customs and left our homes to practice in the mountains. Without the way to immortality, we vow never to return." He swallows the pill and promptly dies. The disciples contemplate practice of alchemy for longevity if one dies after taking the elixir, as one would live decades more without it. One disciple refuses to take the pill. The second asserts Wei Boyang is no ordinary man. Taking the elixir and dying must be intentional. Azoth: Divine Substance of Alchemy Natural Magic of the Renaissance Spagyria: Botanical Science of Alchemy The second disciple then takes the pill and dies. The remaining disciple leaves the mountain to purchase coffin wood. Afterwards, Wei Boyang leaps ups and returns to life again. He gives the elixir into the mouths of the dead disciple and dog, and they also revive. Thus Wei Boyang and his faithful disciple attain immortality. Upon realizing this, the other disciple is full of regret. Cinnabar (Mercury Sulfide) Red Death Four Humors & Medical Stagnation Caterina Sforza: Renaissance Alchemy Wei Boyang considers cultivating elixirs and creation of heaven and earth to be based on the same principles. Historic sites of Wei Boyang's alchemy work are in the Fengming Mountains (凤鸣山) 4 km (2.48 mi) SE of Fenghui (丰惠), and 17 km (10.5 mi) from Shangyu City. One of the most prevalent symbols of immortality in Chinese lore is the peach. The Eight Immortals gain their remarkable longevity by feasting on peaches of immortality in the garden of Xiwangmu, Queen Mother of the Gods. The peaches ripen every 3,000 years. peaches on the tree Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Opium poppy (Papaver somnifum) is the common source of opium and derivatives such as morphine or heroin. All poppies produce the narcotic compounds. Some poppies are cultivated for medicinal use, others raised for ornamental beauty and edible seeds. Reishi or Lingzhi - Mushroom Magic Is Cherry Laurel Poisonous? Mad Honey - What's the Buzz? Red opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) Papaver somniferum , known as the opium poppy or breadseed poppy, is a species of flowering plant in the family Papaveraceae . It produces both both opium latex and edible poppy seeds. With a showy bright flower it's beloved as an ornamental garden plant. The native range of P. somniferum extends east of the Mediterranean Sea. Over time the poppy spreads throughout the ancient world, as trade and travel routes open up. In Europe, poppy is introduced to the western Alps c. 5000 - 4800 BCE. It's widespread by 4500 BCE. Terrazzo Floors & Neolithic Masons Edelweiss: Alpine Flower of True Love Screaming Swiss Spirit: Pfaffenkellnerin Papaver somniferum - Opium Poppy Opium from poppy plants has natural alkaloids such as morphine and codeine. All opiates share the same basic molecular structure. A minor change to the end molecules yields different products ie heroin, morphine, codeine, oxycodone. Opiates or opiods? Opiates are chemical compounds extracted or refined from natural plant matter such as poppy sap and poppy plant fibers. Opiates include: Opium Morphine Codeine Heroin Mugwort (Wormwood) Herbal Lore Honey Mead: Most Ancient Ambrosia Song of the Loreley - Lethal Beauty Bayer Heroin Bottle Opioids are chemical compounds not derived from natural plant matter. Most opioids are made in the lab or synthesized, merged in hybrids of organic and synthetic. They include: Dextromethorphan (NyQuil, Robitussin, TheraFlu, Vicks) Dextropropoxyphene (Darvocet-N, Darvon) Fentanyl/fentanil (Ultiva, Sublimaze, Duragesic patch) Hydrocodone (Vicodin) Hydromorphone (Dilaudid) Loperamide (Imodium) Meperidine (Demerol) Methadone (Dolophine) Oxycodone (Oxycontin, Percocet) Oxymorphone (Opana) Carfentanyl/carfentanil (Wildnil, for veterinary use) Black Hellebore: Toxins, Health & Lore Herbology & Lore: Poison Hemlock Jimson Weed, Witches & Zombies Papaver somniferum enjoys dry, warm climates. Most opium poppies grow in a narrow region c. 7240 km (4500 mi) from Turkey and Pakistan. Today the world's largest poppy producer is Myanmar (Burma). Opium poppies are also raised in Colombia and Mexico. To harvest the sap, a multi-blade knife is used to cut into the unripe poppy seed pod so the white latex oozes out. The latex or opium gum is scraped off and air-dried to produce opium. All parts of the poppy produce the gum. The opium content of poppy seeds is miniscule but may show up on drug tests. Ephedra - Oldest Medical Stimulant Herb Emmer Wheat - First Domestic Crops Pomegranate - Food of the Ancients White latex of poppies contains the active ingredients Poppies do best in moist but well-drained soil in full sun. Field and opium poppies are tolerant to dry or low-nutrient soils. Himalayan blue poppies grow well in partial shade and moist, slightly acidic soil. Tasmania is a major producer of medicinal poppy, morphine and codeine. Tasmanian poppy cultivars are used for thebaine (85% of world supply) and oripavine (100% of world's supply) Tasmania also supplies 25% of the world's opium and codeine. Grayanotoxins: the Madness of Honey Pentagram: Drudenfuß, Five Point Star 19th Century: Home Gym, Bicycles, Antiseptic   Czech blue poppy flowers In the 19th century opium and its derivative laudanum is the drug of choice for natural health treatments, prescriptions for pain and anxiety conditions such as neurasthenia , and recreational intoxication. The Czech blue poppy variety, white with reddish lower petals (above), sometimes red or mauve, can be confused with the Himalayan blue poppy, which really is blue. The Czech blue poppy is named for the blue seeds beloved in cuisine. Woad, the People's Blue: Ancient Pigments Egyptian Blue Lotus: Visionary Beauty Nigella Sativa: Black Seed of Healers Czech blue poppy seeds The opium poppy is cultivated in lower Mesopotamia by c. 3400 BCE. Sumerians call it Hul Gil or joy plant. To the north, Assyrians acquire the magic flower and use it for its euphoric and visionary effects as well as painkilling properties. In the ancient world poppy extracts are also used as surgical analgesia. Poppy appears in a Sumerian clay tablet c. 2100 BCE believed to be the world's oldest recorded list of medical prescriptions. Herbology & Lore: Stinging Nettle Sacred Scarab: Lucky Bug of Ancient Egypt Arabian Leopard: Bronze Age Predators Poppy cultivation expands with the Assyrians. The Egyptians, voracious traders, bring the plant back to Egypt (Kemet). They use it like mandrake as a sedative, taken with beer or wine. By 1300 BCE they widely cultivate and trade the plant or its parts. Artifacts of ancient Greek Minoan culture show knowledge of the poppy. Many "poppy goddess" terracotta figures appear from Crete dating to c. 1500 BCE. Their hair is decorated with poppy capsules, eyes closed to indicate sedation, meditation or higher awareness. Minoans of Crete: Ancient Greek Culture Ambrosia: Divine Nectar & Immortal Gods Rise of Pan: Fertility Goat God Péh₂usōn Cretan artifacts & poppy goddess figures Some of the goddess hold their arms in the Egyptian symbol of Ka , the life essence. Ka is part of the Egyptian concept of the soul. The goddess figures show the connection between the Minoan people of Crete and the Egyptians through trade and travel. Ka - Life Essence in Ancient Egypt Oder River: Nature & Early People Herbology & Lore: Death Cap Mushrooms Egyptian Ka, vital force of a person In folklore and spirituality the poppy is symbol of sleep, peace, and death. A famous scene from the Wizard of Oz (book published 1900, movie released 1939) depicts Dorothy and companions falling asleep in fields of red poppies. Opium is used as a sedative, evident in the Latin name somniferum or "sleep-bringing." It's linked to death partly due to the common blood-red color of the flower. In Greco-Roman lore, poppies are used as offerings to the dead and symbols of remembrance. Red Ocher (Ochre) Ancient Pigments Kermes Insect & Ancient Red Pigments Mineral Oil: Technology & Ecology As a symbol of remembrance the poppy is used to honor war veterans in countries such as Canada, Australia, the UK, Barbados, South Korea, Pakistan, New Zealand, South Africa and more. Remembrance poppies are the Papaver rhoeas variety. They contain toxins such as papaveric acid and rhoeagenine. Medical reports of ingestion include numbness in extremities, foaming at the mouth, vomiting, confusion, seizures and loss of consciousness. Corycian Caves, Bee Nymphs & Greek Gods Irrwurz or Mad Root: German Folklore Heimchen - House Crickets of Folklore Adverse effects of opium poppy P. somiferum and relatives are numerous and may include: nausea vomiting constipation drowsiness dry mouth dizziness breathing problems Itching opioid dependence decreased sex drive impotence decreased testosterone levels depression weakened immune system abnormal pain sensitivity irregular menstruation poor physical coordination leading to falls and accidents hallucinations Immortal - Quest for the Elixir of Life Amazons - Warrior Women History & Myth Ornithomancy - Prophecy by the Birds Poppy seed pods In 1898 the Bayer Company begins production of heroin on a commercial scale. The first clinical results are a resounding success, giving heroin the potential of a wonder drug. It's marketed as a safe effective pain reliever and cough suppressant. Eager researchers are certain heroin is a revolutionary cough suppressant to help people with lung disease, a widespread problem due to 19th century coal and industrial pollution. The name is from ancient Greek heros , referring to a demigod honored for his deeds. White Ladies in German Mythology Curse of the Evil Eye & Apotropaic Magic Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files By 1913 it's clear Bayer Heroin has devastating side effects, and production stops. Bayer puts money and energy into another new miracle drug, Aspirin. The opium latex of poppy Papaver somnifum remains a major commodity today. Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Women scientists in specialize in astrology, astronomy, medicine, alchemy, chemistry, beauty enhancement and magic. In chronological order here are twelve unforgettable women of science in the ancient world 10 Ancient Spices of Trade, Health & Beauty Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Christine de Pizan: Medieval Writings Mercury (quicksilver) - metal, sign, planet 1. Merit-Ptah ("beloved of Ptah") is   a chief physician of the Pharaoh's court c. 2700 BCE. Medicine is a complex practice strongly tied to magic or mysteries. In temples, priests are often doctors. Merit-Ptah studies skeletons, raising awareness of the corporeal body. She develops treatments for illness and teaches other physicians. Her research is invaluable for the advancement of Egyptian medical science and helps form the foundation for modern medicine. An  impact crater in Venus is named Merit Ptah after her. Ptah: God of Creators & Creation Egypt Egyptian Alchemy - Power of Eternity Ancient Egypt Remedies: Ebers Papyrus Mysteries of Egypt 2. Peseshet  works during the Fourth Dynasty of ancient Egypt (2686–2181 BCE) and is often credited as the first known female physician in history. Peseshet’s relevant title is "lady overseer of female physicians." Her titles include king's acquaintance  and overseer of funerary-priests of the king's mother . She may have taught or graduated midwives at a medical school in Sais. At the mastaba of Akhethetep, a high-ranking official, her personal false door is found, suggesting he's her son. Herbs & Natural Remedies - Ancient Egypt Myrrh - Mystique, Death & Divinity Ba Bird & Sacred Ram - Ancient Egypt False Door from an Egyptian Tomb 3. Tapputi  is one of the world's first chemists, a perfume-maker mentioned in a cuneiform tablet dated around 1200 BCE in Babylonian Mesopotamia. She uses the first recorded still and writes the first known treatise on perfume making, preserved on a clay tablet. She creates a method using solvents to produce lighter and longer lasting scents. She uses various oils and flowers including calamus (sweetflag), cyperus (nutsedge), and aromatic resins such as myrrh and balsam. With water, these are distilled and filtered several times. Natron - Ancient Embalming & Household Salts Isabella Cortese: Renaissance Writer, Alchemist, Entrepreneur Alum: Ancient Tanning & Dyeing Salts Botanical Chemistry of Scent 4. Aglaonice or Aganice of Thessaly (c. 100 BCE) is a Greek astronomer and thaumaturge She's mentioned in the writings of Plutarch and in the scholia to Apollonius of Rhodes as a female astronomer. It's said she can make the moon disappear from the sky. According to Plutarch she knows when a lunar eclipse will happen. He says, "when the moon was due to be overtaken by earth's shadow, she made all believe she was drawing down the moon." In a lunar eclipse, the moon darkens to deep red. Corycian Caves, Bee Nymphs & Greek Gods Famous Women of Ancient Rome Obsidian: Ancient Volcanic Black Glass Making the Moon Disappear - stages of lunar eclipse 5. Bao Gu (Chinese: 鮑姑, bāogū , 4th century), is a Chinese Taoist physician. Daughter of Taoist governor Bao Jing, she weds his disciple Ge Hong, the author of Baopuzi . After they marry they work together in alchemy and medicine. She's known as one of the famous four female physicians in Chinese history, along with Zhang Xiaoniang of Northern Song dynasty, Yi Xu of the Western Han dynasty, and Tan Yunxian, working in the Ming dynasty. Bao Gu is active during the Eastern Jin dynasty. Alchemy: Science, Philosophy, Magic Chinese Alchemical Elixir Poisoning Mad Honey - What's the Buzz? reducing plants by grinding and extraction 6. Cleopatra the Physician (1st century AD) is a Greek medical writer and author of the manual Cosmetics , and two treatises on gynecology. The Cosmetics  gives advice and remedies for afflictions such as dandruff and baldness. Her cures use plants; liquids such as oil, wine, vinegar; lead and soda (sodium carbonate); and animal products such as roast horse teeth. Surviving fragments include a recipe for perfumed soap, instructions to curl and dye hair, and a list of weights and measures. Khaos: Primal Goddess of Greek Myth Cyrene: Huntress Queen of Greek Myth Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy 7. Sotira  (1st century AD) is an obstetrix, or Ancient Greek obstetrician. She's mentioned by Pliny the Elder as an author of treatises on postpartum fever and menstruation. In his writings he documents her by name: “... the midwife Sotira said it is a very efficacious remedy for tertians [malaria recurring every second day] and quartans [fever or ague] to smear with the flux [bloody discharge] the soles of the patient’s feet ... the remedy also revives an epileptic who has fainted.” Disease Demons & Doctors: Ancient Mesopotamia Yellow River Civilization: Ancient China Mugwort (Wormwood) Herbal Lore 8. Fang (Chinese: 方), 1st century BCE, is the earliest recorded woman alchemist in China. She comes from a family skilled in alchemical arts. She studies alchemy with one of the Emperor's spouses and has access to the highest levels of society. She's credited with discovery of the method to turn mercury into silver. She may have used the chemical technique of silver extraction from ores using mercury. Fang eventually goes insane and commits suicide. Her life and work are recorded by alchemist Ge Hong. Mercury (Quicksilver): Miracle Metal of Alchemy Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Silver - Queen of Precious Metals 9. Chun Yuyan  (1st-century BCE) is a Chinese court official during the Han Dynasty. She's the obstetrician and gynecologist of empress Xu Pingjun, wife of emperor Xuan. She may be the first woman of her profession in China. Chun Yuyan also causes of the death of Empress Xu in a plot of imperial intrigue. To secure a position for her husband, she speaks to Huo Xian, wife of China's most powerful man. Huo Xian wants her own daughter as Empress, convincing Chun Yuyan to poison Empress Xu. Chun Yuyan & Death of Empress Xu Jade - Jadeite, Nephrite & Jade Roads Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg 10. Mary the Jewess  (1st century AD) is an alchemist working in Alexandria. She's one of the first alchemical writers and is credited with the invention of several kinds of chemical apparatus. She's considered the first true alchemist of the Western world. Mary incorporates lifelike attributes into her descriptions of metal, such as bodies, souls, and spirits. She asserts metals have two different genders, and by joining the genders a new entity can be made; as, for example, mercury (F) and sulfur (M) form mercury sulfide . Women of Alchemy - Mary the Jewess Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files Cinnabar (Mercury Sulfide) Red Death Mary the Jewess, Maria Prophetissa 11. Cleopatra the Alchemist (c. 3rd century) is a Greek alchemist, writer and philosopher. She experiments with practical alchemy and is credited as one of the four female alchemists who could produce the philosopher's stone. She invents the alembic, a distillation apparatus. Cleopatra the Alchemist is in Alexandria at a time when Greek, Roman and Egyptian thought converge. She is associated with the school of alchemy typified by Mary the Jewess and Comarius. These alchemists use complex apparatus for distillation and sublimation. Myth & Metallurgy - Metals of Antiquity The Alembic: Essential Alchemy Equipment Alchemy & New Thought in Ancient Alexandria The alembic, thought to be invented by Cleopatra a few centuries before it's credited to Arabic alchemists 12. Paphnutia (Taphnutia) the Virgin  (c 300 AD) is an Egyptian alchemist. She's mentioned in letters between Zosimos of Panopolis and his sister Theosebeia, also an alchemist. Within these letters Zosimos criticizes Theosebeia for talking and exchanging ideas with Paphnutia. According to Zosimos, who's usually a supporter of female alchemists, Paphnutia is uneducated and incorrectly practices alchemy. Evidence suggests Paphnutia might be connected to a competing school of alchemy; or, she may be a priestess. She may be the Taphnutia mentioned by Renaissance alchemist Michael Maier as one of the few women who knows how to make the Philosopher's Stone . Wild Women and Winter Tales Pentagram: Drudenfuß, Five Point Star Copper: Ruddy Metal of Myth & Magic Although many more remain unnamed, these twelve women make a remarkable contribution to science and medicine in the ancient world. Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Rare earth elements (REEs) are scattered through the Earth's crust. Coveted by many, they're bargaining chips in world politics. REES are used in science, technology, electric vehicles and space exploration. Electric Vehicles (EVs): Creation & Operation Fossil Fuels: Ecology & Economy Mineral Oil: Technology & Ecology Rare earth elements are a group of 17 metallic elements on the periodic table (scandium, yttrium, and the lanthanide series). They aren't especially rare, just hard to get. For example, cerium is more abundant in the Earth's crust than copper. Often together in nature, the REEs are used in high tech due to their unique electronic, optical and magnetic properties. Formation & Distribution of REEs Rare earth elements occur naturally, formed through geological processes in the Earth's crust. Magmatic differentiation, hydrothermal alteration and weathering create the deposits. Robot Lubrication: Grease the Machine China: Politics, Economy, Military & Modern Life Silver (Ag): Ancient Trade to Modern Tech Common rock types with REEs include carbonatites, alkaline igneous rocks and ion-adsorption clays. They're dispersed in minerals including bastnäsite, monazite, and xenotime . Granitic pegmatites are a source. The minerals are mined, then the REEs separated with both physical and chemical processes. The strong chemical similarity of the elements complicates extraction. Uses Across Industries The magnetic, luminescent, and catalytic properties of REEs are suited to a wide range of uses. Aerospace REEs are used in lightweight, high-strength alloys for aircraft construction. Samarium-cobalt magnets function in high-performance motors and actuators, and phosphors containing REEs enhance radar and navigation systems. In the aerospace sector, neodymium and praseodymium help create lightweight, high-strength magnets for jet engines and turbines. Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Human Warfare Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy jet engine Robotics High-strength magnets based on neodymium and dysprosium are used for servo motors driving robotic arms and other actuators. The robotics industry increasingly relies on rare earth elements for precision components. Technology Smartphones and Laptops: Cerium for polishing screens, lanthanum for camera lenses, and other REEs for batteries and speakers. Electric Vehicles (EVs): Neodymium magnets are used for the motors of electric vehicles. China: Politics, Economy, Military & Modern Life How Bacteria Survive a Nuclear Explosion Bioremediation: Organic Cleanup of Toxins Wind Turbines: Neodymium magnets enable the efficient generation of electricity in modern wind turbines. Medical Imaging: Gadolinium-based contrast agents enhance MRI scans, providing clear images. Lighting: REEs are used in phosphors for fluorescent and LED lighting. Data: Smarium-cobalt and neodymium magnets are used in hard drives for data storage. Artificial Intelligence: Technology & Society AI: Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space Catalysis: Cerium is used in catalytic converters to reduce harmful emissions from vehicles. Agriculture: REEs can be used as micronutrient fertilizers to improve crop yields. Nuclear Energy: Rare earth elements are used in control rods, neutron absorbers, and to regulate nuclear reactions. Europium: Used in control rods to regulate nuclear reactors.  Dysprosium: Used in control rods and mixed in alloys used in nuclear reactors. Gadolinium: Used in nuclear reactors, neutron radiography, and to shut down reactors. Nine Countries with Nuclear Weapons Yellow River Civilization: Ancient China Myanmar (Burma): Beauty & Brutality Countries With the Most REEs China Vietnam Brazil Russia India Finance: REEs Value and Performance in Stocks Due to their importance and the dynamics of supply and demand, the value of REEs is closely linked to the industries built around them. For companies in mining, processing, and manufacturing, stock prices can fluctuate as much as 30% They're based on factors such as g lobal demand for electronics, EVs and renewable energy; geopolitical events and trade policies affecting supply chains. Tech advancements also affect the need for certain REEs. Investing in REE-related companies can be lucrative but risky. De-Orbiting Satellites: Problems & Processes Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk Survival of Bacteria in the Extremes of Space Environment Water Pollution: Mining and processing activities can generate large amounts of wastewater containing heavy metals and radioactive materials. Soil Contamination: Mine tailings and waste disposal can contaminate soil with harmful substances. Air Pollution: Processing plants can emit pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and fluoride. How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Habitat Destruction: Mining operations can lead to deforestation and habitat loss. Extraction processes often lead to land degradation, habitat destruction, and groundwater contamination. 2.5 million tons of toxic waste can be produced per one ton of rare earth elements extracted. Recycling rare earth elements from electronic waste is becoming a strategy for sustainability and sometimes life itself. Emerging technologies hope to reduce the dependency on rare earth elements. Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Buddhist Violence in Rakhine State Myanmar How Solar Panels Work Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top