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Puduḫepa ( Puduḫepa, Pudu-Kheb ) is one of the greatest women of the ancient world. In the 13th century BCE she rules beside her husband, Hattusili III of the powerful Hittites. She opens institutions such as scribe houses, influences decisions and is famed for diplomacy. Nefertari Queen of Peace Ancient Egypt Divine Light - Sun Goddess of Arinna Bronze Age Cultures - the Hittites Puduḫepa - the Priestess who becomes Queen of the Hittites Young and unsure when she first meets the military general who would later become King of the Hittite Empire, she's determined to fill her role with wisdom and courage. She soon finds her place among the society and administration of the court. She grows up in Kizzuwatna, a kingdom of southern Anatolia, in the early 13th century BCE. The patron deity of her home town Lawazantiya is the goddess Shaushka , and her father is a priest at the temple. Puduḫepa becomes a priestess. Butter - Food of Peasants & Barbarians Nigella Sativa: Black Seed of Healers Linen, Hemp & Cotton - Fabrics of Ancient Egypt In 1274 BCE, the Hittites and Egyptians are fierce rivals for the trade town of Kadesh in the Levant. The Battle of Kadesh almost sees the end of the Egyptian Ramesses II, who with some of his men are trapped. Ramesses rallies, charges through surrounding Hittite forces, and escapes. The battle is notable for its scale and record-breaking number of chariots used. Although the battle has an indecisive outcome Ramesses erects victory stele proclaiming his decisive win .  Several years later, Queen Puduhepa will establish a pact of peace between Egypt and the Hittites, the first peace treaty in known history. Kashka - Mountain Raiders of Anatolia Hattusilis III - Great Hittite Kings Bronze Age Sun Goddesses of World Mythology Sailboats and sands of Egypt Returning from the Battle of Kadesh, the general Hattusili sees Puduḫepa, a priestess at the temple of Shaushka . Shaushka is the Hurrian name equivalent his patron goddess, Ishtar (Inanna) . Goddess Ishtar appears to Hattusili in a vision, saying he will find happiness with Puduhepa as his wife. Although Puduḫepa is much younger than he, her family encourages the match. She accompanies him back to his kingdom. Rabbit Fever Plague & Warfare: Hittites Neolithic Europe - Danube Valley Culture Pazuzu - Demon God of Mesopotamia She's his only one Hattusili, once a bull with the ladies, now turns all his attentions to Puduḫepa. She is the only woman in his life. When Hattusili defeats his nephew, King of the Hittite lands, in a rebellious uprising in 1267 BCE, he becomes the royal ruler. At his side Puduhepa is Queen, or tawananna. She is often beside him, for political events, announcements, decisions and judgments. They are considered to rule together, hand in hand. Puduhepa has her own royal seal and responsibilities. She controls the domestic aspects of the palaces, and also serves as a judge in legal matters. Ancient Cultures: Yamnaya Steppe People Anzû - Mesopotamian Monster of Mayhem 12 Days of Zagmuk: Chaos & the King Aleppo, Syria - once a Hittite capital of commerce & trade, occupied by several successive rulers Puduḫepa arranges marriages for her children to strengthen the Hittite Empire. At the time, wedding for love is rare, nonexistent for royals. It's also very rare for a Queen to have the power of arranging marriages. Hattusili has bouts of sickness, and during these times Puduhepa takes his place. He's been prone to illness since he was a child, and in fact was not expected to become an adult, let alone King of the Hittites. In his times of weakness, she is always a reliable force. Her diplomacy and connections with the Egyptian rulers keep the lands of the Hittites and Egypt at peace. She sends both her daughters as wives to Ramesses II (altogether he has seven, including his favorite, Nefertari ). Tiamat - Queen of Chaos & the Sea Rosemary: Immortal Essence & Balm of Kings Ancient Greek Cultures: People of Minos Ramesses II, Pharaoh of Egypt Puduḫepa also groups and organizes the extensive God lists and pantheon hierarchies associated with religious rites and offerings. There are thousands, so it's not an easy job. Gods and Goddesses have consorts, companions, servants, sukkals and family members. Each fits into a hierarchy with a list of appropriate incantations and sacrificial offerings. Many scribes are employed to write legibly on clay tablets. In Hittite society women regularly work outside the home if they want. Jobs held by women in the ancient world include those of priestess, doctor (doctoress)  and scribe. Puduhepa makes sure the myths and lore of her Hurrian background are not ignored. She introduces deities and translates their stories into the Hittite language. Ullikummi - Rock Monster of Legend Inanna (Ishtar) - Goddess of Ancients Nature Spirits of German Mythology Women have autonomy within marriage, family and business in ancient Anatolia. A woman can own, buy or sell slaves, or run her own business. Some women also work as artisan weavers or innkeepers. Puduhepa corresponds with Nefertari, royal wife of Ramesses II of Egypt, who herself is known as one of the greatest Egyptian women. Nefertari sends her royal gifts. In a letter of friendship she praises the "Queen of the Hatti land". The Hittite territories are called Land of the Hatti, after the people living there when the Hittites colonize. Women of Alchemy: Anna Maria Zieglerin Mušḫuššu - Snake Dragon Animal of Marduk German Myth: Lindwyrm, Mare & Pig Demons Nefertari, wearing the vulture crown of Egyptian Royal Wives. Translation of letter below: The great Queen Naptera (Nefertari) of the land of Egypt speaks thus: ʻSpeak to my sister Puduḫepa, the Great Queen of the Hatti land. I, your sister, (also) be well!! May your country be well. Now, I have learned that you, my sister, have written to me asking after my health. You have written to me because of the good friendship and brotherly relationship between your brother, the king of Egypt, The Great and the Storm God will bring about peace, and he will make the brotherly relationship between the Egyptian king, the Great King, and his brother, the Hatti King, the Great King, last for ever... See, I have sent you a gift, in order to greet you, my sister... for your neck (a necklace) of pure gold, composed of 12 bands and weighing 88 shekels, colored linen maklalu -material, for one royal dress for the king... A total of 12 linen garments.’ Suppiluliuma II: the Last Hittite King Famous Women of Ancient Rome Uluburun - Bronze Age Shipwreck Letter in Akkadian from Queen Nefertari of Egypt (photo: Isabeau) After the death of her husband in 1236 BCE, Puduhepa's son Tudhaliya IV takes the throne. He has two sons, the last two Kings of the Hittites before the empire collapses c. 1180 BCE. With the ascension of Tudhaliya, Puduḫepa rises to the rank of Goddess-Queen. Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

One-horned hare Al-Mi'raj or Almiraj appears in popular Arabic mythology. Most famously the unicorn hare is part of the legendary tale of Iskandar, or Alexander the Great, King of Macedonia. Bird Woman Elwetritsch: German Folklore Emerald Tablet - Sacred Alchemy Text Giant Cinnamon Birds of Arabia Al-Mi'raj The One Horned Hare If it seems to have leopard features, it's possible. In ancient and medieval times, the Arabian leopard wanders the lands as an alpha predator. The leopard goes into decline in the 1960s and is now critically endangered. Both big cats and hares relate to the night, moon and swiftness. Hares, unlike rabbits, have similar leg action to big cats and can run at high speeds. The magical talent of Al-Mi'raj, the mythical hybrid hare-unicorn beast, is to make wild animals flee in terror at the sight of it. Arabian Leopard: Bronze Age Predators Dromedary Camel: Animals of Ancient Arabia Egyptian Blue Lotus: Visionary Beauty Eek! Al Mi'raj is coming! In the myth of Alexander the Great, the King is given the unicorn hare as thanks from the people of Dragon Island (Jazīrat al-Tinnīn ) , when he slays the resident dragon or serpent in the 4th century BCE. He has but to show Al-Mi'raj, and not just wild animals, but his enemies too, run away stricken with fear and confusion. The story of Alexander and the unicorn hare is first described by medieval philosopher Qazwini. Alexandria: Jewel of Ancient History Ancient Arabia - Stone Age to Bronze Wolpertinger - German Myths & Folklore Dragon Serpent eats explosive dinner; hare beneath The story is accompanied by a miniature painting of the dragon and the horned hare. The dragon is shown "devouring sulfur-filled bulls, which look like a red piece of meat". In the writings of Qazwini, the hare Al-Mi'raj is yellowish with a long black horn. According to the legend, Iskandar slays the dragon using decoy oxen made of ox-hide packed with lethal substances. Qazwini's cosmology lists the reactive ingredients including coniferous resin, turpentine ; pitch or tar; sulfur , quicklime and arsenic . Arsenic: Murderous Metal & Miracle Cure Pistachio: Turpentine, Resin & Nuts Sulfur - Treasures of the Underworld Various versions of the dragon slaying include five oxen filled with oil and poison to kill the dragon. In another Alexander has two sacrificed oxen stripped of flesh and filled with with gypsum, pitch, lead , and sulfur. With the dragon occupied Alexander orders two big brass balls heated and shoved into its mouth, whereupon it dies horribly. In a Turkish telling he attaches a thousand poison hooks to his chariot, takes an antidote against the poison, rides in and boldly vanquishes the dragon. Any way the story goes, Alexander receives the unicorn hare as a gift from the grateful locals. In early versions the little terror has no name. Al-Mi'raj is applied to the unicorn hare in later writings. Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy Cleopatra the Physician of Greece Slavic River Spirits & Roman Gods Alexander the Great (356 -323 BCE) Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

A transistor is a semiconductor device. It can operate as either a switch or an amplifier. Made from materials like silicon or germanium, transistors conduct or pause electricity under specific conditions. Transistors: How Billions Fit on a Microchip How the Cloud Works - Pros & Cons Build a Basic Robot: Method & Materials By manipulating materials, engineers create two types of charge carriers. These are electrons, which carry a negative charge, and holes, which carry a positive charge. Where they meet creates a p-n junction, through which transistors modulate electrical signals. Silicon makes up about 95% of the semiconductor industry due to excellent conductivity when doped (treated) with other elements. the p-n junction Design Transistors consist of three terminals: Base (or Gate): This terminal controls the flow of current between the other two. Collector (or Drain): This is where the current flows from, in a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) or the positive terminal in a Field-Effect Transistor (FET). Emitter (or Source): This is where the current flows to, in a BJT or the negative terminal in a FET. Semiconductors: Materials, Methods & Markets Microchips: the Real World Power Nanotechnology: Nanoscale Power & Progress The first transistor, 1947 (replica) There are two main types of transistors, using different mechanisms to control the current flow: Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) BJTs come in two varieties: NPN and PNP, differing in the doping of the semiconductor layers. chips in creation BJTs are composed of three layers of semiconductor material and can be configured as either NPN (negative-positive-negative) or PNP (positive-negative-positive). NPN Transistors : A small current at the base allows a larger current to flow between collector and emitter. In a regular NPN transistor, a base current of only 5 mA enables a collector current of 100 mA, a current gain of 20. PNP Transistors : These operate similarly, but use holes as the primary charge carriers. In an NPN transistor, a small electrical current flows into the base, allowing a larger current to pass from the collector to the emitter. This occurs because the base-emitter junction is forward-biased, allowing electrons (n) to flow into the base and interact with holes (p). In audio equipment, transistors can amplify signals from a mic to drive speakers. Taiwan: Ancient Culture to Modern Economy Oil Wars: A Global Power Play Robot Lubrication: Grease the Machine Field-Effect Transistor (FET) FETs use an electric field applied to the gate terminal to control flow of current between source and drain. FETs are voltage-controlled devices. FETs use an electric field to control conductivity of the semiconductor. There are two families of FETs: Junction Field-Effect Transistors (JFETs) and Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs). MOSFETs are the most widely used transistor type in digital circuits due to low power consumption and high density. MOSFET A MOSFET may control power usage by operating at voltages as low as 1 volt, efficient and ideal for battery-operated devices. In an N-channel MOSFET, a positive voltage is applied to the gate terminal. This creates an electric field and attracts electrons to the channel between the drain and source terminals. It allows current to flow easily. A well-designed MOSFET can achieve on-resistance as low as 0.1 ohms. Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health How Solar Panels Work Silver (Ag): Ancient Trade to Modern Tech Amplification and Switching The power of the transistor lies in its ability to either amplify or switch signals. Amplification: When a small signal is applied to the base (BJT) or gate (FET) terminal, it can control a much larger current flowing between the collector and emitter (BJT) or drain and source (FET). The transistor boosts weak signals. A typical guitar amplifier uses transistors to boost electric signal from the guitar pickup, allowing the sound to be heard loudly through speakers. Switching: By applying sufficient voltage to the base or gate terminal, the transistor rapidly switches between fully on and fully off states, allowing or blocking the flow of current. This ability is the foundation of digital logic. Make an AI for Stock Market Analysis & Prediction Ammonia: Formation, Hazards & Reactions Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life The "on" state represents a "1" and the "off" state represents a "0." Computers can perform complex calculations using binary code. Modern CPUs use billions of transistors. They're able to process more than 3 billion instructions per second. The invention of the transistor leads to microchips or integrated circuits (ICs), which can contain millions of them on a single chip. An integrated circuit once requiring an entire room can now fit into a chip smaller than a fingernail. Most smartphones have over 10 billion transistors. What Robots Need to Function & Survive Artificial Intelligence: Technology & Society Ancient Traders & Buyers: Art of Testing Metals Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Dumuzi and Geshtinanna are brother and sister deities in Mesopotamia. Dumuzi, a god of shepherds and fertility, is consort of Inanna . Goddess of love and war, she's a sweetheart until her temper explodes. Look what happens to Dumuzi when he gets too conceited. Ereshkigal Goddess of Underworld & Night Ninazu: Healing, Death, Snakes & War Gula - Medicine Goddess of Mesopotamia Dumuzi (Dumuzid, Dumu-zid) - consort of Inanna, ancient Mesopotamian god of shepherds and fertility Next thing he knows, he's dragged down into the Underworld, Kur, to be tortured by evil gallu (galla) demons. He soon regrets his misdeeds. Inanna (Goddess Queen of Heaven) has just come back from her own foray into the Underworld. She's tricked by her older sister Ereshkigal, killed and hung on a hook for three days. Fortunately Innana has emergency measures in place. She's resurrected and escapes with her rescuers, pursued by ferocious gallu demons all the way. Inanna (Ishtar) - Goddess of Ancients Namtar: Underworld Sukkal & Disease Demon Gallu (Galla) Demons of Ancient Kur Inanna takes a flying leap When Inanna arrives back home she sees her servants, sukkal , friends and family weep for her and observe the proper mourning rites. Meanwhile her consort, Dumuzi, sits under a tree in glamorous robes, eating fruit from golden plates, attended by servants and entertained by musicians and dancing girls. Inanna blows up like volcanic Santorini and calls the galla demons, who are trying to grab someone to take back to the Underworld in Inanna's place. Ereshkigal dislikes them returning empty handed. Nergal - Ancient Underworld Gods Aya - Goddess of Dawn, Mesopotamia Asteria - Starry Gems of Myth & Magic Cylinder seal c 2600 - 2300, Sumerian - Dumuzi (left) tortured by galla demons w hot pokers They seize Dumuzi with cries of glee, tear off his royal robes and drag him screaming into the dark and dismal land of Kur to be tortured for all eternity. Satisfied, Inanna goes off to take a long hot bath. In another version, Dumuzi flees and escapes the demons. They torture his sister Geshtinanna, but she won't tell them where he's hiding. The demons turn their attemtion to an unnamed friend, who blurts it out. Ancient Mesopotamian Cities - Uruk Anzû - Mesopotamian Monster of Mayhem Mušḫuššu - Snake Dragon Animal of Marduk Some friend. The galla capture Dumuzid . Inanna's brother Utu (Shamash) , god of the Sun, helps Dumuzi escape by turning him into a gazelle. Still he cannot outrun the galla. Ultimately they drag him down to Kur. For many days Geshtinanna bewails her lost brother. Her mother Sirtur (Duttur) also laments to the earth and winds. Surrounded by splendor, Inanna is lonely and begins to repent her actions. Dumuzi is her favorite consort and quite handsome. Erotic stories abound about the Goddess of Love and her sexual soul mate. His later Greek equivalent is Adonis. Potash: Agriculture, Plant & Garden Health Divine Twins: Germanic & Greek Mythology Arabian Leopard: Bronze Age Predators Mouth and partial view of Adonis statue Together the three goddesses mourn. Then, a fly buzzes in Inanna's ear, revealing the location of Dumuzi in the vast eternal wastelands of Kur. The goddesses find Dumuzi as the fly told Inanna. Ereshkigal won't let him leave, so the goddesses negotiate. To the disappointment of the gallu demons the torture decree is repealed. Dumuzi must remain six months in the Underworld, dying a symbolic death on the summer solstice June 20 - 21. His resurrection occurs on the winter solstice, known as Nardoqan or Nardugan, on Dec 21 - 22. The celebration of the new sun follows on Dec 23. Pagan Solstice Fests: Mithras & the Sun A Viking Christmas Yule German Folklore - Irrwurz or Mad Root resurrection Then, Geshtinanna comes to take the place of Dumuzi for six months. When Geshtinanna is in Kur she resides in the royal palace as scribe or servant to Ereshkigal. In some areas Geshtinanna is equated to Belet-Seri , the underworld scribe goddess. Dumuzid comes back to life as the sun warms the land. Flowers bloom and fields promise abundance. Depending on location, growing season for winter crops is October - May, and summer crops grow March - September. Due to drought summer crops have been banned in more arid parts of the near East. Pagan Solstice Fests: Saturnalia Pomegranate - Food of the Ancients Seduction of Hedammu, Father of Snakes Barley, a favorite crop in ancient Mesopotamia Mesopotamia has two seasons - summer and winter. Summer includes the barley harvest in late May - early June. Winter occurs the same time as today's fall/winter seasons. Each season is about six modern months. Dumuzid is also heralded as a god king of the city Bad Tibira in Sumer during a period of fertility and abundance. After a momentous flood, the region turns into an arid desert. Benu - Ba Heron God of Ancient Egypt Chaoskampf: Order & Chaos Battle Out Nabu (Nabû) - Ancient God of Scribes This indicates to people Dumuzid has died. In Lagash, one of the oldest cities of Mesopotamia, the sixth month of the year is called Dumuzid. The month is especially hot and dry. Mesopotamians mourn his death and share popular stories about his rule. In the Sumerian King List, Dumuzid is listed as an antediluvian king of the city of Bad-tibira and also an early king of the city of Uruk. Shamash (Utu) Sun God of Mesopotamia Sin (Suen): Moon God of Mesopotamia Figs - Food of the Ancient World The Sumerian King List In the story of Inanna's consort choice, her brother Shamash reveals it's time for her to marry (take a consort). Dumuzid, a shepherd-king, comes to court her, along with a farmer named Enkimdu. At first, Inanna prefers the farmer, who is actually an agriculture god, but Shamash and Dumuzid gradually persuade her Dumuzid is a better choice. For every gift the farmer gives her, they say, the shepherd can give better. Thus Inanna chooses Dumuzid. Bronze Age Ancients - Catacomb Culture Lahar: Flock & Sheep Pastoral Goddess Ancient Deities: Proto Indo European Gods Dumuzi is patron of sheep and shepherds Name variants associated with Dumu-zid include Ama-ga (Mother Milk) and U-lu-lu (Multiplier of Pasture). As a pastoral god initially, he has the ability to fulfill the needs of flocks, such as cause grass to grow in the desert. With his benevolence healthy lambs are born and ewes have plenty of nourishing milk. As time goes on, Dumuzid is placed from a pastoral deity into the broader spectrum of fertility and agriculture. He's especially associated with dates and date palm trees. Date palms are a symbol of stability, as they can be harvested through the year even at the hottest times. The return of Dumuzi at the winter solstice brings celebration and relief at surviving the most difficult time of year. Myrrh - Mystique, Death & Divinity Goddess Nisaba - First Lady of Writing Egyptian Blue Lotus: Visionary Beauty date palms with fruit Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Robotics combines design, construction, and operation so machines can perform tasks automatically. Robots are a wide range of creations and complexities. Here are the basic steps to building a robot. Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology Building Robots: Elastomers, Metals & Plastics Transistors: How Billions Fit on a Microchip A simple line-following bot might only use basic sensors and a few motors, while an autonomous drone can use advanced navigation and image recognition technology. In 2023, the global robotics market is over $77 billion USD. The market is valued at $94.54 billion in 2024 and projected to reach $372.59 billion by 2034, representing a CAGR of 14.70%.  Nanorobots: Micro Robotic Tech, Ecology, Health Aluminum (Al): Metal to the Stars Microchips: the Real World Power Define Robot Purpose Functionality: Specific tasks the robot will perform such as vacuum floors, water plants, fly or play games. Environment: Bots for indoor use might need different components than those designed for outdoor terrain. Complexity: From basic model to sophisticated machine with many capabilities. Defining its purpose dictates features, capabilities, and components. Simple Movement: A robot moving around an area avoiding obstacles requires simple motors, sensors and a microcontroller. Object Manipulation: Building a robot to pick up and move objects needs more complex mechanisms like robotic arms, grippers, and advanced sensors. Interactive Robot: The robot might interact with its environment using voice commands or facial recognition. Advanced sensors, a powerful processor, and possibly cloud-based services are needed. Robot Lubrication: Grease the Machine Semiconductors: Materials, Methods & Markets Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health Robot Hardware Components Microcontroller: The "brain" of the robot. Popular choices include Arduino or Raspberry Pi. These platforms have extensive community support. Motors: Provide the movement. DC motors, stepper motors, and servo motors offer different control methods and are suited for various applications. Servo motors can control arms or legs, while DC motors can drive wheels. Experiment to choose the best type. Sensors: Help the robot perceive its environment. Common types include: Distance Sensors (Ultrasonic, Infrared): Detect obstacles and measure distances. Light Sensors: React to changes in light levels. Gyroscope and Accelerometer: Measure orientation and acceleration. Encoders: Track motor position and speed. Temperature sensors for environmental monitoring Infrared sensors for obstacle detection Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials Nanotechnology: Nanoscale Power & Progress Power Source: Batteries are the most common choice. Consider voltage, current, and battery life. Other options include batteries, solar panels or a wired connection. If robot needs to be mobile, rechargeable batteries with a capacity of at least 2000mAh give longer operation. Chassis/Frame: Provides a physical structure for the bot upon which to mount components. A pre-made chassis can be purchased, or it can be created with materials like acrylic, aluminum, wood or LEGOs. Wiring and Connectors: These connect all components together. Breadboards, jumper wires, and soldering equipment may be useful. A breadboard, or protoboard, is a solderless platform used to rapidly prototype and test electronic circuits. How Solar Panels Work Top 5 Countries of the Global Space Race Rare Earth Elements (REEs): Science & Environment Robot Mechanics Locomotion: How the robot moves, such as wheels, tracks, legs, or a combination of these. Actuation: How the robot performs tasks. This might involve robotic arms, grippers, or other mechanisms. Stability and Balance: The robot must be stable. Balanced weight distribution and the placement of motors and batteries depend on balance. Building starts with a design or blueprint. 1. Sketching Simple sketches help map out the robot’s layout. 2. 3D Modeling CAD software can create detailed 3D models, showing how all components can fit together. The planning stage saves time during assembly by preventing misalignments. What Robots Need to Function & Survive Artificial Intelligence: Technology & Society Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back define inner and outer designs Robot Assembly Assemble the Chassis: Mount the frame and attach the motors and wheels (or other locomotion mechanisms). All pieces should fit securely and be stable enough to support other components. Mount Sensors and Electronics: Securely attach sensors, the microcontroller, and other electronics to the chassis, based on the design. Modular setups can provide flexibility for future upgrades or replacements. A modular setup is built from independent, interchangeable modules. Mount the motors carefully on the chassis. Depending on design, it might be necessary to drill holes or attaching mounting brackets. Wire the Components: Connect the motors, sensors, and microcontroller. Organize the wiring neatly to prevent tangles. Double-check connections before powering up. Test and Debug: Once assembled, test each component individually to make sure it works properly. Tardigrades (Water Bears): Extreme Survivors Transition Metals in Science and Health Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure Program the Bot Programming brings the robot to life. Using programming language supported by the microcontroller (e.g., C++ for Arduino, Python for Raspberry Pi), write the code. Read Sensor Data: Interpret input from sensors. The sensors can respond to environmental changes. For example, the ultrasonic sensor can stop the robot when an object is detected within 10 cm. Control Motors: Control the robot's movement based on sensor data or pre-programmed instructions. Start with simple command sets, like controlling direction and speed. Implement Logic: Define how the robot should react to different situations and make decisions. MLI: Gold & Silver Foil on Spacecraft Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space China: Politics, Economy, Military & Modern Life Testing, Refining & Iteration A bot usually doesn't work perfectly on first try. Testing and refining are often done multiple times. Run tests to ensure the robot functions as desired. Make adjustments to design or code based on results. Observe and Analyze: Watch the robot's behavior and identify areas for improvement. Debug Code: Fix any errors in code. Adjust Hardware: Make adjustments to hardware as needed, such as changing motor placements or sensor angles. Troubleshooting Common Issues Robot Not Moving Double-check the motors. Ensure they are powered and wired correctly, and the microcontroller is functioning. Sensors Not Responding Revisit the wiring and make sure the programming for the sensors is accurate. Running simple test programs can help isolate issues. Unexpected Behavior Debug code step-by-step. Logical errors can lead to incorrect responses, so reviewing code thoroughly is vital. Code can be devious, as one little semi-colon out of place can mess up the whole operation. Indus River Valley Civilization: Bronze Age Four Holy Beasts of Taiwan: Dragon, Phoenix, Tortoise & Unicorn Silver (Ag): Ancient Trade to Modern Tech Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Semiconductors are materials forming the basis of computer chips. They're used in consumer electronics like smartphones; solar panels, robots, EVs, spacecraft and industrial machinery. Microchips: the Real World Power Semiconductors: Science, Tech & Economy Nanorobots: Micro Robotic Tech, Ecology, Health The five major semiconductor materials are silicon, graphene, germanium, gallium arsenide, and gallium nitride. Semiconductors conduct electricity under some conditions, or act as insulators. They're essential crucial for building transistors and other electronic components. Silicon remains the dominant force due to its abundance and well-established manufacturing infrastructure. Materials like graphene, germanium, gallium arsenide, and gallium nitride are geared to expanding market niches and leading innovation where silicon falls short. Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future Top 5 Countries of the Global Space Race Rare Earth Elements (REEs): Science & Environment 1. Silicon (Si) Silicon, a metalloid, is the most recognized semiconductor material. It's often considered the heart of the electronics industry. With a band gap of 1.1 eV, silicon efficiently conducts electricity. Found abundantly in nature, it's prevalent in sources like quartz, sand, and clay. Key production countries include the United States, China, and Brazil. Silicon is extracted from silicon dioxide (SiO2) in sand or quartzite. Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Aluminum (Al): Metal to the Stars purified silicon Silicon used in computer chips, photovoltaic cells, consumer electronics. The extraction of silicon, while energy-intensive, results in high-purity silicon needed for electronic components. Properties: Silicon is abundant, relatively inexpensive, and its properties are well-understood. It forms strong, stable oxides to create the insulating layers in integrated circuits. It exhibits a moderate electron mobility. Current Uses: Microprocessors, memory chips (DRAM, Flash), diodes, transistors, solar cells. It's the dominant material in the vast majority of electronic devices. Suitability as a Semiconductor: Excellent due to its abundance, affordability, stability, and well-developed manufacturing processes based on its properties. Silica (SiO2): Nature of Glass & Gems MLI: Gold & Silver Foil on Spacecraft Transistors: How Billions Fit on a Microchip Natural Occurrence: The second most abundant element in the Earth's crust. Found primarily in silica (silicon dioxide, SiO2) like quartz and sand, and in silicates, which make up many rocks. Graphene has unique properties that not be found in other non-metallic materials. It's considered a semi-metal as it shares some properties with semi-conducting metals. Key Producer Countries: China, Australia, Russia, United States, Brazil. Extraction Techniques: A common approach to refining silicon is the carbothermic reduction process, in which silica is heated to high temperatures with coke, yielding silicon and carbon monoxide. Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals Cryptocurrency: Finance in the Space Age Electric Vehicles (EVs): Creation & Operation The silicon is then purified using techniques like the Czochralski process or the Float Zone process to achieve the ultra-high purity required for semiconductor applications. In the Czochralski method crystal growth is used to obtain single crystals of semiconductors, metals, salts and synthetic gemstones. It's used in 90% of semiconductor manufacturing. silicon crystals The float zone process or zone melting, is a crucible-free crystal growth technique. A molten zone is held between two solid rods by surface tension, enabling growth of high-purity single crystals. Market Stats: The global silicon market, valued at around $18.27 billion in 2024, is projected to exceed $35.58 billion by 2034, growing at a CAGR of 6.89% from 2025 to 2034. It's driven by rising demand in industries like automotive, construction, electronics, and healthcare. Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure Make an AI for Stock Market Analysis & Prediction Zinc (Zn): Technology, Nature & Health 2. Graphene (C) Though naturally occurring graphene is rare, it can be synthesized from graphite. Methods for extraction include chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and liquid-phase exfoliation, factors in its increasing use in technology. Properties: Graphene is a single-layer sheet of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice. It has exceptional electron mobility, incredible strength, and high thermal conductivity. Current Uses: Still in its early stages of widespread adoption, graphene has applications in sensors, composites, batteries, and transparent conductive films, with significant potential in flexible electronics is significant. Cryptocurrency: How to Buy & Use Bitcoin Robot Lubrication: Grease the Machine China: Politics, Economy, Military & Modern Life Suitability as a Semiconductor: While pure graphene has no band gap, methods are explored to induce a band gap through chemical modification or structural manipulation. A band gap or energy gap refers to the energy difference between the valence band, where electrons are attached to atoms, and the conduction band, where electrons can move freely. Natural Occurrence: Found in graphite, the common form of carbon used in pencils. Key Producer Countries: China, Brazil, India, Canada, and Russia. Seven Trace Minerals: Nature's Little Helpers Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts graphite Market Value: The global graphene market is valued at USD 1 billion in 2024. It's projected to reach $2.94 billion by 2029, growing at a CAGR of 24.0% Extraction Techniques: Graphene production uses methods like mechanical exfoliation (peeling layers from graphite), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and liquid-phase exfoliation. Each method offers trade-offs in terms of production scale, cost, and quality. Interesting Facts: The Nobel Prize in Physics is awarded in 2010 to Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov for their groundbreaking experiments with graphene. How to Cultivate Green Algae for Science & Health Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Drone Warfare: Unmanned Combat Vehicles 3. Germanium (Ge) Today, germanium finds extensive use in fiber-optic systems and infrared optics, suited to high-performance devices like transistors. Growth is fueled by increasing demand in telecommunications and optics. Properties: A metalloid, germanium is the first semiconductor material used extensively in transistors. It has higher electron and hole mobility than silicon but is more sensitive to temperature changes. It has a band gap of 0.66 eV, high electron mobility suitable for high-frequency and high-speed uses. Current Uses: Detectors, infrared optics, high-frequency electronics, and as a substrate for advanced silicon-germanium (SiGe) heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs) used in wireless communication. Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Ideonella sakaiensis : Plastic-Eating Bacteria Bioremediation: Organic Cleanup of Toxins infrared Suitability as a Semiconductor: Less suitable than silicon for mainstream applications due to its higher cost and temperature sensitivity, but valuable in niche areas for high mobility. Natural Occurrence: Found sparsely in the Earth's crust, it's often associated with zinc and copper ores. Germanite is an ore of germanium. Key Producer Countries: China, United States, Russia and Belgium. Carbon Sequestration: Environmental Health Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy Plutonium (Pu): Nuclear Weapons & Space germanium Market Value: In 2024, the germanium market is estimated at $3.48 billion, with projections for growth to $5.02 billion by 2034, driven by a CAGR of 3.72%. Extraction Techniques: Germanium is usually extracted as a byproduct of zinc or copper smelting. It's then purified using processes like zone refining or chemical purification. Germanium's discovery is predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev, creator of the periodic table. He anticipates its properties before it's actually found. How Bacteria Survive a Nuclear Explosion Maillard Reaction: Science & Flavor in Browning Food Glycolysis: Biochemistry of Holistic Health smelting 4. Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is has superior electronic and optoelectronic properties. With a direct band gap of 1.43 eV, GaAs is adept at light emission, useful for LED technology and solar cells. Properties: Gallium arsenide is a compound semiconductor formed by the elements gallium, a metal, and arsenic, a metalloid,  with significantly higher electron mobility than silicon. It also shows a direct band gap, efficient for light emission. Current Uses: Radio frequency (RF) amplifiers, high-speed digital circuits, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), laser diodes, and solar cells. Russo-Ukrainian War: Motives, Propaganda & Technology Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes: Life Forms on Earth Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Human Warfare radio satellite dishes Suitability as a Semiconductor: Excellent for high-frequency applications where speed is paramount, but more expensive and difficult to process than silicon. Natural Occurrence: It's not found in its pure form in nature. The constituent elements, gallium and arsenic, occur in trace amounts in various minerals. Key Producer Countries (of Gallium): China, Germany, Kazakhstan, South Korea, Ukraine. Key Producer Countries (of Arsenic): China, Morocco, Russia, Mexico. North Korea (DPRK): Total Control Solar Panels & Batteries in Space Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk arsenic Market Value: In 2024, the gallium market increases in price, reaching a 13-year high following export restrictions by China. Market size is estimated at $26.9 million with projections for further growth.  The market is driven by demand from wireless communication and optoelectronics industries. Extraction Techniques: Gallium is often extracted as a byproduct of aluminum production, from bauxite. Arsenic is obtained from smelting sulfide ores of copper, lead, and gold. Gallium arsenide is then synthesized through processes like the Bridgman-Stockbarger method or Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD). Gallium arsenide leads to the development of early LEDs. Sirius the Dog Star: Stellar Mythology How Solar Panels Work Silver (Ag): Ancient Trade to Modern Tech 5. Gallium Nitride (GaN) Gallium nitride (GaN) emerges as an influential factor in the semiconductor field. Characterized by a wide band gap of 3.4 eV, GaN can handle high voltages and high-temperature environments This makes it ideal for power electronics. Gallium nitride is a compound of metal gallium and non-metal gas nitrogen. Ammonia: Formation, Hazards & Reactions Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Ammonium (NH+4): Nitrogen Needs of Plants fertilizing - plants need nitrogen ( ammonium , ammonia ) for life Properties: A wide-bandgap semiconductor gallium nitride needs more energy to excite electrons into conduction. This translates to higher breakdown voltage, higher operating temperature, and more power efficiency compared to silicon. Current Uses: Power amplifiers in radio base stations, power switching devices in electric vehicles and power supplies, and LEDs in lighting and displays. Copper (Cu): Ruddy Metal of Myth & Magic Cassiterite - Tin Source of Ancients Lithium (Li): Science, Health & Uses Suitability as a Semiconductor: Ideal for high-power and high-frequency applications for efficiency and integrity. It's rapidly replacing silicon in many power electronics applications. Natural Occurrence: Like GaAs, GaN is not found in its pure form. The constituent elements, gallium and nitrogen, are obtained from other sources. Key Producer Countries (of Gallium): China, Germany, Kazakhstan, South Korea, Ukraine. Nitrogen is extracted from the atmosphere globally through various industrial processes. Market Value: The gallium nitride market is experiencing rapid growth driven by demand in power electronics and RF applications. Pakistan: Ancient Cultures to Nuclear Power Electrum: Metal of Money & Myth Canada in Space: Canadarm(s) & Dextre The global GaN semiconductor devices market reaches USD 3.03 billion in 2023. It's driven by increasing demand for high-efficiency power devices and growing applications of GaN (gallium nitride) semiconductor devices. The market is projected to grow at a CAGR of 26.3% between 2024 and 2032, reaching a value of USD 24.68 billion by 2032. Extraction Techniques: Gallium is obtained as a byproduct of aluminum production. Nitrogen is extracted from the atmosphere through fractional distillation of liquid air. Liquid air is air chilled to very low (cryogenic) temperatures, resulting in its condensation into a pale blue, fluid liquid. It's as a refrigerant and a source of oxygen, nitrogen, and other inert gases. Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas Yellow River Civilization: Ancient China CubeSats: Science, Technology & Risky Business Gallium nitride is then grown epitaxially (layer by layer) on substrates like silicon carbide (SiC) or silicon (Si) using techniques like Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition ( MOCVD). MOCVD is used to deposit thin films of materials by using a vapor phase reaction of organometallic precursors. An organometallic compound is a compound that with a bond between a carbon atom and a metal atom. GaN is the material used in many blue LEDs, which, combined with yellow phosphors, produce white light LEDs. AI: Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) Women Scientists of the Ancient World Mercury (Quicksilver): Miracle Metal of Madness Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Transistors are semiconductor devices, operating like electric switches. Today billions of transistors can fit on a microchip. Hundreds of microchips can be used in a device. Transistors are usually three layers of silicon. Microchips: Inner Works & Components Semiconductors: Materials, Methods & Markets Nanorobots: Micro Robotic Tech, Ecology, Health microchip A transistor is a miniscule semiconductor device. It can amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical power. The silicon layers of a transistor are treated with various impurities to form n-type or p-type layers. The combination creates two p-n junctions. These form a structure able to control electric current. Transistors switch on and off to represent binary states (1s and 0s). This simple yet effective design enables complex calculations and data processing in devices like mobile phones and powerful computational systems. Chips are found in washing machines, weapons and robots. Microchips: the Real World Power Nanotechnology: Nanoscale Power & Progress Fossil Fuels: Ecology & Economy microbot Switching: A transistor can be turned "on" or "off" by applying a voltage to its control terminal. This controls flow of current through a circuit. It uses logical operations (AND, OR, NOT), the foundation of digital computing. Amplifying: A small input signal can be used to control a larger output signal. Amplification is necessary in audio equipment, radio receivers, and other devices, where weak signals can be boosted. A transistor works through three main terminals: the emitter, base, and collector. The base current controls a larger current flowing from the emitter to the collector. When a small voltage is applied to the base, it triggers a larger current through the transistor. Semiconductors: Science, Tech & Economy How Bacteria Survive a Nuclear Explosion Maillard Reaction: Science & Flavor in Browning Food Current controls signal amplification and digital switching. A transistor can let electrical current flow ("on" state) or block it ("off" state). The ability to switch states enables logic gates, the fundament of all digital circuits. The most common transistor type is MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor). In any transistor the core principle is the same: to control the flow of current between two points using a third control point. Before transistors, vacuum tubes are used. Vacuum tubes are bulky, power-hungry, and unreliable. The invention of the transistor in 1947 at Bell Labs revolutionizes electronics. They're smaller, more efficient and durable. Although larger than those today, the 1947 transistor is a pioneer in the miniaturization of electronics. Taiwan: Ancient Culture to Modern Economy Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future Replica of the first transistor Microchips or integrated circuits (ICs) emerge from the need for smaller and more efficient electrical components. The first microchip is developed in the late 1950s, sparking a technological revolution. Over decades, the miniaturization of transistors and advancements in semiconductor manufacturing increase the number of transistors which can be put on a single microchip. While the first microchip has several hundred transistors, modern chips can contain over 30 billion. Traditional transistors are flat but designs like FinFET (Fin Field-Effect Transistor) introduce a three-dimensional approach. This technology enhances current control and reduces leakage, for tighter packing of transistors. 3D designs use vertical space, maximizing the number of transistors able to fit on a chip. Canada in Space: Canadarm(s) & Dextre Tardigrades (Water Bears): Extreme Survivors China: Politics, Economy, Military & Modern Life How Billions of Transistors Fit on a Microchip Photolithography: Engineers "print" fine patterns onto the silicon wafer. A mask with the desired circuit pattern is created. Light shines through the mask onto a photosensitive material on the silicon wafer. The exposed areas are chemically etched away, leaving behind the desired pattern. This process is repeated multiple times to create different layers of the transistor and interconnecting wires. Miniaturization: The size of transistors shrinks exponentially over the decades, following Moore's Law, which predicts that the number of transistors on a microchip doubles approximately every two years. Tech advances reduce transistor sizes from several micrometers to just a few nanometers. A modern microchip of one square inch can hold enough transistors to perform quadrillions of calculations per second. Yellow River Civilization: Ancient China ATP: Nature of Energy & Vital Functions Metalloproteins: Biochemistry of Nature & Health Layered Architecture: Transistors and their interconnecting wires are built in multiple layers on the silicon wafer. This creates a more complex and compact design. Advanced Materials: Materials used to form transistors have also evolved. Innovations in silicon, insulators and metals create smaller and more efficient transistors. Microchips are in nearly every electronic device today. Computing : CPUs and GPUs in laptops, desktops, and servers rely on millions or billions of transistors to compute efficiently. A high-end CPU can have over 10 billion transistors, radically improving processing speed. Four Holy Beasts of Taiwan: Dragon, Phoenix, Tortoise & Unicorn North Korea (DPRK): Total Control Agriculture: Calvin Cycle in Photosynthesis Consumer Electronics : Smartphones, tablets, and wearables depend on microchips. A smartphone has several, each with millions of transistors to improve functionality. Automotive : Modern cars use microchips for functions like engine management and infotainment systems. A single vehicle may have over 100 microchips. Artificial Intelligence : Transistors process vast amounts of data, enabling AI models to learn and make predictions. The latest AI systems outperform earlier technology, improving image recognition and language processing. Pakistan: Ancient Cultures to Nuclear Power Black Tea (Camellia sinensis): Harvest to Cup Silver (Ag): Ancient Trade to Modern Tech Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Microchips, also known as integrated circuits (ICs), are the essence of technology. A microchip is a small, flat piece of semiconductor material, usually silicon , filled with tiny electronic parts working together. Semiconductors: Science, Tech & Economy Nanotechnology: Nanoscale Power & Progress Transistors: How Billions Fit on a Microchip Microchip parts include transistors, resistors, and capacitors. These components cooperate for functions like information processing, execution of commands and communication. They power diverse systems such as smartphones, laptops, aerospace equipment, medical and heavy machinery. The average smartphone contains 20 - 30 microchips. Microchips: Inner Works & Components Semiconductors: Materials, Methods & Markets Nanorobots: Micro Robotic Tech, Ecology, Health Making Microchips Creation of a microchip starts in a highly controlled environment or clean room. The room is kept dust-free to protect sensitive materials. Much of the construction is done by precision machines. Design: Engineers use software to map the layout of the microchip, defining position and function of each transistor, resistor, and all other components. The design is translated into a series of photomasks. Silicon Ingots: Ultra-pure silicon is melted and grown into large, cylindrical ingots. The ingots are then sliced into thin, circular wafers. Aluminum (Al): Metal to the Stars Cryptocurrency: How to Buy & Use Bitcoin MLI: Gold & Silver Foil on Spacecraft purified silicon Layering and Etching: The wafers are then subjected to a series of layering processes. Thin films of materials such as silicon dioxide, silicon nitride and metals like copper or aluminum, are deposited onto the wafer surface. Techniques like chemical vapor deposition and physical vapor deposition layer materials with precision. A single microchip can have layers only a few nanometers thick. A nanometer is a millionth of a millimeter. Using the photomasks created in the design stage, these layers are etched away in specific patterns using photolithography. This process projects ultraviolet light through the photomask onto a photoresist layer. Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities Fossil Fuels: Ecology & Economy Silver (Ag): Ancient Trade to Modern Tech The exposed photoresist is dissolved, leaving behind a pattern used to etch the underlying material. Layering and etching repeat hundreds of times to build up the complex 3D structure of the microchip. Doping: Doping involves introducing impurities into the silicon wafer to alter its electrical conductivity. Testing and Dicing: Once the wafer fabrication is complete, each individual chip is tested to ensure it functions correctly. Faulty chips are marked for rejection. The wafer is then diced, or cut, into individual chips. Packaging: The individual chips are packaged in protective casings made of ceramic or plastic. These packages give mechanical support, protect the chip and provide electrical connections to the outside world. Top 5 Countries of the Global Space Race Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space Artificial Intelligence: Power of Prediction Components and Materials Transistors: These are the fundamental switching elements of a microchip. They control the flow of electricity like on/off switches. Resistors: These restrict and stabilize the flow of electricity. Capacitors: These store and release electrical energy. Silicon (Si): The primary semiconductor material used in microchips. Silicon Dioxide (SiO2): An insulating material used to separate and isolate different components. Interconnects: These pathways connect various components within the chip, allowing effective communication. Copper (Cu) or Aluminum (Al): Metals used to create interconnects carrying electrical signals between transistors and other components. Photomasks: Precision stencils used in the photolithography process. Photoresist: A light-sensitive material used to create patterns on the wafer. Transition Metals in Science and Health Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future Robot Lubrication: Grease the Machine Raw Copper - more conductive than silicon Economic & Market Value The microchip industry is a massive global market. Demand for microchips is driven by ever-increasing use of electronic devices in modern life. The industry is highly competitive. Companies make major investments in research and development to create smaller and faster chips. Cost of building and maintaining a state-of-the-art microchip fabrication facility or fab can run to billions of dollars. The global microchips market size was USD 80.02 billion in 2023 and 86.26 billion in 2024. It's anticipated to reach 181.26 billion by 2034, expanding at a CAGR of 7.71% from 2024 to 2034. Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Human Warfare How Solar Panels Work Semiconductors: Science, Tech & Economy Global Production Leaders Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC): The world's largest dedicated independent (pure-play) semiconductor foundry. Many companies design chips, but TSMC specializes in manufacturing them. TSMC leads the contract manufacturing sector, producing chips for major firms, including Apple and Nvidia. As of 2023, TSMC holds a market share of 54%. In 2024 TSMC is ordered by the US to halt shipments to China of advanced chips, especially those used in AI. This follows reports of TSMC chips found in products from sanctioned Chinese companies like Huawei.  Samsung Electronics: A South Korean conglomerate involved in all aspects of the electronics industry, including microchip design and manufacturing. Robot Manufacture & Environmental Health AI: Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) Building Robots: Elastomers, Metals & Plastics Intel Corporation: A US-based company. It designs and manufactures microprocessors and other semiconductor products. Other significant makers include Micron Technology, SK Hynix and GlobalFoundries. Geopolitical factors have strong effects on the industry. Governments invest in domestic manufacturing for supply chain security. Uses Computers and Smartphones: Central Processing Units (CPUs) and Graphics Processing Units (GPUs) are complex microchips that perform the calculations necessary for these devices to function. Automobiles: Modern cars contain dozens of microchips to control such systems as engine, transmission, infotainment and safety features. Chips manage engine control units. Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk Lithium Ion Batteries on Earth & in Space What Robots Need to Function & Survive Consumer Electronics: Televisions, gaming consoles, appliances, and countless other consumer products rely on microchips. Healthcare: Medical devices such as pacemakers, imaging equipment, and diagnostic tools use microchips to improve patient care. Medical equipment, like MRI machines and wearable health monitors, uses microchips to enhance performance and diagnostics. Industrial Automation: Microchips control robots, sensors, and other equipment in manufacturing facilities. Aerospace and Defense: Aircraft, satellites, and weapons systems rely on microchips for navigation, communication and control. Make an AI for Stock Market Analysis & Prediction North Korea (DPRK): Total Control Plutonium (Pu): Nuclear Weapons & Space Facts About Microchips Submicron Manufacturing: Modern microchips are made using techniques to enable features smaller than one micrometer (one thousandth of a millimeter). This requires precise equipment and controlled environments. Microchips get smaller while becoming more powerful. For example, in the 5-nanometer process technology, billions of transistors fit on a single chip. Environmental Impact : The microchip manufacturing process can generate waste. It's a carbon footprint has led industries to seek sustainable practices, such as using renewable energy sources. Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Rare Earth Elements (REEs): Science & Environment Electric Vehicles (EVs): Creation & Operation solar panels Global Supply Chain : The microchip production process is reliant on a complex supply chain around the globe, making it vulnerable to disruptions like natural disasters or trade restrictions. In 2022 The US manufactures around 10-12% of the world's semiconductors, down from 37% in 1990, and none of the most advanced chips. This prompts the CHIPS Act to boost domestic production. In 2024, the U.S. semiconductor industry shows significant growth and investment. Focus is on expanding domestic chip production and strengthening supply chains. Carbon Sequestration: Environmental Health Air Pollution: Science, Health & Economy How Bacteria Survive a Nuclear Explosion Microchip to Bargaining Chip In August 2024, companies in the semiconductor ecosystem announce more than 90 new manufacturing projects in the US since CHIPS is first introduced in Congress. This totals nearly $450 billion in announced investments across 28 states. In 2025 focus shifts to imposing high tariffs on foreign microchip companies such as Taiwan's TMCS. The US accuses TMCS of inhibiting domestic production. Recently TMCS pays the US $100 billion to avoid threatened tariffs and buy benefits like protection from China. The company promotes the payoff as an investment in American business. In world trade, Apple is TMCS's largest customer, accounting for over 25% of TMCS's revenue. The company supplies critical chips like the A-series and M-series for flagship products such as iPhones, iPads, and Macs. 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Mesopotamian Goddess Ereshkigal reigns for hundreds of years. She's one of the major Mesopotamian deities and has authoritative power in Kur , the Underworld, and the realm of the night. Her sacred bird is the owl . Ereshkigal & the Mesopotamian Underworld Owl - Death, Memory, Mystic Wisdom Dumuzi & Geshtinanna: Reasons for Seasons Palace of Ereshkigal in the light of Moon God Sin , who often passes through Underworld The main temple of Ereshkigal is in Kutha, on the Upper Euphrates river. As polytheism is a world-wide practice at this time, gods and demi-gods abound. They're sometimes specific to a town or region. Ancient Mesopotamia is in the area of today's Iraq and Syria. Languages include Sumerian, Babylonian and Assyrian (together sometimes known as Akkadian); Amorite and later Aramaic. The first form of writing develops, the "cuneiform" or wedge-shaped script. It's deciphered in the mid-19th century. In Sumerian, the name Ereshkigal means Queen of the Great Earth. She's also known as Goddess of the Night. Lamashtu, Baby-Eating Demon of Mesopotamia Bronze Age Afterlife & Burial Beliefs Allani - Hurrian Underworld Goddess Bones are strewn at the entrance to Kur Sometimes the Goddess, or the Underworld Kur, is also called Irkalla, in the cross-cultural tradition of fusing deities with the elements they represent. She appears this way in later myth, perhaps ruling with her consort Nergal. A major God of Mesopotamia, Nergal is the deity of war, death, and disease. He's been described as the god of inflicted death. In early myth he reigns over Kur on behalf of his parents, primordial nature Gods. Pazuzu - Demon God of Mesopotamia Sin (Suen): Moon God of Mesopotamia Nergal - Ancient Underworld Gods Nergal, Underworld God of Death In later myth versions he rules because he marries the Goddess Ereshkigal . He has up to two previous wives, Mamitu, a goddess connected with the underworld, and/or Las, a goddess connected to medicine. Goddess Ereshkigal is a senior member of the Mesopotamian pantheon, considered to have authority over the "transtigridian snake gods" who develop on the boundary between Sumero-Akkadian and Elamite culture. The marriage of Ereshkigal and Nergal can be symbolic of cultural unification among the Mesopotamians. God/Goddess pairings are common between cultures. Sun Goddess Hepat of Aleppo has several strategic marriages. Iron Age - Metallurgy & Metal Magic Before the Viking Age - Gods of the Sámi Hepat - Sun Goddess of Aleppo Ereshkigal has an envoy or sukkal to carry out her desires in the world. Namtar is her attendant, a minor god and powerful disease demon. His name means "fate" in Sumerian. In some myth versions, Ereshkigal has an earlier husband, Gugalana. He's a shadowy background figure and eventually diffuses into Nergal. One of the snake gods, Ninazu , is sometimes seen as her partner or consort. In other myths he's her son, and in others they co-exist as entities of the same category, both related to the Underworld. In some lore, Ninazu rules the Underworld until the emergence of Ereshkjgal. Hymn to Nungal - Prison Goddess Myth & Metallurgy - Metals of Antiquity Ninkasi: Beer Goddess Mesopotamia Snake God The vegetation god Ningishzida has to descend to her kingdom each year, a version of the Greek Persephone story. In a similar twist the god Dimuzi spends six months in the Underworld. Ereshkigal is mother of Nungal , goddess of prisons. Nungal means Great Princess . Ereshkigal is recognized by the ancient Greeks who equate her with Hecate, Greek goddess of magic, witchcraft, the night, moon, ghosts and necromancy. References appear to Hecate Ereshkigal. She appears in god lists of Babylon and other Mesopotamian regions. She's equated with Hurrian underworld goddess Allani . Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Elderberry Tree: Germanic Nature Lore Baal Cycle - Myths of Ba'al Hadad Her status and identity are well known during the Bronze Age and after, though they may have become obscured by later authors. The actual Cult of Ereshkigal remains around her home but her name enters other mythologies. Her tenure of lasts over two thousand years. Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Goddess Queen Ereshkigal rules the Underworld of ancient Mesopotamia. She holds court among grim ghosts, gods and demons. Active from c. 2900 BCE to c. 600 BCE, she reigns for over twenty centuries. Ereshkigal Goddess of Underworld & Night Bull of Heaven - Inanna vs Gilgamesh Abu - Ancient Vegetation Snake God Ereshkigal, Goddess of Death and Night Described in some sources as a monster goddess, she's sensual and attractive in others. She has domain over the souls, demons and deities of the land beyond Death. Her sister Inanna is Goddess Queen of Heaven. Her Hurrian equivalent is Allani . Among the Hittites she's equated with the Goddess Lelwani , separately or in connection with the Sun Goddess of the Earth . In Ugarit she's equated with Asray . The Underworld is Kur , Irkalla in Sumerian and Erṣetu in Akkadian. In the Bronze Age, Mesopotamia and Anatolia are among the most progressive cultures. As civilization grows, so do pantheons. Allani - Hurrian Underworld Goddess Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Sun Goddesses of World Mythology Palace of Ereshkigal - the moon god Sin often travels through the Underworld Goddess Ereshkigal enjoys considerable power and popularity in the godly and mortal world. In her realm, besides demons and dead are Underworld deities such as the God Neti the gatekeeper, and the Goddess Belet-Seri . Belet-Seri is the scribe of Queen Ereshkigal. Also a goddess in her own right, Belet-Seri places high on God lists and accepts offerings especially of fowl. The sukkal of Ereshkigal is Namtar , an underworld disease demon. Gods of Ugarit c. 1800 - 1200 BCE Sukkals - Mythic Viziers to the Gods Inanna (Ishtar) - Goddess of Ancients Namtar spends much time resolving disputes between Ereshkigal and underworld god Nergal Her consort is Nergal, a powerful god of death and disease. In some tales he forces her to marry him so he can become lord of the Underworld. The two are subjects of many stories, often cheating on each other. They have massive fights and their sukkals must run or fly back and forth to mediate. Nergal's sukkal is night watchman Ishum . For the deceased, the afterlife is monotonous. All is joyless, without color. There is no social life. No judgment is given, unlike the afterlife of ancient Egypt . People perish and appear in front of Ereshkigal. In some stories they must pass through seven doors. Corycian Caves, Bee Nymphs & Greek Gods Rabbit Fever Plague & Warfare: Hittites Lelwani - Hittite Underworld Goddess The Doors of Perception are Open Ereshkigal declares the person officially dead. Belet-Seri notes down names of the dead and how each person died. The life one lives has no effect on the conditions of one's death. Unfortunately, the souls in the Underworld have only dry dust to eat. Families of the deceased must ritually pour libations through a clay pipe into the grave. Bird Woman Elwetritsch: German Folklore Demons - Evil Udug of Mesopotamia Shaushka (Šauška) - the Great Goddess This allows the dead to drink. People even begin to have larger families, to be sure the living number enough to care for the dead. How one lives has no effect in the Underworld, but how one is buried means everything. Souls with no one to care for them after life exist in a shadow world. Poor people, who can't afford a large burial, wear rags. They have a more difficult time than those buried with riches, who sit back in luxury. However, the misfortunate, neglected or unhappy can go out and haunt the living to make their displeasure known. Owl - Death, Memory, Mystic Wisdom Bronze Age Cultures - the Hittites Asray: Ugaritic Underworld Goddess um ... when did we last libate the ancestors? Like the Memphis necropolis of the Egyptians, royal tombs give rise to entire cities of the dead, where the deceased can dwell for eternity. Living relatives can visit and leave offerings for the well-being of a departed soul. As pantheons grow, priest/esses and scribes create god lists or kaluti on clay tablets, showing each deity's place in the hierarchy, associated sukkals and entourage. The lists outline the sacrifices to be made to the god/dess, when and in what quantity. Kashka - Mountain Raiders of Anatolia Bronze Age Afterlife & Burial Beliefs Mahaleb Cherry: Spice, Nature & Myth Worshippers who need divine intervention may not be allowed into the temples or ziggurats of the powerful gods. Priests and priestesses can have a word with the god on behalf of the mortals. It's best to honor that god/dess's sukkal as well. In one famous myth Ereshkigal kills her sister when Inanna travels to the Underworld. Fortunately Inanna asks her overworld entourage to come and get her if she's not back after three days. They come for Inanna, argue with Ereshkigal, but in the end resurrect her. When she flees the Underworld she's pursued by galla or gallu demons . These nasties are responsible for dragging unwilling souls into the land of the dead, and do so with glee. Hurrian Bronze Age Gods & Goddesses Lammašaga: Sumerian Angel Goddess Bizilla - Shining Love Goddess Sukkal hee hee hee They're part of Ereshkigal's personal pantheon. Inanna and her rescuers get away, and return to the realm of the living. However, Inanna's consort Dumuzid must take her place. When Dumuzid, an agriculture god, is in Kur the land is dry and hot, and nothing grows. Eventually an agreement is reached. His sister Geshtinanna comes to the Underworld for six months. There she serves in Ereshkigal's great palace, often as a scribe, sometimes equated with Belet-Seri. Some vegetation gods have Underworld connections or dwell in Kur, including Abu , a vegetation snake god. Kur is not an abode of the dead. Gods beneath the earth nurture roots and growth of plants. 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Pomegranate ( Punica granatum ) is one of the seven ancient foods of the southern Mediterranean. Figs are also part of the group. Pomegranate trees are cultivated for millennia throughout the ancient world. Cassava Root: Nutrition, Toxins & Economy Figs - Food of the Ancient World Sekhmet - War Goddess of Ancient Egypt Pomegranate with red ripe juicy seeds A shrub-like tree with spiny branches, pomegranate can grow to a height of 5 to 10 m (16 to 33 ft). Drought-tolerant, it prefers dry soils where its roots won't rot. It can deal with moderate frost. Pomegranate is beloved for the juicy red pulp surrounding the seeds inside the fruiting body. The number of seeds in a pomegranate varies from 200 to 1400. The plant is considered a type of berry. Rise of the Phoenicians - Early Years Mythology: Gods of Mycenean Greece Arcadia - Greek Lands of Ancient Gods Clusters of vibrant seeds or berries Pomegranate juice is famous for its red dye properties in fabric or food. An Egyptian myth tells of the War Goddess Sekhmet , as the Eye of Ra, killing people in a bloodthirsty rage. She consumes the blood of thousands. Finally Ra fears the end of humanity is nigh. He tricks Sekhmet into drinking a lake of beer dyed red with pomegranate juice. He tells her it's blood. Erinyes - Vengeful Women of Ancient Greece Aruru - Violent Vegetation Goddess Ancient Arabia - Stone Age to Bronze Pomegranate juice drinks She gets drunk, ends her killing spree and returns amiably to the realm of the Gods. Every year at a festival in her honor, people drink beer dyed red with pomegranate juice. Pomegranates are also called apples in some regions. They're one of the fruits transported along the early trade routes, with archaeological remains found in houses of the elite. The Igigi - Why Humans are Created Bronze Age Trade of Mesopotamia Nungal (Manungal) Prison Goddess Some pomegranate species are grown especially for their bright orange flowers Pomegranate is used in traditional dishes of Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, the Mediterranean and Aegean. It's been naturalized in countries such as Arabia, inland Asia and the United States. In ancient Iran and later Persia, pomegranate juice is used as a dye in carpets. In Greek myth, the pomegranate is called the "fruit of the dead", believed to have sprouted from the blood of Adonis. Humbaba: Giant Mountain Forest Man Giant Cinnamon Birds of Arabia Gallu (Galla) Demons of Ancient Kur As an early gathering food pomegranate fills many of the nutritional requirements a Stone Age or Bronze Age person would have. It's high in fiber, Vitamin K and the ubiquitous Vitamin C. In one of the oldest medical texts of Egypt c. 1500 BCE, pomegranate is recommended to treat tapeworm and other such infections. In Greece the pomegranate tree arises from the blood of a virgin who, threatened with rape by her father, kills herself on her mother's grave. Butter - Food of Peasants & Barbarians Nature Spirits of German Mythology Caffeine: Nature, Characteristics & Health Pomegranate Tree with Fruit According to some Jewish scholars, the pomegranate is the forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden. It's traditional to eat pomegranates on Rosh Hashana (Jewish New Year) because the abundance of seeds symbolizes fruitfulness. Pomegranates are also one of the Seven Species (Hebrew: שבעת המינים, Shiv'at Ha-Minim ) of fruits and grains identified in the Hebrew Bible. These are the most ancient plants of the land which together can sustain the people through the year. Black Tapioca: Sweet Pearls of Bubble Tea Flavors of Coffee: From Harvest to Homestead Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Pomegranate seeds In Armenia, a bride throws and smashes a pomegranate against a wall. Its many seeds signify abundance. The best known pomegranate myth may be the one developed around Greek Persephone, who eats six seeds in the Underworld therefore must stay with God Hades for six months of the year. In the ancient world the two seasons are summer and winter, six months each. Summer includes the current spring, and winter includes fall. Another such Underworld tale is that of Mesopotamian vegetation god Dumuzi , who commits a grievous faux pas. Sweet Root Vegetables: Sugar & Starch Lahar: Flock & Sheep Pastoral Goddess Apkallu - Seven Sages of Mesopotamia He's the consort of Goddess Queen of Heaven Innana . When she dies for three days in the underworld, due to the treachery of her sister Ereshkigal , Dumuzi is the only one of her entourage who doesn't properly mourn her. In hotheaded wrath she commands Galla demons to take him to the Underworld. In the end he's allowed to come back for six months, during which time his sister takes his place. In the six months of Dumuzi's "death: the land is hot and dry, and nothing will grow. Life returns when he does. Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Chamomile - Herbology & Folklore Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder My steries Back to Top

Cassava ( Manihot esculenta ), also called manioc or yuca, is a woody shrub native to South America. This root vegetable has significant influence on world agriculture, health and economy. Oil Wars: A Global Power Play Caffeine: Nature, Characteristics & Health Black Tapioca: Sweet Pearls of Bubble Tea Cassava is a perennial plant of tropical and subtropical regions. It's an essential food crop for millions of people. Cassava originates in the Amazon basin. It's first domesticated by pre-Columbian societies in South America. They use the edible starchy root various purposes, including food, medicine, and animal feed. The trick is in removing the powerful toxin found in cassava. Expansion of cassava beyond South America begins in the 16th century when Spanish and Portuguese explorers introduce the crop to Africa and Asia. This begins the early cassava trade. Broad Beans (Fava) - Bronze Age Crops Indus River Valley Civilization: Bronze Age Silver (Ag): Ancient Trade to Modern Tech While initial cultivation mainly serves local communities for subsistence, cassava begins to enter broader markets in the 19th century. Early trade tends to be localized, with small farmers exchanging excess produce. With the rise of the transatlantic slave trade, cassava also becomes a vital crop in slave colonies. Drought-tolerant and resilient, the plant grows in many difficult environments. Raw cassava is toxic. It contains cyanogenic glycosides linamarin, linamarase and lotaustralin, which release cyanide. It's a major factor limiting use as food or feed. Conventional processing methods decrease cyanide levels in tubers and leaves. Drying is the most common processing practice in numerous tropical nations. Prussic Acid: Secrets of Hydrogen Cyanide Platinum (Pt): Junk Metal to Pure Treasure Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice cassava chips Sun drying removes more cyanide than oven drying due to a longer interaction between linamarase and glucosides. Also, soaking for 24-36 hours and then boiling is effective in removing cyanide. African foods like gari and fufu are produced through processes of grating, dewatering, fermenting, and roasting. This reduces 80 to 95% of cyanide content. The most effective way to prepare cassava leaves for human consumption is by pounding them and cooking the mash in water. Fermentation can also eliminate cyanide from cassava. Cassava root has two primary types of starch, amylose and amylopectin. The ratio of these two starches in cassava root determines its texture and taste. Leap to Flames: Why Did Empedocles Jump into Mount Etna? Amygdalin: Bitter Almonds & the Cyanogenic Compound Prussian Blue - Delight of Artists & Poisoners starch particles Amylose : Amylose is a linear chain of glucose molecules. This starch type contributes to a firmer texture in foods like bread and pasta. Amylopectin : Amylopectin is a branched chain of glucose molecules. It contributes to a creamy consistency in popular dishes such as tapioca pudding and many processed snacks. Cassava root can be processed into various forms, such as flour, starch, and tapioca. The root is typically harvested by hand, using simple tools to dig up tubers from the soil. Cassava root is mostly carbohydrates, with starch forming 20-30% of its composition and water 60-70%. It's low in protein and some essential vitamins, often consumed with protein-rich foods like beans or fish. Starch: Power of Plants & Human Energy Carbohydrates: Sugars of Nature & Health Sugar Beets, Altbier & First Newspaper cassava leaves The high starch content makes cassava a valuable resource for food manufacturers looking for gluten-free products. The gluten-free flour market continues to rise. Compared to other food crops, cassava has several advantages. A hardy crop, it can withstand drought, pests, and diseases. Processing cassava into products such as flour, chips, and biofuels improves local economies. Harvesting cassava is labor-intensive. The roots take 6 to 24 months to mature, depending on factors like specific variety and environmental conditions. Farmers uproot the plants using hand tools. Economically, cassava is a vital crop for many developing countries. It provides a source of income for millions of smallholder farmers. Flavors of Coffee: From Harvest to Homestead Four Holy Beasts of Taiwan: Dragon, Phoenix, Tortoise & Unicorn Semiconductors: Science, Tech & Economy Black tapioca pearls , as in popular boba tea, are a major economic trend. Boba or bubble tea originates in Taiwan. Cassava starch is made into dough, rolled and cut, then boiled with sugars to add sweetness and color. Top exporters of cassava starch Thailand - 87% of the world exports ($1.48 billion) Indonesia - 4.99% ($84 million) Netherlands - 1.6% ($27 million) Brazil - 1.41% ($23 million) Paraguay - 1.18% ($20 million) Germany - 0.967% ($16.3 million) Thailand exports almost $1.5B in cassava, making it the largest exporter of cassava in the world. At the same time, cassava is the 45th most exported product in Thailand. How to Grow Carrots Cornstarch: Cuisine, Beauty, Cleaning Uses Potash: Agriculture, Plant & Garden Health boba or bubble tea with black tapioca pearls Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top