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A tutelary deity of Ebla in northwest Syria, Ishara has cryptic and erotic aspects. In Mesopotamia Ishara is sometimes connected to the Queen of Heaven Goddess Ishtar (Inanna) as well as the Underworld Goddess Ereshkigal. Ishara first appears in records in the 3rd millenium BCE. See also: Ebla - Shining Jewel of the Bronze Age Ereshkigal & the Mesopotamian Underworld Suri (Śuri): Ancient Etruscan Fire God Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In Ebla (not be be confused with the Greek island, Elba), Ishara and Ishtar are seen as equals, a divine duo. One temple ritual, performed by royals, depicts Ishtar with head of a lioness, her sacred animal. She's called Labutu from her Akkadian epithet lābatu (lioness). In Syria the Goddess Astarte (Attart), a Hellenic equivalent of Ishtar, appears with Ishtar and Ishara on god lists or kaluti of Ugarit. The god lists or offering lists determine which gods receive worship in which cities, their deific rank. See also: Lapis Lazuli: Vibrant Blue Gem of Ancients Suri (Śuri): Ancient Etruscan Fire God Amorites - Titans of the Bronze Age Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle They also include any sukkals, family members or entourage. The lists itemize the sacrifices made to each personage and how often. Ishara has her own house of worship at Ebla, and is one of the deities to be worshipped in other temples as well. Portrayed as a youthful goddess, Ishara is like the flower of love blossoming in spring, or the object of desire. In a the Hurrian epithet she's šiduri or young woman. Ishara represents feminine beauty and eternal youth. See also: Sphinx - Mythical Monster of Ancients Shakhar & Shalim: Divine Twins of Ugarit Shapshu: Sun Goddess of Canaanites Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Ishara is sometimes romantically linked to the God Dagan, King of the Gods, but this seems for ritual purposes only. She's occasionally seen in the company of male God figures, possibly for political or synchronization reasons. Ishara remains unmarried and has no children. From Old Assyrian texts comes a connection between Ishara and the north Mesophotamian medicine goddess Ninkarrak, known as the Divine Physician. Dogs are sacred to Ninkarrak. Her main cult centers are in Sippar, in today's Iraq and Terqa, Syria. See also: Mot - Death & the Ugarit Underworld Egyptian Blue Lotus: Visionary Beauty Ugarit - Trade Hub of Bronze Age Syria Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Ishara is invoked for the swearing of fealty, political, adminstrative and other important oaths. She's called šarrat māmīti or Queen of the Oaths. If a person breaks a sworn oath Ishara inflicts disease upon the miscreant, a punishment known as the Hand of Ishara or Ishara illness. She's a goddess of love and death. Symbols of Ishara include the scorpion and snakes, which carry both venom and powers of healing. Snakes symbolize medicine, rebirth, fertility, sensuality and prosperity. See also Wadjet - Winged Snake Goddess of Egypt 1st Peace Treaty 1258 BCE - the Queens Turquoise: Precious Stone of Ancients Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In the first millennium BCE Ishara is often represented in scorpion form. One of her symbols is Bašmu, a horned snake with forelegs and wings. As her cult spreads north and east, Ishara associated almost entirely with love in its many forms including desire, lust, passion, libido, sensual love, sexual relationships. She relates to physical aspects of love more than the spiritual, with some exceptions. See also: Sekhmet - War Goddess of Ancient Egypt Sun God of Heaven - Hittite Solar Deity Egyptian Blue Faience - Ceramic Glass Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle In Hurrian belief Ishara is considered an Underworld Goddess. The Death or Underworld Queen in this region is the Goddess Allani, a powerful sensual deity. While idolized as a Goddess of Love in other regions, Ishara is an Underworld Goddess in Hurrian lore and sometimes Allani and Ishara are invoked together. Other Death and Desire Goddesses include Ereshkigal, widely worshipped in Babylon and other parts of Mesopotamia. In Ugaritic mythology the Goddess Asray is Ruler of the Underworld and groundwater. See also: Ornithomancy - Prophecy by the Birds Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy Bull of Heaven - Inanna vs Gilgamesh Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The sukkal of Ishara is Tašme-zikru (Akkadian: "She answered my word" or "She answered the word"). A minor goddess, Tasme-zikru appears in the god lists of the city of Isin, about 20 mi (32k) south of Nippur in today's Iraq. A further Mesopotamian deity associated with her is Ningirima. She's a Goddess of incantations and purification, connected to snakes and 'scorpion star'. In Kizzuwatna, birthplace of Hittite Queen Puhudepa, other minor gods join her entourage. See also: Steppe Trade Routes: Before the Silk Road Asray: Ugaritic Underworld Goddess Rhinestones: Treasures of the Rhine Back to Top Back to Blog

A divine physician, Ninkarrak is known as a healer as well as a protective goddess inflicting disease upon the enemies of her patron kings or cities. Her areas of worship include Mesopotamia and Syria, starting in c. 2800 BCE. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure See also: Pagan Pantheon - Anu, Oldest of the Gods Gula - Medicine Goddess of Mesopotamia Soap & Medicine Herb of Ancients Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Her best known temples are at Sippar on the Euphrates in Iraq, and Terqa in Syria. Excavations now show she's also a popular deity in southern Mesopotamia at Nippar and Uruk. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure In Syria her influence includes the cities of Ugarit and Emar. In texts from Ebla and other sites she may be known as Ninkar. Her parents are Sky deity Anu, the oldest God, and the goddess Urash, a personification of the Earth. See also: Herbology & Lore: Stinging Nettle Bau - Healing Goddess of Babylonia Shen Rings Egypt - Divine Protection Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle She's not known to have a regular consort. Occasionally she keeps company with Pabilsag, a warrior god. She might be the mother of medicine god Damu. As a divine physician Ninkarrak relates to medicine goddesses Gula, Ninisina, Nintinugga and Bau. Like most other healing goddesses she's associated with dogs. See also: Animal Spirits - Puma, Butterfly, Dog House Spirits of Germanic Mythology Sun Goddesses of World Mythology Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Experiments show dog saliva can speed healing of wounds and reduce infection. Dogs are also loyal helpers and fierce defenders. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Ninkarrak is attested in Akkadian curses dating back to c. 2400 BCE, during the height of the Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia. She's invoked to inflict disease upon the enemies of Akkad. She may be paired or named together with Ishara. See also: Lisin - Medicine Goddess of Ancients Nigella Sativa: Black Seed of Healers Seduction of Hedammu, Father of Snakes Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle The Great God List or An = Anum gives Ninekisiga, or "lady of the house of funerary offerings," as an alternate name of Ninkarrak. The spelling of her name can vary from one region to the next. Under the name Nikarawa she appears in a hieroglyphic Luwian inscription from Carchemish, northern Syria. The writer asks the dogs of the goddess to devour anyone who damages the inscribed monument. See also: Erra - Plague Demon of Mesopotamia Ugallu - Lion Headed Storm Demon Anubis: Jackal-Headed God of Egypt Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In the Šurpu, an incantation series collected and compiled c. 1300 and later, Ninkarrak is called the "great doctoress". A healing incantation says, "May Ninkarrak bandage you with her gentle hands." The goddesses of medicine are also perceived as surgeons. They may be shown cleaning wounds and bandaging people. In Akkad, Ninkarrak is considered the primary medicine goddess. See also: Byblos, Vibrant Port City - Bronze Age Cress, Watercress: Natural Health of Ancients Šassūrātu (Sassuratu): Deific Midwives Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Ninkarrak is also concerned with exorcisms and protection against evil spirits, especially the baby-eating demon goddess Lamashtu. Of the many disease demons she's one of the most feared. Lamashtu causes miscarriage, infections or stillbirth, infant diseases and ailments of new mothers. She might snatch and eat a child nursing at the mother's breast. See also: Ereshkigal & the Mesopotamian Underworld Giant Cinnamon Birds of Arabia Eileithyia: Birth Goddess of Ancient Greece Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Ninisina, patron goddess of Isin, is also invoked to protect against Lamashtu. So is the wind demon Pazuzu. They're all seen as guardians of pregnant women, newborns, new and nursing mothers, and young children. Although she plays a protective role at the birth, Ninkarrak is not listed as a divine midwife as are other medicine goddesses. Her symbols are dogs, which are said to be ferocious. See also: Myrrh - Mystique, Death & Divinity Arcadia - Greek Lands of Ancient Gods Immortal - Quest for the Elixir of Life Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Babylonian King Hammurabi (18th century BCE) invokes her in a curse formula on a stele, calling her the "goddess who promotes my cause at the Ekur temple". He asks her to punish any who damage the steles with diseases "which a physician cannot diagnose." See also: Ancient Wild Predators - Eurasian Lion Sherden Sea Peoples in Ancient Egypt Salt Trade - the Most Precious Mineral Back to Top

The Kingdom of Punt is ancient when the ancient Egyptians are young. Several expeditions have been recorded by the Egyptians although the exact location of the lands are (perhaps purposefully) unclear. It's said to center around the Horn of Africa. Books: Cult of the Fire God - New 2024 See also: Bes: Household Protector God of Egypt Atum of Egypt - First Primordial God Aya - Goddess of Dawn, Mesopotamia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The pre-historic Egyptian god Bes is believed to come from Punt. Trade exports from the kingdom include resins such as frankincense and myrrh, as well as gold, ebony, ivory and wild animals. The first Egyptian expedition to Punt is led by Pharaoh Sahure of the Fifth Dynasty (25th century BC), returning with cargoes of antyue (resins) and Puntites. They also brought blackwood, or African purple hardwood, coveted for making musical instruments. See also: Bashmu (Bašmu): Voracious Serpent Dragon Ḫulbazizi - Ancient Exorcism Ritual Myrrh - Mystique, Death & Divinity Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Gold from Punt is recorded in Egypt even earlier, during the reign of Pharaoh Khufu (2609 - 2584 BCE) of the Fourth Dynasty. Khufu's is the largest pyramid at Giza. Expeditions continue sporadically until the 18th Dynasry (1550 - 1292 BCE). Above: Landscape of Punt with houses on stilts, two fruiting date palms, three myrrh trees, a sunbird (Cinnyris metallica), cow, unidentified fish and a turtle. Water in the original was green to show it's salt or tidal. This is a (very small) drawing from the walls of the mortuary temple of Pharoah Queen Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri. It shows part of a royal expedition to Punt. See also: Chaoskampf: Order & Chaos Battle Out Nabu (Nabû) - Ancient God of Scribes Botanical Alchemy - Lavender (Lavandula) Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books During the reign of Mentuhotep III (11th dynasty, ca. 2000 BC), several voyages are undertaken. Trading missions of the 12th dynasty pharaohs Senusret I, Amenemhat II and Amenemhat IV are also successful in reaching the mysterious land of Punt. Hatshepsut - the Pharoah Queen (c. 1507–1458 BCE) In the Eighteenth Dynasty, Hatshepsut builds a Red Sea fleet with the purpose of expaditing trade between the head of the Gulf of Aqaba. She wants to extend the network as far as Punt to bring mortuary goods to Karnak in middle Egypt in exchange for Nubian gold. See also: Bronze Age Europe - The Amber Road Steppe Trade Routes: Before the Silk Road Copper - Ruddy Metal of Mystic Magic Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books When Hatshepsut undertakes the Egyptian-Punt expedition, the best known in history, she brings artists, scholars and scribes. They record much about the royals of the kingdom, inhabitants, houses and trees on the island. They present Punt as the Land of the Gods, a faraway region in the direction of the sunrise, blessed with products for religious purposes. Traders return with gold, ivory, ebony, incense, aromatic resins, animal skins, short-horned cattle, wild animals, eye-makeup cosmetics, fragrant woods and spices such as cinnamon. See also: Myth & Metallurgy - Metals of Antiquity House Spirits of Germanic Mythology Lotan - Chaos Sea Dragon of Ugarit Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books During the reign of Queen Hatshepsut, trade networks solidify and expand. Ships cross the Red Sea regularly for trade in bitumen, copper, carved amulets, naptha for lamps, and other goods. Trade items are taken overland, down the Dead Sea to Elat at the head of the gulf of Aqaba. There, they're joined with frankincense and myrrh coming north. Trade goods come by sea and overland along mountainous routes going north, to follow the east coast of the Red Sea. See also: Cult of the Bull - Prehistoric Aurochs Before the Vikings - Nordic Bronze Age Battle Axe - Burial, Settlement, Culture Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle The voyage of Queen Hatshepsut is legend. It was a journey of trade but the motif in her funerary chambers is one of dominance and war, with her chancellor Nisha in charge. The reign of the Pharoah Queen, who is bold enough to wear the false beard of the Pharoah for her statues, is one of peace and expansion. She's considered one of the greatest Pharoahs in history. See also: Nefertari Queen of Peace Ancient Egypt Sobekneferu - Queen of the Pharaohs Cyclades Islands: Paradise of Ancients Books: Cult of the Fire God - New 2024 Ruled by King Parahu and Queen Ati, the Puntites are delighted to see increased trade and profit. They trade not only local goods but those of other cultural groups as well. For one journey Hatshepsut receives a blessing of the god Amun: Said by Amen, the Lord of the Thrones of the Two Land: "Come, come in peace my daughter, the graceful, who art in my heart, King Maatkare [i.e. Hatshepsut]... I will give thee Punt, the whole of it... I will lead your soldiers by land and by water, on mysterious shores, which join the harbours of incense... They will take incense as much as they like. They will load their ships to the satisfaction of their hearts with trees of green [i.e., fresh] incense, and all the good things of the land." See also: Volcanic Wipeout - 1600 BCE Eruption of Thera Sun Goddesses of World Mythology Weather God of Zippalanda: Bronze Age Gods Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The Greatest of all Pharaohs dies at age 50. Several years after her death, attempts were made to eradicate her image from memorial statues, reliefs, paintings, texts and other records of history. No one's quite sure why. Although it seems at first a hate act, as some vandalism includes chopping off her Pharaoh's false beard, there are other such recorded events for male rulers for religious or political reasons. See also: Thapsos - Trade Center & Necropolis Ornithomancy - Prophecy by the Birds Taweret - Hippopotamus Goddess of Egypt Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Hatshepsut's mortuary complex at Deir el-Bahri shows a row of Puntites with red skin and facial features similar to Egyptians. Their hair is long or bobbed, they have goatees and wear kilts. Books: Cult of the Fire God - New 2024 Trade continues for many years. From a 12th century account at the time of Ramesses III, detailing the return of an expedition: "They arrived safely at the desert-country of Coptos: they moored in peace, carrying the goods they had brought. [The goods] were loaded, in travelling overland, upon asses and upon men, being reloaded into vessels at the harbour of Coptos. [The goods and the Puntites] were sent forward downstream, arriving in festivity, bringing tribute into the royal presence." See also: Stone Age Botai - First Horse People Ancient Deities: Proto Indo European Gods Kaska - Mountain Raiders of Anatolia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Toward the end of the New Kingdom, 11th century BCE, the Land of Punt is woven into tales of intrigue, mystery and fantasy. The Egyptians call Punt the Land of the Gods, in particular the Sun God. Some contemporary accounts see Punt as the ancestral homeland of the tribes of Egypt. See also: Goddess Nisaba - First Lady of Writing Care & Feeding of Ancient Gods - Enlil Asteria - Starry Gems of Myth & Magic

The striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) is widespread during Neolithic and Bronze Age times, with fossils going back three million years. The smallest and most primitive of the hyenas, the striped hyena is an opportunist. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure See also: Lahar: Flock & Sheep Pastoral Goddess Lagash: Vibrant Bronze Age City State Arabian Leopard: Bronze Age Predators Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books It makes an appearance in the Mediterranean area as the spotted hyena population declines in Asia. In the Bronze Age the striped hyena enjoys a widespread range throughout Eurasia. Fossils of the striped hyena have also been found in caves of Germany, France and Portugal. During the Bronze Age c. 3300 - 1200 BCE, the striped hyena frequents the Arabian coast and into the interior, the ancient near East, India and North Africa. See also: Ancient Wild Predators - Eurasian Lion Ishum: Night Watchman & Fire God Scorpion Men of Babylonia Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Apex predators inhabiting the wilds include the Caspian Tiger, Eurasian Lion and Arabian Leopard. Arabian wolves, grey wolves and the great bear also work out their territories in the forests and hills as humans build civilizations and roads taking up vast tracts of land. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Striped hyenas are strategic consumers. They'll kill small prey from rock hyrax to grasshoppers, but it's usually more economical to dine on someone else's kill, or clean up the carcass of one who doesn't make it through the lean season. See also: Animal Spirits - Wolf, Mouse, Swan German Myth - Werewolves Bronze Age Trade of Mesopotamia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Their relationship with concurrent grey wolves is complex. Wolves will chase and kill hyenas. However there are also recorded instances of hyenas traveling with the wolves. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure The hyenas have a keen sense of smell but worse eyesight than that of wolves. The wolves are better hunters. They work together to locate a kill, flank attack or tire out the prey. See also: Mountain Gazelle: Wild Ancient World Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Figs - Food of the Ancient World Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The wolves eat first. The teeth of the wolves are better than those of the hyena for tearing through the hide of an animal. Hyena's teeth are made for crunching. Hyenas also have to defend their meal from vultures, ravens, jackals and foxes. Foxes especially take joy in harassing hyenas, even when there's no food involved. Harassing hyenas is risky business. The fox who moves too slowly is on the menu. See also: Silver - Queen of Precious Metals Edimmu: Evil Demons of Vengeance Arcadia - Greek Lands of Ancient Gods Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Striped hyenas will eat almost anything including birds, mice and other rodents, carrion of local gazelles and deer, even dead predators. About the only creature the hyena won't eat is the vulture, and it's not surprising. The urine of the vulture is an antibacterial acid which cleans their legs and feathers of bacteria from the kill. At the same time, the face, skin and intestines of the vulture are teeming with bacteria-killing toxins, including antibacterial bacteria. See also: Caspian Tiger: Bronze Age Wild Predators Nekhbet - Vulture Goddess of Egypt Asray: Ugaritic Underworld Goddess Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books People prove to be less picky than hyenas. Those who have eaten vulture meat say it tastes like chewy chicken. Striped hyenas are monogamous. Both parents find a place for the den and decorate it together. The den is often a vacated site in a cave, though they'll dig one out if they want to. A sure sign of a hyena den is a pile of bones by the entrance. See also: Dromedary Camel: Animals of Ancient Arabia Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Sacred Scarab: Lucky Bug of Ancient Egypt Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The female gives birth to 2 - 4 furry blind deaf pups, unlike the spotted hyena who bears open-eyed pups further developed. While mother nurses the pups, the male brings her food. In Turkmenistan the striped hyena is more of a hunter, dining on wild boar, kulan (wild ass), porcupines and tortoises. In the Caucasus, striped hyenas eat grasshoppers. In the Uzbekistan region they enjoy oil willow fruits (silverberry). The cubs are weaned after about two months. Both male and female bring food for them. The striped hyena is almost entirely nocturnal, returning to the den well before sunrise. See also: Shumugan - God of Donkeys & Mules Ushumgallu: Dragon Lion Snake Sukkal German Myth & Folklore: Moss People Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In Asian and middle Eastern folklore the striped hyena takes a special place. Parts of the animal are thought to have magic attributes and may be carried as charms. This association might be one reason the hyena numbers are shrinking today. In the Hebrew bible the striped hyena is called tzebua or zevoa. It's the national animal of Lebanon. From the coasts of Asia Minor the Greeks know the striped hyena as glános and húaina. In the wild, striped hyenas live about twelve years. See also: Steppe Trade Routes: Before the Silk Road Taweret - Hippopotamus Goddess of Egypt Rhytons - Animal Vessels of the Ancients Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Striped hyenas lack the characteristic noisy hyena laugh, an attribute of their spotted cousins. They're quieter in general, but occasionally let loose a hair-raising cackle. The striped hyenas might have more difficulty than wolves in tearing open a carcass, but they're bone-crunches. With their teeth and strong jaws they can grind bone into powder, ingesting a lot of calcium and other minerals. See also: Cult of the Bull - Prehistoric Aurochs Iron Age - Metallurgy & Metal Magic Pazuzu - Demon God of Mesopotamia Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle The jaw power of the striped hyena is enough to crunch through the thigh bone of a camel. Wild hyenas often come into conflict with the aggressive bipedal animals dominating the lands, known as humans. Closer to human settlements, striped hyenas will try to take advantage of unsecured garbage cans, making themselves unpopular with the locals. Hyena attacks on people are rare but they occur more often in intrusive ranges, for example the spread of civilization. See also: Baba Yaga - Slavic Forest Nature Witch Bird Woman Elwetritsch: German Folklore Ornithomancy - Prophecy by the Birds Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In the Bronze Age the striped hyena ranges throughout Eurasia. About ten thousand striped hyenas currently exist in the wild. Conservation status is near threatened. See also: Shakhar & Shalim: Divine Twins of Ugarit Amorites - Titans of the Bronze Age Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Back to Top

Ugallu means big weather beast or big storm. In ancient Mesopotamia Ugallu is a masculine entity with deific and demonic connections. He has the head of a lion, body of a man and the feet and talons of a predatory bird. See also: Gallu (Galla) Demons of Ancient Kur Inanna (Ishtar) - Goddess of Ancients Seduction of Hedammu, Father of Snakes Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In the Babylonian creation myth Enuma Elish (Enūma Eliš) he's born of the Chaos Sea Goddess Tiamat. Ugallu is among the monsters created by Tiamat to destroy her offspring when they murder her partner Abzu (Apsu) and take over the world. In the Enūma Eliš, after the murder of Abzu, Tiamat becomes a ferocious force of vengeance. She gives birth to monsters and dragons and fills their bodies with poison instead of blood. Lion-headed demon god Ugallu is born of hatred and bile. See also: Demons - Evil Udug of Mesopotamia Apep - Primal Chaos God of Egypt Tiamat - Queen of Chaos & the Sea Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Ugallu first appears in the Old Babylonian Empire c. 1894 - 1595 BCE as a porter in the Underworld Kur. A porter can be a servant, carrier or goods, or a doorway guardian, keeper of the portal. He's shown in a short robe with bird talons, or a longer robe with human feet. He's described as having "... a lion's head and lion's ears, it holds a [dagger] in its right hand and carries a mace in its left, it is girded with a dagger, its name is ugallu." See also: Gold - Precious Metal of the Sun Owl - Death, Messages, Mystic Wisdom Shakhar & Shalim: Divine Twins of Ugarit Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books He may be paired with Sumerian demon Lugal, whose name means 'syrup man' or 'sweet syrup man'. Ugallu and Lugal are ud-demons, or day demons. The Sumerian name of Ugallu is UD.GAL.LA, ud meaning day and galla, demon(s). Like the galla (gallu) demons, Ugallu can manifest as one entity or multiple. See also: Sphinx - Mythical Monster of Ancients Edimmu: Evil Demons of Vengeance Ushumgallu: Dragon Lion Snake Sukkal Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Ugallu is known to intervene in moments of crisis and save a person from death. His daytime or solar associations connect him to Shamash the Sun; the star of Sirius or the Dog Star, brightest in the night sky; and Nuska, god of the lamp. His rituals are generally done at night. Ugallu is among the chaos-born deities to be rehabilitated. In the Enuma Elish, Marduk, the god king hero defeats Ugallu and locks him up, along with other fearsome beasts of Tiamat's making. See also: Namtar: Underworld Sukkal & Disease Demon Sherden Sea Peoples in Ancient Egypt Shamash (Utu) Sun God of Mesopotamia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Marduk puts them to work reconstructing the world from the bodies of Marduk's conquered enemies. The work expunges the evil of the monsters and turns them into symbols of protection. In similar versions, Marduk battles Tiamat, kills her (re)creates the world from her slain body. In the ancient world, lion-headed Ugallu figures are commonly worn as amulets, displayed as statues or figures, or invoked for a specific purpose or event. See also: Minoan Genius (Genii) Helper Spirits Pazuzu - Demon God of Mesopotamia Ancient Wild Predators - Eurasian Lion Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In a divine dyad the benevolent ugallū guard palace gates. The protective and destructive forces of demon gods are legendary in Mesopotamia. When their natural ferocity is channeled into guardianship, benevolence, fortune and loyalty, they are valuable allies. Although demons are not usually worshipped, they can be called upon or invoked by both gods and mortals. An example is demon Pazuzu, who is invoked to protect women in childbirth from his arch-enemy, the baby-eating demon goddess Lamashtu. See also: Lamashtu, Baby-Eating Demon Goddess of Mesopotamia Curse of the Evil Eye & Apotropaic Magic Kusarikku - Bull Men of Mesopotamia Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle The fearsome bennu disease (epilepsy) demon Shulpae is consort of great mountain mother Ninhursug, an earth creator goddess. He's also a protector of animals and orchards. Shulpae does appear on god lists and receives worship with his wife. Worshippers focus on his helpful qualities and might ask him to keep his dreaded disease away from their homes and families. See also: Asag - Horrific Disease Demon of Kur Lotan - Chaos Sea Dragon of Ugarit Assyrians: Reign of Tukulti-Ninurta I Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In the Assyrian version, the god Ashur is the hero of the Enuma Elish. Elements of the story are based on the tales of Sumerian warrior god Ninurta going back to the Early Bronze Age. Ninurta is one of the Mesopotamian gods imported into the Assyrian Kingdom. See also: Anubis: Jackal-Headed God of Egypt Sherden Sea Peoples in Ancient Egypt Humbaba: Giant Mountain Forest Man Back to Top

Ashur is the tutelary God of ancient Assur, capital city of the Kingdom of Assyria in 2600 BCE. Like many other Mesopotamian cities, Assur is built on a hill. The city is on the western bank of the Tigris River in northern Mesopotamia. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure See also: Assyrians: Reign of Tukulti-Ninurta I Despoina - Goddess of the Mysteries Bronze Age Trade of Mesopotamia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Located at the borderline between rain-fed and irrigation agriculture, Assur occupies an environmentally sensitive area. Fundamentally it has its own ecologic zone. Because the city is on a natural hill, the original meaning of Ashur relates to the 'deified hill'. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure It stands on a sandstone cliff on the west bank of the Tigris River. 35 km (24 mi) south is the confluence of the Tigris with the little Zab River, originating in Iran. See also: Striped Hyena - Bronze Age Wild Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Figs - Food of the Ancient World Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle The consort of Ashur is Mullisu, an equivalent of Ninlil. He's also associated with the Goddess Šerua and appears at least once as her spouse. Old Assyrian texts typically interchange the names Ashur and Assur. Pronunciation is similar. The deity is also named as a Mountain God. Other Mountain Deities include Namni & Hazzi Mountain God Brothers Ninhursag - Great Mountain Mother Humbaba: Giant Mountain Forest Man In the beginning Ashur the God has no parent or sibling figures. The Assyrians and a brief Amorite conquest bring many of the Mesopotamian Gods into their pantheon. They include warrior agriculture god Ninurta, creator god Enlil and Inanna (Ishtar), Goddess of the Heavens. In Neo-Assyrian times Ashur appears in the winged sun disc of the Assyrians. See also: Pomegranate - Food of the Ancients Arcadia - Greek Lands of Ancient Gods Apkallu - Seven Sages of Mesopotamia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books His right hand is raised in a symbol of blessing. In his left he holds what looks like a composite bow, a weapon made of more than one piece and type of material. Bone, horn, sinew and wood are favored for its making. The one he holds is a West Asian composite bow. In history, composite bows are documented by c. 1700 BCE. The composite bow is smaller, lighter and faster than previous archery bows. See also: Zababa - Bronze Age War God of Kish Weapons & Warfare of Bronze Age Europe 2 The Igigi - Why Humans are Created Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Although he symbolically appears as an archer in feathered robe, Ashur is often represented as a bull in art, documents and seals. The bull is worshiped as an animal of Ashur or as the god himself. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Ashur's epithets include Bull of Heaven, a name shared by the Mesopotamian moon god Sin and other entities including the Bull of Heaven vanquished by Gilgamesh. Ashur's status is depicted as one of the Bull ruling all others. See also: Animal Spirits - Frog, Cat, Bull Shumugan - God of Donkeys & Mules Bull of Heaven - Inanna vs Gilgamesh Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The winged solar disc is a well-known symbol of kingship, victory and divinity. Sun gods such as ancient deity Shamash may be represented by a winged disc. Sun discs often include eagle symbolism as the Eagle is associated with the Sun. A sun disc with horns refers to such entities as the Bull as god and the powerful Egyptian Hathor, divine horned cow goddess. See also: Mountain Gazelle: Wild Ancient World Kusarikku - Bull Men of Mesopotamia Nanaya - Goddess of Erotic Love Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In the beginning the rulers of Assur do not call themselves Kings. Reserving the term King for a God, the head of state takes the title of governor. It's a similar system to the Sumerian city of Eshnunna. Tishpak the patron deity of Eshnunna may be familiar as owner of the snake dragon animal mushussu until the time of Neo-Babylonian god Marduk. See also: Mušḫuššu - Snake Dragon Animal of Marduk Kassite Empire: Rise of the Kassites Rise of the Phoenicians - Early Years Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In c. 1808 BCE a new king takes the throne of Assur. Shamshi-Adad I is an ambitious Amorite warlord who rules until c. 1776 BCE. During his reign he rebuilds temples and introduces a pantheon of Mesopotamian deities into the Kingdom of Assyria. Shamshi-Adad equates Ashur with southern creator god Enlil. He renovates an old temple of Ashur and replaces the god with Enlil. See also: Ushumgallu: Dragon Lion Snake Sukkal Ishum: Night Watchman & Fire God Bizilla - Shining Love Goddess Sukkal Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books During the Middle Assyrian period (1355 - 1050 BCE), the god Ashur once more rises to power. He absorbs Enlil and his family including Ninlil, Enlil's wife and great mother goddess, and Ninurta, the son of Enlil, who later becomes a significant Assyrian deity. The governors are now Kings, by divine right, and rule together with the god Ashur. It gets sticky when King Tukulti-Ninurta I incurs the wrath of the priests of Ashur. See also: Inanna (Ishtar) - Goddess of Ancients Mythology: Gods of Mycenean Greece Abzu - Primal Waters of Creation Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books His forces sack Babylon and he destroys Babylonian temples, for which the priests have great respect. The King does not care. Tukulti-Ninurta builds a new capital about 3 km (1.8 mi) from Assur. There he erects a glorious temple to Ashur, a grand palace, lordly homes. He gets new priests. However it's not long before his sons rebel and lay siege to the city. King Tukulti-Ninurta doesn't make it out alive. See also: Taurus Mountains: Bronze Age Bounty Battle Axe - Burial, Settlement, Culture Bronze Age Afterlife & Burial Beliefs Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Ultimately, Ashur ends up back in his capital of Assur, and the new city crumbles, abandoned. As Assyrian conquest expands the empire, Ashur becomes a powerful deity in northern Mesopotamia. His cult center stays in Assur. From there, instead of remaining a local god, Ashur goes national. He conveys the image of Father of the Gods. The King answers only to Ashur. Later he's said to be the mirror image of Ashur. See also: Ninlil - Sumerian Matriarch Goddess Goddess Nisaba - First Lady of Writing Kur - Underworld of Mesopotamia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books After c. 722 BCE in the Neo-Assyrian Empire Ashur is sometimes written Anshar. Anshar is the primordial forces of the Babylonian creation myth, the Enuma Elish. The epic composition stars hero-god Marduk. It appears in more than one version. In the Assyrian Enuma Elish, Anshar is the primordial element which gives birth to Anu, oldest of the Gods. See also: Warrior Portal Gods Lugal-irra & Meslamta-ea Demons - Evil Udug of Mesopotamia Sukkals - Mythic Viziers to the Gods Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Anshar also creates Kishar, earth mother Goddess. Kishar is counterpart to the sky, Anu. In 689 BCE, Babylon is sacked once again. Nonetheless Ashur is revered in Uruk. A temple there is built to Ashur under the name Anshar. Until then, despite his popularity, Ashur's only cult center is Assur. See also: Pagan Pantheon - Anu, Oldest of the Gods Hesperus (Vesper) the Evening Star Arzawa - Rebel Kingdom of the Bronze Age Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books His worship continues through the final collapse of the Assyrian Empire in the 7th century CE attributed to the Persians. Even then, Ashur remains a popular local god. See also: Sin (Suen): Moon God of Mesopotamia What is a Ziggurat? Kur - Underworld of Mesopotamia Back to Top

While the mysterious Sea Peoples ransack the Mediterranean c. 1200, they give little sign of their identity and seem to appear out of nowhere. Where did they come from? Origin stories differ. Some of the Sea People were here all along. See also: Nefertari Queen of Peace Ancient Egypt Shen Rings Egypt - Divine Protection Weapons & Warfare of Bronze Age Europe 2 Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The Sherden (Shardana, Sherdanu) are one of the several ethnic groups associated with the Sea Peoples. Most records of their activities come from ancient Egypt and Ugarit in the late 2nd millennium BC. The earliest mention of the Srdn-w people, called Sherden or Shardana, is the Akkadian reference to the "še-er-ta-an-nu" in correspondence from Rib-Hadda, mayor (hazannu) of Byblos, to Pharaoh Amenhotep III or Akhenaten in the 14th century BC. There's no further clarification. See also: Weapons & Warfare of Bronze Age Europe 1 Mythical Pagan German Gods & Spirits Sacrificial Creation Myths: Early People Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle The first definite reference to the Sherden is in the records of Ramesses II in the 13th century. He defeats them in the second year of his reign (1278 BC), following their failed attempt to raid Egypt's coast. What are they thinking? Shortly thereafter, Ramesses II hires several of the invaders as his personal guard. A stele inscription from Tanis documents the 'raid of the Sherden pirates' and their subsequent defeat. See also: Terramare Culture - Bronze Age Italy Rise of the Phoenicians - Early Years Salt Trade - the Most Precious Mineral Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books It refers to the ongoing threat to Egypt and the Mediterranean: "... the unruly Sherden whom no one had ever known how to combat, they came boldly sailing in their warships from the midst of the sea, none being able to withstand them." After Ramesses II defeats the Sherden and takes prisoners, Sherden captives appear in the body guard of the Pharaoh. They are especially noted for their horned helmets with a ball in center, round shields and Naue II swords. See also: Baba Yaga - Slavic Forest Nature Witch Pomegranate - Food of the Ancients Butzemann, Witches & Nyx - Scare 'em Good Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books These sharp-edged bronze swords first appear in 14th century BCE Italy. The name comes from Julius Naue, the person who first describes them centuries later. Naue II swords are also a weapon of choice when the Sherden fight beside the Egyptians against the Hittites at the Battle of Kadesh (1274 BCE). Ramesses incorporates some of the Sherden into his personal guard at the Battle of Kadesh. See also: Despoina - Goddess of the Mysteries Ancient Greece - the Mycenean Invasion Erinyes - Vengeful Women of Ancient Greece Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Years later in c. 1200 BCE, the Sherden are among other waves of Sea People who raze the Mediterranean coasts and Greek islands. They cause the extermination of the Hittite Empire and make further attempts to invade Egypt. Defeated by Merneptah, son of Ramesses II, and Ramesses III, they give up. Despite losing some Mediterranean colonies, Egypt is largely unscathed by the widespread Bronze Age collapse. See also: Heqet, Frog Goddess of Egypt Hattusa Green Stone - Mystic Secrets Aya - Goddess of Dawn, Mesopotamia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Around 1100 BC, the Egyptian Onomasticon of Amenope documents the Sherden in Canaan. After their defeat by Ramesses III, they and other Sea Peoples are allowed to settle there under Egyptian rule. See also: Jade - Jadeite, Nephrite & Jade Roads Myth & Metallurgy - Metals of Antiquity Benu - Ba Heron God of Ancient Egypt Back to Top

A fascinating center of commerce in the Bronze Age, Byblos has been sporadically inhabited since c. 8800 BCE and continuously since 5000 BCE. With its fertile lands, ocean bounty and gentle climate, Byblos is a paradise for early people. See also: Sherden Sea Peoples in Ancient Egypt Salt Trade - the Most Precious Mineral Terramare Culture - Bronze Age Italy Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Byblos is located on the coast of present day Lebanon. A gleaming object of desire, the city has had Egyptian, Phoenician, Assyrian, Persian, Hellenistic, Roman, Fatimid, Genoese, Mamluk and Ottoman inhabitants. The Phoenician alphabet is developed in Byblos. While under Phoenician dominion the site is important to the Greeks for papyrus from Egypt, such that byblos means papyrus in Greek. The English word bible comes from the Greek name. See also: Baba Yaga - Slavic Forest Witch Asherah: Goddess of Childbirth & Fertility Chaoskampf: Order & Chaos Battle Out Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Byblos is about 42 km (26 mi) north of Beirut, which itself is established c. 3000 BCE. Today Beirut is the largest city in Lebanon. The first settlement of Byblos is during the Neolithic Period 8800 - 7000 BCE. Neolithic remains of some buildings can still be seen. See also: Cassiterite - Tin Source of Ancients Ornithomancy - Prophecy by the Birds Ashur - Tutelary God of Assur, Assyria Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books During the 3rd millennium BC, structurally sound houses of similar size, appear, the first signs of a town. From 2600 - 2200 BCE the resident Canaanites are Egyptian control. According to the Phoenician writer Sanchuniathon, quoted by Philo of Bylos, the city is founded by the Phoenician creator god El. The Greeks idenitify El with their Cronus (Roman Saturn). See also: Pomegranate - Food of the Ancients Shumugan - God of Donkeys & Mules Bull of Heaven - Inanna vs Gilgamesh Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books According to historian Will Durant, “Byblos thought itself the oldest of all cities; the god El had founded it at the beginning of time, and to the end of its history it remained the religious capital of Phoenicia." Like many cities of this era old Byblos is built atop the settlements of previous generations. This gives a good cross-section of life and subsistence in the town through the centuries. See also: Neolithic Europe - Danube Valley Culture Girsu (Tello): Ancient Sumerian City Divine Twins: Germanic & Greek Mythology Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books At the Neolithic and Chalcolithic (Copper Age) levels flint tools are found, along with some pottery, figurines, arrowheads or sling stones. The levels are: Early Neolithic (early phase) corresponding to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) of Jericho, represented by plastered floors and naviform technology, a type of bladework, dated between 8800 and 7000 BCE. See also: Kassite Empire: Rise of the Kassites Lahar: Flock & Sheep Pastoral Goddess Apkallu - Seven Sages of Mesopotamia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Early Neolithic (late phase) corresponding to the PNA of Tell es-Sultan (Jericho) IX (also Yarmukian) between 6400 and 5800 BC, represented by pottery, sickle blades, figurines and small points. Middle Neolithic corresponding to the PNB of Tell es-Sultan (Jericho) VIII and represented by pottery, dated between 5800 and 5300 BCE. See also: Sin (Suen): Moon God of Mesopotamia Ancient Arabia - Stone Age to Bronze The Way to Aaru - Egyptian Paradise Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Late Neolithic corresponding to the Middle Chalcolithic of Beth Shean and represented by pottery, stone vessels, silos, chamber tombs and seals, dated between 5300 and 4500 BCE. Early Chalcolithic corresponding to the Late Chalcolithic of Ghassulian, represented by jar burials, pierced flint, churn and a violin figurine, dated to between 4500 and 3600 BCE. In 2800 BCE, a temple is built to honor city Goddess Baalat Gebal (Ba'alat Gubla). She remains tutelary goddess of Byblos through tempestuous millennia of trade, war and progress. See also: Seduction of Hedammu, Father of Snakes Ereshkigal & the Mesopotamian Underworld Giant Cinnamon Birds of Arabia Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Late Chalcolithic corresponding to the Early Bronze Age, represented by architecture and cylinder seal impressions, dated to between 3600 and 3100 BCE. In the Early Neolithic the city site spreads from the hill down into the valley. About twenty houses occupied the space. Some may have been lost to the sea, plundered or just fell down to return to the earth. Houses are rectangular, with plastered floors. See also: Figs - Food of the Ancient World Gibil - Fire God of Mesopotamia Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus): Plant of Aaru Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The Middle Neolithic settlement is smaller, built next to the early site. Pottery becomes more developed, with red washes, varied forms and elaborate decorations. Buildings were less sturdy in construction and floors are not plastered. In the Late Neolithic building design improves. More highly developed flint tools and a larger variety of pottery is found, with inclusions such as silica, an important component of glass making. See also: Egyptian Blue Faience - Ceramic Glass Minoan Genius (Genii) Helper Spirits Stone Age Botai - First Horse People Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The Late Chalcolithic features developments of Canaanean blades and fan scrapers. The Canaanean blade is a long, wide blade of stone or flint, primarily found at sites in Israel and Lebanon. The blade is first manufactured for use in Neolithic Stone Age weapons including javelins and arrowheads. The same technology appears in the later Chalcolithic period in broad sickle blades for harvesting crops. Canaanean blades are also used for threshing grain. See also: Kohl: Eye Beauty Magic of Ancients Namni & Hazzi - Mountain Gods Cinnamon - Spice Trade of Ancients Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle At this time, adult burials in jars start to appear. The first item of metal, a copper hook, is found. Some ceramics are lined with white plaster after firing. In the Late Chalcolithic period copper's more common, along with multiple burials in tombs. Jar handles are impressed with marks and designs. The city Goddess of Byblos is Baalat Gebal, or the Mistress, literally "Lady of Byblos". See also: Ullikummi - Rock Monster of Legend Lapis Lazuli: Vibrant Blue Gem of Ancients Warrior Portal Gods Lugal-irra & Meslamta-ea Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Early Bronze Age remains show the development of Byblos combed ware and collections or assemblages of weaponry like knives and spears. In the 20th century BCE, Byblos once more becomes an Egyptian colony. Pharaoh Amenemhet I brings the worship of goddess Baalat Gebal to Egypt. See also: Humbaba: Giant Mountain Forest Man Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Mulberry Tree (Morus): Uses, Folklore & Myth Back to Top

The Bronze Age lasts from c. 3300 to c. 1200 BCE, the second of three Metal Ages, following copper, the metal of Venus, and preceding iron, the metal of Earth. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure The copper or Chalcolithic Age transitions easily to Bronze. The Metal Ages mark the advent of worked metal tools and weapons, smelting of metals, and the legendary blacksmith. See also: Arsenic: Murderous Metal & Miracle Cure Divine Twins: Germanic & Greek Mythology Myth & Metallurgy - Metals of Antiquity Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The smith, metal worker or metallurgist has arcane wisdom and knows the secrets of magic due to elemental connections. A smith can forge, heat, bend and shape metals of the Earth, thus has an almost supernatural control over the forces of nature. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Heat causes iron to glow red (coolest), orange, yellow, and finally white (hottest), a visual transmutation. Blacksmith becomes a trade in c. 1500 BCE, when steady developments in metallurgy announce the approach of the Iron Age. See also: Copper - Ruddy Metal of Mystic Magic Mythic Fire Gods: Hephaestus of the Greek Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Before blacksmithing, people worked with native metals such as silver, copper and gold, three of the metals of antiquity, those discovered and used by early humans. They occur in raw form and can be easily extracted from the earth. Iron is available from meteorites but the tools or technology to extract it from ore don't appear until c. 1800 BCE, in the region of today's Turkey. See also: Terramare Culture - Bronze Age Italy Potnia: Mystery Goddess of Ancient Greece Tin Mining in the Bronze Age c 3300 - 1200 BCE Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The first use of tin goes back to 3500 BCE in forming the alloy bronze. Bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin. While copper is too soft to made good weaponry and tools, the alloy has better results. The metalloid arsenic can also be used for a harder bronze, and blacksmiths later would pay the price. See also: Silver - Queen of Precious Metals Mythical Pagan German Gods & Spirits Women of Alchemy - Mary the Jewess Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Iron has a higher melting point than copper, which has a slightly higher melting point than tin. Copper and tin alloys are found in Neolithic kilns of c. 6000 BCE. During the Bronze age, writing also takes form at varying rates per region. The first written language is Sumerian cuneiform, c. 3400 BCE. The first hieroglyphic script develops in Egypt c. 3100 BCE. See also: Heqet, Frog Goddess of Egypt Carnelian - Gems of the Ancient World Sacred Scarab: Lucky Bug of Ancient Egypt Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Mesopotamia leads the way into the Bronze Age. It becomes a prolific period throughout the world marked by written language, standardized exchange and extensive use of metals. The Bronze Age also fortifies trade networks such as the Amber Roads and other overland, river and sea routes. Agriculture, irrigation and animal husbandry improve. See also: Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Cassiterite - Tin Source of Ancients Der Türst: Dread Huntsman & the Wild Hunt Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books It's a time of high agricultural production and prosperity. Overall the Bronze Age sees the development of writing the potter's wheel the spoked wheel domestication of horses and camels centralized governments written law codes city-states nation-states empires advanced architectural projects canals and irrigation systems social stratification economic and civil administration wagons and chariots organized warfare medicine and religion ... and lays the groundwork for modern mathematics, astronomy and astrology. Progressive powers rise up in Arabia, trade routes expand along the Nile and and other major waterways. Towns grow into city states and busy trade route stops become kingdoms. See also: Early Fire Gods - Vulkan of Germania Arcadia - Greek Lands of Ancient Gods A Viking Christmas Yule Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Bronze Age cultures flourish in Sumer and Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Egypt, Levant, Syria, Asian countries, Korea, Japan, Europe, the Cyclades & Mycenaean cultures. Crete, Africa, South America and Mexico also give rise to complex civilizations. Between 1200 and 1150 BCE, massive collapse hits the Bronze Age civilizations and chaos reigns. An Age of Darkness enshrouds the land. From the flames a phoenix rises, and its name is Iron. See also: Nature Spirits of German Mythology Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files Steam & Style - Agrippina of the Rhine Back to Top

Best known as an ore of the soft metal tin, cassiterite (SnO2) has an elemental magic all its own. Cassiterite occurs in igneous rocks such as granite and metamorphic rocks such as greisen, a thermally altered type of granite. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Significant sources of cassiterite come from placer deposits dated as far back as c. 4500 BCE. Cassiterite is also found in some rock veins. See also: Tin Mining in the Bronze Age c 3300 - 1200 BCE Carnelian - Gems of the Ancient World Bronze Age Trade of Mesopotamia Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle As a crystal, cassiterite has a captivating dark glow. It's usually dark brown or black. Other shades include dark golden brown, brownish black, reddish brown, red and yellow. It may occur in white but is never clear. Most sources of cassiterite are placer or alluvial deposits. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure They're formed as streams and rivers erode shoreline and rocks. As running water uncovers deposits, sediment and granules are carried downstream. When the water slows, as at a widening of the river, rocky pools or a curve, heavier elements fall to the riverbed. See also: Tin - Essential Metal of Antiquity Baltic Amber - Gold of the North Steppe Trade Routes: Before the Silk Road Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Placer deposits can include gold, cassiterite, platinum, diamonds, magnetite, and some gemstones such as sapphire. Alluvial placers can carry sediment a long way. Placers associated with basalt, an igneous rock, are the most commercially viable sapphire sources in ancient times and today. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Placer deposits can also happen on beaches. Famous gold deposits in Nome, Alaska, as well as zircon in South America, and South African diamonds are from beach placers. See also: Lapis Lazuli: Vibrant Blue Gem of Ancients Zircon - the Primordial Gemstone Dragons: German Harvest & Nature Spirits Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Repeated wave action sifts through the sediment, moving elements of various weights into concentrated areas. Beach placer finds include gold, diamonds, cassiterite, zircon as well as ilmenite, rutile and monazite. The Bolivian source and the c. 2200 BCE workings of Cornwall and Devon, England, are concentrated in high temperature quartz veins and pegmatites (coarse granite or other igneous rock). The veins often contain tourmaline, topaz, fluorite, apatite, wolframite, molybdenite, and arsenopyrite. See also: Turquoise: Precious Stone of Ancients Amethyst - Divine Purple Quartz Gemstone Bashmu (Bašmu): Voracious Serpent Dragon Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Current major cassiterite mining sites include placer deposits in China, Malaysia, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Indonesia, parts of Somalia, and Russia. See also: Apep - Primal Chaos God of Egypt Warrior Queen: Kriemhild of the Burgundians Inspiring Words from Shakespeare Back to Top

Tin is an important component of bronze and other alloys, and can be easily shaped or hammered into tinware. In the Bronze Age the demand for tin creates bold new trade networks and routes. Tin is one of the Seven Metals of Antiquity. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure See also: Ullikummi - Rock Monster of Legend Mušḫuššu - Snake Dragon Animal of Marduk Gold - Precious Metal of the Sun Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle First mined and processed in today's Turkey by 3500 BCE, tin is a chemical element. It can't be broken down into other substances. Bronze is about 88% copper and 12% tin. If tin can't be had, or for a harder bronze, the metalloid arsenic is sometimes used in an alloy with copper. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Pure tin has a bright reflective gleam and is used in early hand mirrors. Tin doesn't occur in native form. It has to be extracted from ores, usually cassiterite. Tin-bearing minerals such as cassiterite are often found in granite, an igneous rock. See also: Stone Age Botai - First Horse People Wine God Liber: Liberty & Liberal Libation Silver - Queen of Precious Metals Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Cassiterite tin-bearing ores are often found in placer deposits. In natural waterways, flakes, grains and nuggets of cassiterite are picked up by a fast-running river or brook as water erodes surface material. It's washed downstream to settle in a slower moving part of the river. Placer deposits tend to have black sand high in iron ores. Precious stones such as diamonds and metals like gold found in placer deposits are the impetus for the famous gold and diamond rushes of the 19th century. See also: Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Egyptian Blue Lotus: Visionary Beauty Carnelian - Gems of the Ancient World Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Later technology uses dredging, hydraulics and open pit mines to collect cassiterite for tin. Once smelted, the soft metal can be used in various alloys. In the ancient world the most popular tin alloy is bronze. The Bronze Age (c. 3300 - 1200) is defined by smelting of metals and the manufacture of bronze articles. See also: Earth Mother - Goddess of Life Rosemary: Immortal Essence & Balm of Kings Bronze Age Europe - The Amber Road Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Pewter is 85-99% tin, with the remainder made up of antimony, bismuth, copper and sometimes silver. Tin is often used as an alloy in coins. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure During the Bronze Age and later, the Casserides or Tin Islands are mentioned in reference but their location is unknown. The Casserides are presumed to be somewhere in Western Europe, rumored to be a rich source of tin. See also: Land of Punt: Pre-Bronze Age Kingdom of Riches Myrrh - Mystique, Death & Divinity Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Some people place them off the Iberian peninsula. Wisely, the people of Iberia provide no insight. Today the major tin sources of the world include Malaya, Indonesia, Thailand, China, Siberia, the Congo area and Bolivia. Tin is subject to such issues as tin pest and tin whiskers. Tin pest is a transformation of the element tin causing degeneration of the metal at low temperatures. It can occur in alloys. Tin pest is also known as tin disease, tin blight or tin leprosy (lèpre d'étain). See also: Before the Vikings - Early Northern Cultures Sun Goddesses of World Mythology Curse of the Evil Eye & Apotropaic Magic Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Tin whiskers are a phenomenon in electrical devices. Some metals form long whisker-like projections over time, causing short circuits. With development of iron and steel, tin plating comes into common use, with the backing material of wrought iron. The coating of tin hinders rusting which occurs with oxidation of steel or iron. See also: Lora Ley Adventures - Feast of Fools Kohl: Eye Beauty Magic of Ancients Benu - Ba Heron God of Ancient Egypt Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books A person working with tin is a tinner, tinker, tinman, or tinplate worker. Whitesmith is sometimes used interchangeably, though the whitesmith is more associated with iron. A type of applied tin foil is used as decor in ancient structures, much like gold or silver leaf. Tinsmith is a common occupation in pre-industrial times. Traveling tinkers might take their skills on the road as they don't need a hot forge like the blacksmith. Heating tin to make it more malleable can be done on a regular fire if necessary. See also: Asherah: Goddess of Childbirth & Fertility Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy What is a Ziggurat? Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Terne is a type of tinplate, a thin steel sheet coated with a tin-lead alloy. For terne the alloy ratio is 10-20% tin and the remainder lead. Due to low tin content it's cheaper than other tinplates. Terne plate is made by tinsmiths as sheet metal goods, such as storage vessels, funnels and pitchers. Terne plate jugs are used particularly in industry for flammable liquids. The vessel is for short-term storage due to the high lead content. See also: Arsenic: Murderous Metal & Miracle Cure German Myth & Folklore: Elves Gods of Ugarit c. 1800 - 1200 BCE Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle The Minoans, centered at Crete in the Aegean Sea, commonly use tin, although there's no nearby source. Possible sources are Afghanistan and the Oxus valley. The trade route from the East to the Mediterranean is well documented by ancient traders and scribes. Extensive sea trade routes for tin are facilitated by the Phoenicians, who settled in the area of coastal Lebanon. Tin is being transported along the Amber Road networks by c. 2500 BCE. See also: Amber Trade - Bronze Age on the Baltic Primeval Deities: Goddess of the Dawn Bashmu (Bašmu): Voracious Serpent Dragon Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books By the 1st millennium BCE tin routes are in place and business is brisk. New trade routes form by land and sea. Due to its essential purpose in making bronze, tin is one of the most extensively traded items throughout the known world. See also: Pagan Solstice Fests: Mithras & the Sun Iron Age - Metallurgy & Metal Magic Art, Power and the Calamitous Crusade Back to Top

In Bronze Age Europe tin is an important commodity. Bronze uses 88% copper and 12% tin. Lacking tin, or for harder bronze, metal workers sometimes use arsenic. European tin trade follows the Amber Roads of the north and forges further connecting networks. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure See also: Bronze Age Europe - the Amber Roads Myth & Metallurgy - Metals of Antiquity Tin - Essential Metal of Antiquity Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Most early sources of tin are placer deposits of iron ores. Tin is a comparatively rare earth element. In the Earth's crust is occurs at only 2 parts per million (ppm). Zinc occurs at 94 ppm, copper 63 ppm and lead 12 ppm. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Although tin also occurs in small amounts in other elements such as stannite, the primary tin oxide mineral is cassiterite (SnO2). The gem is overall opaque but translucent in thin crystals. Its luster and multiple crystal facets reflect light from the surface and perhaps inner inclusions. See also: Carnelian - Gems of the Ancient World Sun Goddess of the Earth: Hittite Underworld Ancient Wild Predators - Eurasian Lion Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle It creates a fascinating, darkly glowing gem. Although suited for jewelry it's the major tin ore of the ancient world. Cassiterite is still the most important tin source today. Extraction takes knowledge and technology, much of which develops during the previous Copper Age and further experimentation. A process of smelting extracts tin from cassiterite. See also: Copper - Ruddy Metal of Mystic Magic Rise of the Phoenicians - Early Years Mythic Fire Gods - Vulkan of Germania Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Heating cassiterite at extreme temperatures with carbon and limestone creates tin metal. The first evidence of mining tin to make bronze is about 3000 BCE in the ancient near East and the Balkans. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Cassiterite commonly occurs in placer deposits. These form when a river or stream wears down surface material and picks up elements such as metals or minerals in or under the eroded particles. See also: Abzu - Primal Waters of Creation Cress, Watercress: Natural Health of Ancients Baba Yaga - Slavic Forest Nature Witch Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The river carries the elements downstream. When the water slows, the elements fall to the riverbed, often near shore near a bend. Mineral particles must have a specific gravity above 2.58 to fall. There they accumulate to form a placer deposit. Some deposits can be very generous. Placer deposits are often found by looking for black sand, a conspicuous shiny black mixture of iron oxides. Desirable mineral components found with black sands can include monazite, rutile, zircon, chromite, wolframite, and cassiterite. Alluvial gold deposits are created the same way. See also: Ancient Marsh Muse - Rough Horsetail German Folklore - Irrwurz or Mad Root Turquoise: Precious Stone of Ancients Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Ancient mining focuses on placer deposits. They're easy to access and can provide a rich bounty. The gold and diamond rushes of the 19th century are triggered by findings in placer deposits. The earliest site of tin mining in Europe is in the Ore Mountains in Germany. At the border of Germany and Czechia, the site dates to c. 2500 BC. From here, tin is traded north to the Baltic Sea and south to the Mediterranean following the Amber Road trading route. See also: Mythology: Gods of Mycenean Greece Silver - Queen of Precious Metals Ancient Wild Predators - Eurasian Lion Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books By 2000 BCE, tin mining has taken hold in Brittany, France; Devon and Cornwall in today's UK; and the Iberian Peninsula. These deposits come under further exploitation by the Romans between the third century BCE and the first century AD. The early Phoenicians of today's Lebanon, a merchant marine force with cutting edge boat-building technology, are secretive about the location of their tin. Later Greek writers name English sources. See also: German Myth & Folklore: Imps Wine God Liber: Liberty & Liberal Libation Spiritual Magic - Numbers Three & Nine Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In Classical times beginning c. 6th century BCE, a vast tin trade network forms among Mediterranean cultures. By Medieval times, c. 500 - 1400 AD, deposits of Iberia and Germany decline in significance. Devon and Cornwall dominate the European tin market. In the Far East, a tin belt from Yunnan in China to the Malay Peninsula is first recorded c. 2500 BC. Deposits in Yunnan aren't mined until around 700 BCE, but soon become the main source of tin in China. See also: Shumugan - God of Donkeys & Mules Cult of the Bull - Prehistoric Aurochs Jade - Jadeite, Nephrite & Jade Roads Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Tin mining develops at various rates. In Africa, the Bantu culture extracts, smelts and exports tin between the 11th and 15th centuries AD. In the Americas, tin is first evident by 1000 AD. Tin deposits in Australia are exploited by Europeans in the 18th century. Besides use in bronze, tin is a beauty accessory. Polished tin and copper discs become early mirrors. Tin is made into utensils, pots and pans, tin tiles, toys and building components. See also: Despoina - Goddess of the Mysteries Ancient Greek Cultures: People of Minos Lapis Lazuli: Vibrant Blue Gem of Ancients Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Decorative tin foil similar to silver or gold foil is used as embellishment in the ancient world. Today tin oxide (cassiterite), along with mica, is still one of the natural elements used to give makeup its shimmer. See also: Egyptian Blue Lotus: Visionary Beauty Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Adventure Ancient Deities: Proto Indo European Gods Back to Top