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Limonite is an iron earth mineraloid among the first colors of the Stone Age palette. Grinding limonite produces yellow ochre. Other early pigments include red from iron ores , madder and the kermes insect . Blue of woad is found in Neolithic cave burials in France. Knowing the Three Primary Oxides of Iron Woad, the People's Blue: Ancient Pigments Ephedra - Oldest Medical Stimulant Herb Sylvia Rose Books One of the earliest known colors , limonite is also called yellow ochre (ocher), yellow oxide or hydrated ferric oxide (rust). It's largely composed of goethite , one of the three primary iron ores. The other two are hematite and magnetite. Ground hematite makes red pigment iron oxide, and is the primary constituent in red ocher. Magnetite yields a black pigment, today known commercially as Mars Black. The "Mars" colors are iron oxides, as planet Mars is associated with the metal iron. Poison Pigments of Painters: Renaissance Turquoise: Precious Stone of Ancients Goethite: The Other Iron-Rich Mineral Sylvia Rose Books The luster of limonite is described as matte and earthy. An amorphous mineraloid, limonite is opaque and leaves a yellowish streak. It can be used as a paint, color tint, dye and glaze for ceramics. Limonite develops through erosion of different iron minerals. It's created by oxidation and hydration of iron sulfide minerals, or by chemical weathering of other minerals rich in iron, such as olivine  or pyroxene .  Natural weathering can uncover limonite sources. Mercurius: Mystical Essence of Alchemy Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files Women Scientists of the Ancient World Limonite as a broad term refers to a fine-grained aggregate, or blend of small iron oxide particles. The minerals are mainly goethite, with potential presence of hematite, lepidochrocite, and other minerals. Limonite precipitates in groundwater, deposited on the surface. Once it hardens it's no longer soluble in water. It can be ground into pigment or powder. Prussian Blue - Delight of Artists & Poisoners Neolithic Skull Cults & Ritual Skulls Hematite: Iron Oxide Red Earth Pigment Sylvia Rose Books Ochres are natural earth pigments of iron oxide with various quantities of clay and sand minerals. Limonite is the common constituent in all ocher colors including yellow, orange, red, browns, rarely greenish. Producing warm gold tones, it's less prominent in purple ochre. The name limonite comes from the Ancient Greek  λειμών ( leimṓn ), meaning " wet meadow ", or λίμνη ( límnē ), or "marshy lake", referring to its presence as bog iron ore  in meadows  and marshes . In brown form, it's sometimes called brown hematite or brown iron ore. Garnets - Gemstones of Blood and Life Kermes Insect & Ancient Red Pigments Elderberry Tree: Germanic Nature Lore Sylvia Rose Books The first primary use of limonite is as pigment . The raw yellow mineraloid produces yellow ochre, especially vibrant on the isle of Cyprus, where copper deposits also abound. The color tones of limonite vary considerably depending on the constituent minerals. Once ground to pigment, cleaned, strained and dried, the ochers can be carried anywhere in powder form. Early artists mix the pigment with water, oil or animal fat. Yellow ocher is used through the history of art. It's one of the colors best suited for egg tempera painting. 3 Great German Artists for Art Lovers Wild Women and Winter Tales Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Sylvia Rose Books It's favored in rendering natural landscapes, sunsets and skin tones. Limonite pigment can be mixed with other colors for a range of warm earth hues. Yellow ocher is a featured color in cave paintings and later wall paint. As well as in art, early people use limonite and other ocher and natural pigments as personal makeup for skin, hair and fashion. Recent scientific evidence confirms ochres can diminish   harmful effects of exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UVR). Kohl: Eye Beauty Magic of Ancients Castor Oil, Wigs & Death in Ancient Egypt Lapis Lazuli: Vibrant Blue Gem of Ancients Sylvia Rose Books Darker forms of limonite produce earthy brown tones. Roasting limonite changes it partially to hematite, producing red ochres, burnt umber  and sienna hues .  Roasting also relates to the magnetism of limonite, which is at its most magnetic at 700°C (1292°F). Yellow ochre from limonite is one of the colors used by early Chinese artists. It's used in both paint and fabric dyes by the ancient Egyptians, in the frescos of Minoans and occurs in raw form in some Mesopotamian clays. Lead White & Minium Red: Colors to Die For Isaac Newton: Alchemy & the Occult Immortal - Quest for the Elixir of Life Sylvia Rose Books Chemically, limonite is primarily composed of iron hydroxides and other impurities, and may contain trace amounts of other elements such as aluminum, manganese, and nickel. One of its primary constituents is goethite, or brown ochre. Limonite has a hardness of 4.5 - 5.5 on the Mohs hardness scale and can be scratched with a knife. For comparison glass is 5.5 - 6.5. Cosimo Ruggeri: Prophecies from the Dark Titans of the Renaissance: Powerful Italian Families How to Make Venetian Red Artisan Pigment Sylvia Rose Books A major iron component in lateritic or highly weathered soils , limonite ores are a source of nickel, potentially cobalt and other valuable metals present as trace elements. Limonite is often deposited in run-off streams from mining operations. Limonite is usually non-toxic but may grow together with poisonous elements such as chalcanthite, a beautiful blue crystalline copper mutation. Handling the stone is not very dangerous but ingestion can cause copper poisoning. How to Make Iron Oxide Pigment at Home Chalcanthite: Crystal Blue Explosion Copper: Ruddy Metal of Myth & Magic Sylvia Rose Books Evidence of ochre pigment extraction goes back to Africa in the times of archaic homo sapiens, about 300,000 years ago. Throughout history limonite has various uses in art and industry. Pigments  - used since prehistory as a pigment in artwork and beauty treatments. It's a popular material in paints, glazes, coloring and coatings, especially earthy or ochre colors. It can be used as a dye. The ochers are suited to frescos, which bind the pigment into the wall. Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Cleopatra the Alchemist of Greece Stone Age Botai - First Horse People Sylvia Rose Books Soil conditioner - added to acidic soils, it neutralizes soil acidity and infuses nutrients including iron, magnesium, and calcium. Water treatment - Use of limonite as a filter in water treatment systems removes impurities such as arsenic, lead, and other heavy metals. Leap to Flames: Why Did Empedocles Jump into Mount Etna? Lucrezia Borgia: Exploring the Enigma Zodiac Alchemy - Metals & Planets Sylvia Rose Books Cement - as a source of iron oxide in cement production, limonite is both a coloring agent and a flux to lower the melting point of raw materials. Research - as a common mineral in soil and sedimentary rocks, limonite can indicate past environmental conditions and events. Ullikummi - Rock Monster of Legend Rhinestones: Treasures of the Rhine Baltic Amber - Gold of the North Limonite is found throughout the world. Today the best sites for limonite include Lorraine, Luxembourg, Sweden, Germany (Bavaria, Saxony), Austria, England, and the United States. Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Chalcanthite is a brightly colored blue-green copper sulfate mineral. Its name comes from ancient Greek χαλκός (khalkós) 'copper', and ἄνθος (ánthos) 'flower, bloom'. Soluble in water, chalcanthite is used as a dye or mordant. Ingested, it can cause serious illness. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure See also: Copper - Ruddy Metal of Mystic Magic Sulfur - Treasures of the Underworld Alchemy: Science, Philosophy, Magic Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Because of its solubility in water, chalcanthite is most common in arid zones. Other names for chalcanthite include blue stone, bluestone, blue vitriol, and copper vitriol. Chemists know it as copper sulphate or copper sulphate pentahydrate. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Chalcanthite has a glassy or vitreous luster. It belongs to a group of hydrated sulfates, the chalcanthite group. The other sulfates are identical in chemical composition to chalcanthite but replace the copper ion of chalcanthite with manganese, iron or magnesium. See also: Limonite: Ancient Earth Pigments Woad, the People's Blue: Ancient Pigments Egyptian Blue - First Synthetic Color Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle This stone can be used commercially as copper ore but it's unstable and hard to find in significant quantity. On the Mohs hardness scale it's a soft 2. Like gold (2.5) it gets scratched easily. For comparison glass is 5-6. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure In natural form it's sought after by collectors, but it's not hard to grow the crystals with copper sulphate (sulfate). The copper sulphate is dissolved in water and creates crystals with heating then cooling the water. The crystals are separated by filtration. See also: Lead White & Minium Red: Colors to Die For Spiritual Magic - Numbers Three & Nine Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Crystals of pure copper sulphate can be made from impure samples by re-crystallization. In re-crystallization of copper sulphate the impure sample is dissolved in water, heated, and then cooled. The process forms pure crystals. Found naturally in oxidized copper deposits, chalcanthite often keeps company with other copper minerals. Frequently associated minerals include calcite, aragonite, brochantite, chalcopyrite, malachite and melanterite. See also: Prussian Blue - Delight of Artists & Poisoners Hymn to Nungal - Prison Goddess Mythic Fire Gods - Vulkan of Germania Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle As a dye it works best on protein fibers including wool and silk. It can also be used as a mordant for dye. Colors of chalcanthite range from Prussian blue to sky blue or cyan, and green blue hues. Copper is often a component of blue or green rocks and minerals. Copper-containing blue stones include lapis lazuli and turquoise. Copper is also responsible for the blue blood of crustaceans such as lobster, and cephalopods like octopus. See also: Kermes Insect & Ancient Red Pigments Gobekli Tepe - Neolithic Life Anatolia Medicine in Ancient Egypt: Ebers Papyrus Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books When dissolved in water chalcanthite has a metallic sweet taste. It is toxic and can cause copper poisoning with symptoms such as vomiting hematemesis (vomiting blood) hypotension (low blood pressure) melena (black tarry feces) jaundice (yellowish pigmentation of the skin) gastrointestinal problems abdominal pain coma See also: Pretty Poisons: Holly, Yew, Mistletoe Reiker For Hire, Victorian Era & Nixies Wandering Womb - Ancient Medicine Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Copper sulfate is obtainable at hardware stores, some garden centers and department stores and of course online. It's sold as a weed killer. fungicide, algaecide, root killer and herbicide for agriculture and non-agricultural use. See also: Egyptian Blue Faience - Ceramic Glass Lapis Lazuli: Vibrant Blue Gem of Ancients Khella - Ancient Health & Herbology Back to Top

Wandering womb or wandering uterus is a term used to describe a source of female illness, thought to be caused by a displaced womb moving around the body. The wandering womb causes the condition called female hysteria, with a wide range of dysfunctions. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure See also: Semen - Life & Death in the Ancient World Creation, Cattle & the Cosmic Cow Khella - Ancient Health & Herbology Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Female physical and mental illness associated with the womb is first described in ancient Egyptian medical texts c. 1900 BCE. This condition of the female body is discussed in the Kahun Papyri, a collection of texts regarding medicine, administration and mathematics. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Egyptian doctors relate certain mental and physical conditions to the uterus. There's no indication Egyptians believe the womb able to travel around the body and cause disease. Nor do they use the term 'hysteria'. It's coined by Hippocrates in the 5th century BCE. See also: Cattle Goddesses & the Cosmic Cow Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Wolpertinger - German Myths & Folklore Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle They do believe illness is caused by evil spirits or angry Gods, many of whom could attack a person through body openings such as ears, nose, mouth, anus and vagina. Disease spirits can also travel through long hair, one reason Egyptians shave their heads and bodies. Ancient Greek physicians and philosophers embrace the concept. In ancient Greece, wandering womb is also first described in the 5th century BCE, appearing in "Diseases of Women", the gynecological treatise of the Hippocratic Corpus. See also: Hathor: Cosmic Cow Goddess of Ancient Egypt Arcadia - Greek Lands of Ancient Gods Erinyes - Vengeful Women of Ancient Greece Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Plato's dialogue Timaeus compares a woman's uterus to a living creature wandering through her body "blocking passages, obstructing breathing and causing disease". Plato asserts the uterus is "sad and unfortunate" when it doesn't join with a male or bear a child. Aretaeus of Cappadocia describes the uterus as "an animal within an animal" or "a living thing inside a living thing". The womb causes symptoms by wandering around the woman's body, disrupting natural flow of fluids and putting pressure on other organs. See also: Book of the Heavenly Cow - Myths of Egypt Sekhmet - War Goddess of Ancient Egypt Medicine in Ancient Egypt: Ebers Papyrus Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle The treatment for such "hysterical suffocation" is aromatherapy. Pleasant scents are placed beneath a woman's genitals. and repulsive odors at her nose. Sneezing might be induced to drive the uterus back to its correct place. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure The concept of the "wandering womb" is considered the source of the term hysteria, attributed to Hippocrates. The word hysteria comes from the Greek cognate of uterus or womb, ὑστέρα (hystera). See also: Ancient Greek Cultures: People of Minos Seshat - Scribe Goddess Ancient Egypt Egyptian Blue - First Synthetic Color Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In the Hippocratic writings, a considerable range of women are susceptible to illness caused by wandering womb, especially the childless. In the second century the physician Galen discards the childless category. He describes the most vulnerable group as "widows, and particularly those who previously menstruated regularly, had been pregnant and were eager to have intercourse, but were now deprived of all this" (On the Affected Parts, 6.5). See also: Lavender (Lavandula) Magic of Nature German Nature Folklore - Fruit Trees Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Links Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books He also condemns the concept of the womb wandering around the body. His treatments include scent therapy and sexual intercourse. Additionally ointments are applied to the external genitalia; this is to be done by midwives, not physicians. Most Hippocratic adherents perceive retention of menstrual blood in the womb as a crucial problem. Galen believes the retention of "female seed" to be even more important. See also: Zircon - the Primordial Gemstone Cult of the Bull: Divine Sacrifice Figs - Food of the Ancient World Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Female seed is considered thinner than male seed. If retained in the womb, according to physicians, it can cause serious health problems. Medical practitioners believe the 'female semen' turns venomous if not released through regular climax or intercourse. Hysteria comes to be called the widow's disease. See also: Eye of Ra Egypt - Wrath of the Woman Curse of the Evil Eye & Apotropaic Magic The Way to Aaru - Egyptian Paradise Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Symptoms of hysteria, whether attributed to a wandering womb or venomous female semen, are many and varied. They include: blindness fainting lack of emotional control hearing loss hallucinations seizures overly dramatic or excitable behavior increased suggestibility falling into a trance amnesia loss of sensation A married patient can simply have sex with the spouse. Beyond sexual intercourse, belief prevails the body can be fumigated with scents, bringing the womb back to its proper position. See also: Seduction of Hedammu, Father of Snakes Nekhbet - Vulture Goddess of Egypt Egyptian Blue Faience - Ceramic Glass Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Lacking a sexual partner, the woman can self-medicate with a dildo. Dildos are among the world's most ancient tools. The earliest dildos are found dating back c. 30,000 years, or during the last Ice Age. Double-headed dildos appear c. 16,800 - 11,000 BCE. See also: Steatite (Soapstone) - Ancient World Bizilla - Shining Love Goddess Sukkal Nature Spirits of German Mythology Back to Top

Steatite or soapstone is a metamorphic talc rock used in carving for thousands of years. A medium-grained rock, or schist, soapstone is a soft rock with excellent workability. It can be finished to a smooth polish, textured or glazed. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Adventure See also: Sistrum (Sistra) Music: Ancient Egypt Hattusa Green Stone - Mystic Secrets Carnelian - Gems of the Ancient World Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books To the ancient Egyptians, steatite is a valued stone for making scarabs and seals like the cylinder seal above. The seal is glazed possibly with layers of Egyptian blue. The Egyptians mine the stone at Aswan along the Nile. Steatite is the earliest known glazed material. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Adventure The stone is favored by ancient Mesopotamians, who acquire much of their steatite from Tepe Yahya, today's Iran. They create ring and cylinder seals, beads, stelae, dishes, tools, jewelry, lamps and art. Figurines of soapstone are given as temple votive offerings. See also: Egyptian Blue - First Synthetic Color Scribes & Writing - Ancient Mesopotamia Aya - Goddess of Dawn, Mesopotamia Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle The Minoan civilization on Crete shows signs of soapstone use. A libation table of steatite is found at the Palace of Knossos. In northern Europe, soapstone is in good supply. The indigenous Sámi people of northern Scandinavia mine steatite for domestic or trade use. The oil lamps of the Sámi are called qulleq, traanilamppu (blubber lamp), seal oil lamp or whale oil lamp. The steatite dishes below come from the Inuit people of the Arctic, who call them by a similar name, qulliq. See also: Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Garnets - Gemstones of Blood and Life Figs - Food of the Ancient World Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The Inuit of the north are famous for carvings as ornaments or domestic needs. The qulliq or oil lamp is created of soapstone and used by the Inuit, Chukchi, and Yupik peoples. The lamp is the most important piece of furniture in the home. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Adventure Fluffy willow or moss of the Arctic tundra is collected to make wicks. Seal or whale oil goes into the shallow vessel. The wick is laid lengthwise at one end of the lamp. Women of the household light and tend the lamps. Among other uses, flames melt snow for drinking water. See also: Before the Vikings - Early Northern Cultures Salt Trade - the Most Precious Mineral Baltic Amber - Gold of the North Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The hardness of soapstone varies significantly depending on the amount of talc and other components. Soapstone wavers around 1 - 2 on the Mohs hardness scale. A fingernail will scratch it. Light scratches can be removed by rubbing gently with mineral oil. To compare, glass has a Mohs hardness of 5.5 - 6.5. Pure gold, or 24-karat gold, has a hardness of 2.5, copper 3 and steel 4 - 4.5. Diamond takes the top spot at 10. See also: Scribes & Writing: Ancient Beginnings Sailing - Bronze Age Sails & Sailcloth Turquoise: Precious Stone of Ancients Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Talc, the primary component of soapstone, is a magnesium-rich mineral. The stone is created by metamorphism (physical changes) and metasomatism (chemical changes) to the material in zones where tectonic plates are subducted, one plate sliding beneath the other. The geothermal action and compression alters rocks with heat and pressure, an influx of fluids, but without melting. Soapstone is about 4% water. Softer grades feel like soap when touched, hence the name. See also: Myth & Metallurgy - Metals of Antiquity Cleopatra the Alchemist of Greece Ambrosia: Divine Nectar & Immortal Gods Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Because the amount of talc varies, from 30% in building grades and 80% for carving grades, no fixed hardness can be given for steatite. Easy to carve and durable, soapstone has been a favorite of sculptors and creators throughout the world for millennia. Glazed steatite is the preferred medium for ancient Egyptian scarabs and amulets. Scarabs are popular for all classes of free citizens and serve as a type of status identification. Inscribed with glyphs significant to the owner, they contain the person's name or a pattern. See also: Architect Gods & Building in Mesopotamia Heqet, Frog Goddess of Egypt Sacred Scarab: Lucky Bug of Ancient Egypt Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In southeast Iran the ancient trading city of Tepe Yahya is a center for production and distribution of soapstone from c. 5000 BCE. Over a thousand pieces dating back to c. 2500 BCE are found at the site, an indication of active production and trade. In the Indus Valley, steatite is used as the substrate for Indus-Harappan seals (c. 2600 - 1900 BCE). After carving, the seals are fired at over 1,000 °C (1,830 °F) for several days. This alters chemical composition and increases hardness to about 5 on the Mohs scale. See also: Natron - Ancient Embalming & Household Salts Arabian Leopard: Bronze Age Predators Ullikummi - Rock Monster of Legend Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle In China, between c. 771 - 476 BCE, ceremonial knives are carved from soapstone. Soapstone is also used to carve Chinese seals. It's used as a type of writing pencil in Myanmar up to the 19th century CE. Later Vikings (after c. 800 CE) make soapstone cooking pots, noting their superior heat retention qualities. They trade these vessels at home and by sea. In Shetland, the farthest northern region of Scotland, the pots are used for processing fats. See also: Shen Rings Egypt - Divine Protection Nefertari Queen of Peace Ancient Egypt Bes: Household Protector God of Egypt Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Soapstone can be used for large scale works. Several medieval buildings in northern Europe are made with soapstone, amongst them Nidaros Cathedral, over 1000 years old. Above is a stunning exterior panel of Chennakeshava Temple, Belur, India c. 1200 CE. See also: Nanshe - Nature Goddess of Dreams Amethyst - Divine Purple Quartz Gemstone Anzû - Mesopotamian Monster of Mayhem Back to Top

Covering a large area in northern Europe in the 3rd millennium BCE, the Únětice (Unetice) culture is already an advanced society by the time the Nordic Bronze Age arises c.1700 BCE. For the Únětice it's a particularly productive time. The central core of the people is near Prague, and from there the culture radiated outward into Poland, Germany, Austria, Ukraine and other countries. See also: Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy Tiamat - Queen of Chaos & the Sea Pazuzu - Demon God of Mesopotamia Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Before the advent of the northern Bronze Age, the Únětice people dominate the Baltic Coast, trade and trade routes for Baltic amber and other goods. Potters and metallurgists, they develop advanced tools and weapons, techniques and skills. Únětice culture arises from earlier Corded Ware people. Únětice pottery and bronze objects appear in Britain, Ireland, Scandinavia, and Italy as well as the Balkans. Trade wares travel far. They're a progressive group of fierce fighters, early academics and merchants. See also: Kaska - Mountain Raiders of Anatolia Winter Tales - 4 Novellas Herbology & Lore: Stinging Nettle Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books At least from 2000 BCE the Únětice are developing a complex, hierarchal culture, organized into a society of social and labor classes, masters, servants and slaves. Slaves are part of almost all cultures throughout the world. In some places, they could buy their freedom. In others, they have talents appreciated by the lord, such as writing. In still others, slaves are worth a certain amount of silver on the open market, and are often chosen as sacrifices to Gods who demand human blood. See also: Anatolia - Alaca Höyük City of the Sun Asteria - Starry Gems of Myth & Magic Anzû - Mesopotamian Monster of Mayhem What distinguishes the Únětice from other cultures of the time is their fine metal work. Tools, weapons and ornaments show a mastery of metallurgy. Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Weapons produced from 2300 - 1950 BCE include triangular daggers, flat axes, stone wrist-guards and flint arrowheads. From 1950 - 1700 BCE come daggers with metal hilt, flanged axes, halberds and solid bracelets. Burials, a rich source of information about long-gone people, are either inhumation or cremation style. Among early people, burial and cremation practices fall in and out of favor in cycles. See also: Myth & Metallurgy - Metals of Antiquity Curse of the Evil Eye & Apotropaic Magic Botanical Alchemy - Lavender (Lavandula) Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle There are two types of Úněticean graves: flat, or barrow. Occasionally the body is cremated. Únětice people build cemeteries to house the dead, preferably on a hill close to water. Cemeteries are well organized, with graves and spaces between to walk. A cemetery or graveyard is a good sign of a settled culture. Of the barrow graves, about 50 have been found across Europe attributed to Úněticeans. Also called 'princely graves' they occupied space within a mound or tumulus. Many have been ruined or pillaged. See also: Song of the Loreley Wild Women and Winter Tales Mušḫuššu - Mythic Snake Dragon Sukkal Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The largest surviving mound today is 50 m (164 ft) across and about 1.8 m (6 ft) in height. Sometimes entire cities are erected on a grave mound, and each generation builds its living level atop the one before. The princely graves are so called because they belong to wealthy or famous people, and only the lord and sometimes family could be interred therein. A golden axe and jewelry dating back to 1800 BCE show the value people of the 2nd millennium BCE ascribe to gold. Gold is a metal of the Sun therefore the metal of kings. Other items of gold discovered include halberds, daggers and bracelets. See also: German Myth & Folklore: Moss People The Many Faces of Frau Holle Lamashtu, Baby-Eating Demon Goddess of Mesopotamia Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle A typical flat grave is 1.8 m (6 ft) deep and the same length. The graves are oriented in a north-south placement and the person is placed inside, slightly bent or flexed, always facing east. Únětice grave goods include 1-5 ceramic vessels, bronze jewelry and personal items, rings, hair clips, pins, bone artefacts (amulets and tools, including needles), occasionally flint tools. Even into the Bronze Age people value flint for its easy cleavage and clean sharp lines. Coffins are made of a single block of wood, or laid out like a stretcher for the body. People might be buried with no covering, or just a woven mat on top of the corpse. See also: 12 Days of Zagmuk: Chaos & the King German Folklore - Irrwurz or Mad Root Happy Thursday! Tidbits & Trivia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Únětice culture is especially known for its metal objects, including ingot torcs, flat axes, flat triangular daggers, bracelets with spiral ends, disk- and paddle-headed pins, and curl rings. The Únětice objects are distributed over Central Europe and beyond. Important trade links are established between the Únětice and the British Wessex people, which is the predominant culture in England during the Bronze Age. Throughout Europe, hoards can contain over 600 pieces. A hoard in Saxony had close to 300 flanged axes. See also: Castle Frankenstein - Legend & Lore Goats in German Myth: Erntebock & Habergeiß Blood Sacrifice, Twin Brothers & Creation Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The Nebra Sky Disc is one of the best known Únětice items. Gold and tin for the disc comes from Cornwall, south England. Copper comes from Austria. The gold plate technique on the disc originates in Britain. A similar technique is found on Switzerland's Thun-Renzenbühl axe, which also appears in Mycenaenean Greece. Early Bronze Age rings, ribs and axe blades from across central Europe are created according to roughly standardized weights. They would be assigned a certain value on the market. Throughout the known world trade took on standard measures creating consistent levels of worth. See also: Bull of Heaven - Inanna vs Gilgamesh Sacrifice of the Male: Temple at Uppsala Immortal - Quest for the Elixir of Life Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The so-called enigmatic tablets are source of debate for scientists. These clay tablets are inscribed with formula and progressions of geometric figures such as circles, lines, arrows and crosses. Current thinking gives them a function in trade, as calculators or accounts of credit. Over one hundred have been found. The Únětice also develop a luni-solar calendar with widespread use. Marks and signs on architecture and building angles help define the sun's place in the sky, and when it's time for sowing, when the equinox falls. See also: Sacrificial Creation Myths: Early People Germanic Mythology - Brook Horses Aufhöcker - Cursed Undead of German Myth Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Social structure is organized around aristocratic leadership on top of traditional clan-based layouts of farmsteads and hamlets. There is evidence of armed troops for defense. In later times, some elements of Úněticean pottery-making traditions appear in the Trzciniec culture as well. See also: Bronze Age Cultures - Trzciniec Blacksmiths: Iron, Metal, Gods & Myth Teshub: Hurrian Bronze Age Storm God Back to Top

Gold-of-pleasure (Camelina sativa) plant is a member of the mustard family Brassicaceae. By c. 2000 BCE it's a popular crop for lamp and household oil. In Switzerland evidence of Neolithic seeds and oil use is found in an alpine cavern. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure See also: Woad, the People's Blue: Ancient Pigments Figs - Food of the Ancient World Castor Oil, Wigs & Death in Ancient Egypt Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The Chalcolithic or copper age yields C. sativa finds at Pefkakia in Greece and Sucidava-Celei, Romania. During the Bronze and Iron Ages, camelina is an important agriculture crop in northern Greece, where the climate doesn't support olive trees. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure It's shown to be grown during the Roman Empire. By c. 600 BCE, it's intentionally sown in the Rhine River Valley, after developing for some time as a weed in flax fields. From its interaction with flax crops it's often called false flax or wild flax. See also: Linen, Hemp & Cotton - Fabrics of Ancient Egypt Ephedra - Oldest Medical Stimulant Herb Aya - Goddess of Dawn, Mesopotamia Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle The gold-of-pleasure plant has an especially high level of omega-3 fatty acids, uncommon in vegetable sources. Content may be up to 45%. Seeds contain 38 to 43% oil and 27 to 32% protein. The oil is golden yellow, giving the plant its colloquial name. Over 50% of the fatty acids in cold-pressed camelina oil are polyunsaturated. The oil is also abundant in natural antioxidants, such as tocopherols (active in vitamin E). A highly stable oil, it's resistant to oxidation and rancidity, important for travel and trade. See also: Butter - Food of Peasants & Barbarians Lavender (Lavandula) Health and Nature Baltic Amber - Gold of the North Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The vitamin E content of camelina oil is approximately 110 mg/100 g. It's used as a cooking oil for its almond-like flavor and aroma, and as a natural source of nutrients for humans and other animals. To extract oil a cold-press method is used. Heat corrupts the quality and flavor of the oil. Cold-pressing or expression is the physical process of crushing the essential oil glands in the seeds to release the oil. See also: Soap & Medicine Herb of Ancients Giant Cinnamon Birds of Arabia Nigella Sativa: Black Seed of Healers Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Cold pressing is used for most vegetable based oils, including flax seed, canola, castor oil, and oils of sesame and sunflower seeds. The plant matter is ground to a pulp, from which the oil is squeezed out or otherwise removed. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Even with basic equipment found in the landscape, the people of the Neolithic and Bronze Ages can extract quantities of oil to burn in lamps, use in cooking or keep skin supple. In lamps, vegetable based oils don't create soot as animal fat does. See also: Dream Interpretation (Oneiromancy) - Mesopotamia Bau - Healing Goddess of Babylonia Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Simple curved stone oil lamps are found dating before c. 10,000 BCE. They're also created by Inuit of Canada, who traditionally use seal oil. Tending the lamp is the role of the matriarch. The gold-of-pleasure is an ideal plant for Bronze Age cultivation. It's hardy even in poor soils and doesn't need much water. It resists insect, bacterial and fungus infestations, as well as the plant disease Alternaria brassicae. In lamps, vegetable based oils burn without soot. See also: Ancient Deities: Proto Indo European Gods Disease Demons & Doctors: Ancient Mesopotamia Jade - Jadeite, Nephrite & Jade Roads Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books A. brassicae affects members of the mustard family including broccoli, cabbage and rapeseed (canola). The disease kills off seedlings and younger plants and, causes yellow to brown leaf spots on older plants. In flax fields where C. sativa seeds are winnowed out, camelina proves to adapt by producing seeds similar in size to those of flax. Today it's often grown as a rotation crop or mixed crop with cereals. See also: Istustaya & Papaya - Dyad of Destiny Spiritual Magic - Numbers Three & Nine Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Medicinal benefits are similar to fish oils. Camelina is seen as a good vegetable-sourced alternative. It can help lower blood pressure by reducing the level of stress hormone, cortisol. In this way it also can calm anxiety. In humans, camelina is considered to have benefits for the heart. It's thought to reduce inflammation. Like other vegetable oils camelina improves hair luster and skin health with regular use. Oils seal in moisture to help stop skin drying, especially in hot climates. See also: Kohl: Eye Beauty Magic of Ancients Egyptian Blue Lotus: Visionary Beauty Song of the Loreley - Lethal Beauty Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In the ancient world Egypt is famous for the love of oils and perfumes, to scent the living and embalm the dead. Olive oils of Bronze Age Levant and Mediterranean countries are traded through the known lands. Gold of pleasure oils are most plentiful in northern Europe. See also: German Myth - Headless Horseman Herbology & Lore: Plantain Plant Nefertum: He Who is Beautiful Gods of Egypt Back to Top

Sacred prostitute (harīmtu) Shamhat is a Mesopotamian legend. She's a central character in part of the Epic of Gilgamesh. Shamhat is instrumental in taming the wild man Enkidu, essentially harmonizing the forces of chaos with those of order through lovemaking. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure See also: Bull of Heaven - Inanna vs Gilgamesh Ninurta (Ninĝirsu) - God of the People Inanna (Ishtar) - Goddess Queen of Heaven Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Gilgamesh (Sumerian: Bilgames) is a legendary king of Uruk in Mesopotamia c. 2900 - 2700 BCE. His deeds are recorded in the 2nd millennium BCE as the Epic of Gilgamesh. His father is Lugalbanda, a prior Uruk king. His mother is wise cow goddess Ninsun. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Gilgamesh is a bad king. Young, arrogant and cruel, he imposes high taxes and harsh punishment upon the people. He hoards his wealth and gives no gifts, laughs at the gods and bullies the priests. His subjects plead the deities for deliverance from his tyranny. See also: Creation, Cattle & the Cosmic Cow Wandering Womb - Ancient Medicine Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle After investigating the issue the gods agree Gilgamesh needs to learn humility and respect. They form the wild man Enkidu as a rival or 'double' of Gilgamesh. He's created fully grown of water and clay. His strength equals that of the king. In the Epic, Enkidu "knows neither people nor land.” He's often portrayed with hind legs, ears and tail of a bull, similar to the Bull-Men or Kusarikku conquered by hero god Ninurta. Enkidu wears a multi-horned helmet, usual headwear for principal Sumerian figures. See also: Sekhmet - War Goddess of Ancient Egypt Curse of the Evil Eye & Apotropaic Magic Seduction of Hedammu, Father of Snakes Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Described as the "luscious one", Shamhat is a temple prostitute or harīmtu (harimtu). She agrees to soothe the savage nature of Enkidu through sacred lovemaking. At a drinking pool in the hills, where the wild man has been seen, she waits for him. In nature religion a pool and its environs are sacred spaces. Pools and water are associated with magic, portals or dimensional crossover, healing, calm and insight. See also: Abzu - Primal Waters of Creation Ancient Marsh Muse - Rough Horsetail Nanaya - Goddess of Erotic Love From the Epic of Gilgamesh: When next he comes down to drink at the wells she will be there, stripped naked; and when he sees her beckoning him he will embrace her, and then the wild beasts will reject him. And now the wild creatures had all fled away; Enkidu was grown weak, for wisdom was in him, and the thoughts of man were in his heart. See also: 12 Days of Zagmuk - Chaos & the King Semen - Life & Death in the Ancient World Apis - Sacred Fertility Bull of Egypt Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Enkidu appears at the pool, naked and hairy. He's never seen a human woman who doesn't run away at the sight of him. He smells of rancid sweat but, indicated by his bull-man form he's strong and lusty. When Shamhat plies her charms he falls into her arms. For fourteen days and nights he finds comfort in her singular skills, her softness and sweet scent. They converse about civilization and the gods. In her embrace he becomes a man, and wild creature no more. See also: The Igigi - Why Humans are Created Demons - Evil Udug of Mesopotamia Cress, Watercress: Natural Health of Ancients Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Together they swim in the pool and he is cleansed of the smell and soils of the wild. She gives him clothes to wear, and he marvels at their warmth against his skin. She cuts away his wild mass of hair and shaves his birds-nest beard. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure When Enkidu sees himself in the mirror of pool he's at first frightened, then pleased. Shamhat massages his body with fragrant oils. Enkidu has never felt so good. Perhaps there's more to life than running around naked in the woods. See also: The Way to Aaru - Egyptian Paradise Ullikummi - Rock Monster of Legend Book of the Heavenly Cow - Myths of Egypt Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Shamhat suggests he come to Uruk and live at the court of the King. Enkidu is greatly flattered but his heart is yet wild. Torn, he races off into the mountains to be with his animal friends. To his chagrin the animals no longer recognize him. They fear his new looks and smells and run away. Broken-hearted, Enkidu realizes he has changed, and cannot return to his wild ways. He must now take the next step to civilization. See also: Istustaya & Papaya - Dyad of Destiny Kur - Underworld of Mesopotamia Carnelian - Gems of the Ancient World Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Rejecting his life in the hills, Enkidu follows Shamhat to Uruk, where Gilgamesh is king. Enkidu and Gilgamesh battle, and after some adversity finally admit they are equals in power. From that moment, Gilgamesh and Enkidu become great friends. They drink and feast together and undertake a number of adventures, including that of the great Cedar Forest and the giant Humbaba. See also: Humbaba: Giant Mountain Forest Man Wild Women and Winter Tales Khella - Ancient Health & Herbology Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle In the Epic, Shamhat is later mentioned when Enkidu is dying. He blames her for bringing him into civilization, a new world of experiences leading to his death. He curses her to life as an outcast. The Sun god Shamash reminds Enkidu that Shamhat satisfies him wholly before introducing him to Gilgamesh. Enkidu relents and blesses her, saying all men will desire her and offer her gifts of jewels. See also: Goats in German Myth: Erntebock & Habergeiß Lord Rodent (Ninkilim) Sumerian Pest God Cult of the Bull - Prehistoric Aurochs Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The Old Babylonian word for prostitute karkid translates to harimtu in Akkadian. In both senses the prostitute is listed as a functionary, or "a person who performs official functions or duties". This is illustrated in certain rites of kingship. See also: Reiker For Hire Victorian Crime Trilogy Industry & the Age of Monsters Lora Ley Adventures - Feast of Fools Back to Top

Nungal (Manungal) is a goddess of prisons in Mesopotamia. She can be empathetic or merciless. She's especially popular in the Ur III period (c. 2200 - 2100 BCE), worshipped in Nippur, Lagash and other major centers. See also: Hymn to Nungal - Prison Goddess Inanna (Ishtar) - Goddess Queen of Heaven Kur - Underworld of Mesopotamia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Her name Nungal means Great Princess. Along with her husband, Birtum, Nungal is associated with Kur, the Underworld or Great Earth. Her mother is Queen Ereshkigal, Goddess of Death, the Night and the Underworld. Her father is Anu, the oldest god. Her major cult center is Nippur; she also has temples at Ur and Lagash. Her worship extends throughout the lands and across cultures. She first appears in early Sumerian writings. See also: Ninhursag - Great Mountain Mother Kassite Empire: Rise of the Kassites Ishum: Night Watchman & Fire God Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Those in prison pray for her mercy. Families or friends of prisoners bring offerings to her temples for the safety and return of their loved ones. The House of Nungal brings suffering, starvation, disease, pestilence and victimization upon prisoners. The sorrow of the imprisoned becomes lamentation. See also: Disease Demons & Doctors: Ancient Mesopotamia Sin (Suen): Moon God of Mesopotamia Ninazu: Healing, Death, Snakes & War Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books With their laments prisoners can be purified of their crimes. They beg forgiveness of their personal gods, who act as protectors and also mediate between the punished one and the greater gods. In ancient Mesopotamia from the Sumerian period on, prisons are holding cells for people awaiting punishment or execution. During the time of Hammurabi (c. 1792 - 1750 BCE) punishment is brutal. Body parts are cut off, bones broken or eyes gouged out. See also: Lord Rodent (Ninkilim) Sumerian Pest God Hymn to Nungal - Prison Goddess Soap & Medicine Herb of Ancients Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The Code states, "If a son strike his father, his hands shall be hewn off. If he break another man's bone, his bone shall be broken." At the same time, the Code decrees a person innocent until proven guilty. There are no life sentences or long-term jail sentences. People can be sentenced for up to three years for non-payment of debt. Lawbreakers are often sentenced to labor in quarries, mines, on ships or building projects. See also: Humbaba: Giant Mountain Forest Man Edimmu: Evil Demons of Vengeance Disease Demons & Doctors: Ancient Mesopotamia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Crime and punishment vary greatly among regions. Death sentences may be given simply for withholding evidence of a crime, especially murder. Prison is brutal even for an interim stay. Men, women and even children are imprisoned. This is a place of despair and disease but also hope. Goddess of prisons Nungal is also called ama Nungal (Manungal) or mother Nungal. A hymn to her, Nungal in the Ekur, is preserved on clay tablets. See also: Scorpion Men of Babylonia Giant Cinnamon Birds of Arabia What is a Ziggurat? Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The hymn is written by a scribe accused of a grievous offense. The scribe is grateful to escape execution. It reads: "The gate of the great house, which is a furious storm, a flood which covers everybody; when a man of whom his god disapproves reaches it he is delivered into the august hands of Nungal, the warden of the prison; this man is held by a painful grip like a wild bull with spread forelegs" See also: Bull of Heaven - Inanna vs Gilgamesh Plant Lore: Stinking Nightshade, Henbane Suri (Śuri): Ancient Etruscan Fire God This hymn survives the ages because it's studiously copied in scribal schools. In ancient Sumer Nungal is the first known goddess of judgment. Her court includes the god Igalimma, known as the divine bailiff. She may appear with medicine goddess Nintinugga. The goddess of beer, Nikasi, is sometimes in Nungal's circle. Nikasi personifies both the pleasant and the unpleasant aspects of beer consumption from euphoria to sickness and death. See also Immortal - Quest for the Elixir of Life Ancient Deities: Proto Indo European Gods Nanshe - Nature Goddess of Justice Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle She's also accompanied by Eḫ (Akkadian - Uplum), the divine louse, whose mortal equivalents are known to infest prisons and other places of squalor. She's associated with Love Goddess sukkal Bizilla (Bizila), as well as Nayana, Goddess of Erotic Love. Nungal keeps a tablet with the name of every person in the world. It details the person’s actions in life, categorized as good or bad. In the Underworld, there's no punishment for an evil life led, unlike the Egyptian Underworld, where the heart is weighed and the deceased has to overcome challenges. See also: Ammitt - Devourer of the Dead Sacred Scarab: Lucky Bug of Ancient Egypt Taweret - Hippopotamus Goddess of Egypt Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Everyone is equal in death in Kur. Nungal's notations don't apply to the dead - they apply to the living. Ideally, she shows her compassionate side to those who honor her well and strive for a better life, and those innocent of accusations. She can show mercy to those who repent their actions and those who don't lead a regular life of crime. See also: Owl - Death, Messages, Mystic Wisdom Ishara - Goddess of Death & Desire Egyptian Blue Lotus: Visionary Beauty Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In the area of Dilbat, southeast of Babylonia, Nungal is equated with the name Ninegal, a goddess associated with palaces. Many palaces have on-site prisons. As an epithet Ninegal has been applied to the Queen of the Heavens Inanna as well. In ancient times, even after the Code of Hammurabi in 1750 BCE no official police force exists until c.1500 BCE, compliments of the Egyptians. Usually private policing is done by citizens, royal or hired security working with the citizens or against them, depending on the ruler. See also: Pazuzu - Demon God of Mesopotamia Curse of the Evil Eye & Apotropaic Magic Apkallu - Seven Sages of Mesopotamia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In Mesopotamia a national police force forms shortly after the example of Egypt. Citizen police function separately. The concept takes a while to catch on as the land is made of city-states each with its own legal systems. A palace complex often has the ruler's private administration and security forces. In Rome about the middle of the first millennium BCE the Vigiles, an organized group of men, fight fires and work to enforce the law. See also: Minoan Genius (Genii) Helper Spirits Agrippina & Son: Poisonous Plots of Rome Wine God Liber: Liberty & Liberal Libation Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Nungal's sukkal or divine attendant is Nindumgul, "Lady of the Mooring Pole". With Nungal, her dwelling place is the Underworld Kur. The mooring pole is connected to ships and water. Although groundwater deities live in Kur, the primary meaning in this case is solidity, strength and security. For traders, merchants and travelers a solid mooring pole is a place to tie up your ship and bring yourself or trade goods safely to shore. See also: Herbology & Lore: Rowan (Mountain Ash) Rise of Pan: Fertility Goat God Péh₂usōn Nature Spirits of German Mythology Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Under the name Bēlet-balāṭi, Nungal continues to be worshiped in Nippur in the first millennium BCE, in the temple of the local goddess Ninimma. Ninimma is the goddess of scribal arts, considered a divine scholar or librarian. See also: Sun God of Heaven - Hittite Solar Deity Lahar: Flock & Sheep Pastoral Goddess Abzu - Primal Waters of Creation Back to Top

Humbaba (Ḫumbaba, Ḫuwawa) features in the Mesopotamian poem Epic of Gilgamesh, which is often copied at scribe schools. A huge mountain man or man of the forest, he's described variously as a giant, troll and ogre, but is generally human in appearance. See also: Rise of the Phoenicians - Early Years Nanaya - Goddess of Erotic Love Mountain Gazelle: Wild Ancient World Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books A nature Earth entity, Humbaba is a staunch guardian of the Great Cedar Forest in the tales of Gilgamesh, the earliest known epic poem. First written in Sumerian, the best surviving version is a later Akkadian translation of the 2nd millennium BCE. At this time in Mesopotamia, cedar is in demand, but expensive. To reach Humbaba's realm of unending forests, a person must cross "seven ranges". Locations are suggested including Syria and the Iranian highlands. Finally the place is revealed in Lebanon. See also: Flooding of the Nile - Nature & Myth Ancient Wild Predators - Eurasian Lion Ereshkigal Goddess of Underworld & Night Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle The Epic of Gilgamesh covers the exploits of Gilgamesh on a quest for immortality or the meaning of life. In this story he's on a quest for wood. With his companion Enkidu he reaches the edge of the mythical forests. Gilgamesh wants to bring cedar wood back to Uruk to impress his people and gain their respect, as he's a foolish and greedy king. He and Enkidu begin chopping down trees, only to be stunned by a bolt of power from the angry Humbaba. See also: Bull of Heaven - Inanna vs Gilgamesh Neolithic Skull Cults & Ritual Skulls Tooth Worms of Ancient Mesopotamia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Humbaba is a fearsome sight, with his hostile mien and scowling features. His powers come from his seven terrors or auras, which render him invulnerable to magic or physical harm. It's unusual for a figure to have seven auras. Even a god has only one. The auras of Humbaba are made of wood, described as "cedar-like". They're enormous but can be cut into logs for transport. Gilgamesh tries to trick Humbaba into giving up his auras, thus rendering the giant powerless. See also: Ushumgallu: Dragon Lion Snake Sukkal Bizilla - Shining Love Goddess Sukkal Figs - Food of the Ancient World Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books He offers flour, leather, sandals and gemstones. He promises to wed his sister(s) to the huge mountain man, as it must be very lonely in this vast forest. He says, (I swear) by the life of my mother Ninsumuna and of my father, holy Lugalbanda: Because no one knows your mountain dwelling, to make your mountain dwelling famous, I will bring you Enmebaragesi, my elder sister, to be your wife in the mountains." See also: Shamhat: Sacred Prostitute & the Wild Man Butter - Food of Peasants & Barbarians Baltic Amber - Gold of the North Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Once again (Gilgamesh) spoke to him: (I swear) by the life of my mother Ninsumuna and of my father, holy Lugalbanda: Because no one knows your mountain dwelling, to make your mountain dwelling famous, I will bring you Peshtur, my little sister, to be your concubine in the mountains; So hand me your protective sheens; I want to become a member of your family! It takes some convincing, but finally Gilgamesh appeals to the basics of desire. Looking forward to taking a wife or two, Humbaba surrenders his auras to Gilgamesh. See also: Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Mulberry Tree (Morus): Uses, Folklore & Myth Pagan Solstice Fests: Mithras & the Sun Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books When Humbaba gives his auras to Gilgamesh he becomes vulnerable. Gilgamesh attacks with ruthless speed, punches him in the face and batters him to the ground. Too late Humbaba realizes the trickery of Gilgamesh. Humbaba begs Gilgamesh to let him go and pleads to the Sun God Utu (Shamash) for mercy, saying he never had parents and was raised by the Sun God. Feeling pity for him Gilgamesh asks his companion, Enkidu, what to do. See also: Scorpion Men of Babylonia Heqet, Frog Goddess of Egypt Lisin - Medicine Goddess of Ancients Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Enkidu cuts the giant's throat, killing him. He hacks off Humbaba's massive head and puts it in a sack. The body they leave for the vultures already circling high above. In triumph Gilgamesh and Enkidu go to the Creator God Enlil to show off their prize. Instead of receiving the praise they expect, Gilgamesh and Enkidu are severely chastised by Enlil for abusing the trust of Humbaba. See also: Edimmu: Evil Demons of Vengeance Sin (Suen): Moon God of Mesopotamia Papsukkal - Grand Vizier of the Gods Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle He tells them they should receive the same treatment, but gives them no punishment except disappointment in their actions. Enlil redistributes the auras of Humbaba: He gave Ḫuwawa’s first aura to the fields. He gave his second aura to the rivers. He gave his third aura to the reed-beds. He gave his fourth aura to the lions. He gave his fifth aura to the palace. He gave his sixth aura to the forests. He gave his seventh aura to Nungal. See also: Nungal (Manungal) Prison Goddess Steppe Trade Routes: Before the Silk Road Bau - Healing Goddess of Babylonia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The demand for cedar wood is so great, the land is almost deforested. Emperor Hadrian orders a stop to cedar deforestation during his reign (c. 117 AD). If not cut down, Lebanese cedar trees can live over a thousand years. See also: Kusarikku - Bull Men of Mesopotamia Primeval Deities: Goddess of the Dawn Wiedergänger - One Who Walks Again Back to Top

The oldest known megaliths are part of the amazing Neolithic site Gobekli Tepe (Göbekli Tepe). The region is inhabited from c. 11,000 to c. 8000. The megaliths, stone work and surrounding constructions allow a look into the Neolithic Age cults, buildings and people. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure See also: After the Ice Age - Neolithic Builders Istustaya & Papaya - Dyad of Destiny Gobekli Tepe - Neolithic Life Anatolia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books So far, excavations have uncovered 43 large megalithic pillars up to 5.5 m (18 ft) and 50 tons in weight. About 250 more, as well as various buildings, are indicated by geological media such as ground penetrating radar. About 5% of the site has been excavated. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Gobekli Tepe has been closed to visitors until recently. It's open daily until 5 pm (1700h), with public viewing areas. The site is located in the Taş Tepeler (Stone Hills), in the foothills of the Taurus Mountains. See also: Oldest Cult Megaliths - Gobekli Tepe Neolithic Skull Cults & Ritual Skulls Khella - Ancient Health & Herbology Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Overlooking the Harran plain and headwaters of the Balikh River, a tributary of the Euphrates, Gobekli Tepe is a tell or artificial mound on a flat limestone plateau. Limestone is the rock primarily used for carving and building here. At the quarry workers use tools of flint to cut through the limestone. The slabs are transported from bedrock pits approximately 100 m (330 ft) from the hilltop. These pillars are the oldest known megaliths in the world. See also: Red Madder: Organic Ancient Colors Neolithic Europe - Danube Valley Culture Before the Vikings - Early Northern Cultures Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Many of the colossal T-shaped pillars have stylized human arms and loincloths. Megalith creation and building construction at Gobekli Tepe begins about 9500 BCE, though use of the site may date earlier. The eight building phases are: Phase 1: The earliest settlement phase in 10th millennium BCE, first versions of enclosures and round-oval domestic structures, signs of (semi) sedentary lifestyle. Circular compounds appear c. 9200 BCE. See also: Cult of the Bull - Prehistoric Aurochs Divine Twins: Germanic & Greek Mythology Phosphorus: Element of Fatal Fascination Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Ranging from 10 to 30 m (33 to 98 ft) in diameter, their most notable features are T-shaped limestone pillars evenly set within thick interior walls. The walls are of smaller stones. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Phase 2: The early 9th millennium BCE sees significant modifications of design. New walls incorporate the first monolithic T-shaped pillars. The building of large structures escalates. Most are oval-round, though a rectangular floor plan begins to emerge. See also: Ancient Deities: Proto Indo European Gods Lead White & Minium Red: Colors to Die For Wandering Womb - Ancient Medicine Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Phases 3–5 Rectangular houses are built on the northern and western slopes. They go through various construction phases, such as addition of benches with T-shaped pillars and new inner walls creating a more rectangular space. The large enclosures are also modified. In this phase of construction walls are repaired and new ones built. Benches are used against interior walls. See also: Gnomes: Earth Spirits of Renaissance Mythology Sun Goddesses of World Mythology Chicken Soup: Chickens in German Folklore Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle About 8500 BCE, a slope slide destroys low-lying structures, causing major damage to the main enclosure as it flushes sediments and domestic rubble downhill. After an attempt at rebuilding, a second major slide forces abandonment of the main enclosure. Phases 6 and 7 Building activity gradually declines in the late 9th to early 8th millennium BCE. The "Lion Pillar Building" is erected. In the later period another terrace wall is built in an attempt to stabilize the north slope. See also: Sun Goddess: Creator to Cannibal Myths Australia Folk Magic: Fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria) Eye of Ra Egypt - Wrath of the Woman Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The type of artwork as in the pillar above is more common to sites of settlement rather than transient populations. Tap click pic for a better look, and to visit the Göbekli Tepe Research Project website. Phase 8: In the final occupation period, small habitations are built within the remains of the abandoned Neolithic settlement. Houses of the time might resemble those below, from Çatalhöyük (Catalhoyuk) c. 7400 BCE. See also: Çatalhöyük (Catalhoyuk) Neolithic Anatolia Turquoise: Precious Stone of Ancients Copper - Ruddy Metal of Mystic Magic Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Stones must be moved from nearby quarries about 100 m (338 ft). This is possible in various ways. Before the Panama canal, early ship builders create and cultivate a portage road along the 82 km (52 mi) stretch to move ships overland. A causeway can be prepared with lime, packed sand or on bedrock, smooth and well flattened. Lime is slippery when wet and water dramatically reduces friction. Later, lime can be worked into the earth to increase soil fertility. See also: Nefertum: He Who is Beautiful Gods of Egypt Curse of the Evil Eye & Apotropaic Magic Giant Cinnamon Birds of Arabia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Some neolithic groups and later ship-building cultures may try the log-rolling method. It's aided by watering the logs for natural lubrication. It's a lot of work, entailing a constant feed of logs at front of the block. Logs have to straight and consistent in size. After the last ice age c. 10,000 BCE, global temperatures rise about 4-5 °C (7-9 °F). Lands now arid have wooded areas and trees. Trees which might be available for potential rock rolling in the Gobekli Tepe region c. 9500 include stone pine (Pinus pinea). See also: Figs - Food of the Ancient World Ebony - Precious Wood of Ancients Land of Punt: Pre-Bronze Age Kingdom of Riches Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) also grows in the area, as do yew (Taxus baccata) and Turkish pine (Pinus brutia). None of these are found in construction. Today's landscape is almost barren of trees. Fire places yield charred remnants of almond and pistachio wood. Another method of moving megaliths comes from Scotland, handed down through generations. People lay seaweed in the path of stones, which are pulled using ropes, with little resistance. The feat is duplicated successfully by Scottish researchers. See also: Ancient Greece - the Mycenean Invasion Baltic Amber - Gold of the North Ancient Mesopotamian Cities - Uruk Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books While seaweed isn't available in the landbound area of Gobekli Tepe, other materials can be used as a slightly warmer, damper climate promotes freshwater plant growth. Use of wading bird motifs suggests water proximity. Hand-carved cisterns also hold rainwater. Other techniques for moving great stones include wetting sand in front of rocks and possible use of sleds or rockers, though these items aren't found at Gobekli Tepe. Again water acts as lubricant and wet sand doesn't pile up in front of the sled or stone like dry sand does. See also: Sulfur - Treasure of the Underworld Abzu - Primal Waters of Creation Ancient Deities: Proto Indo European Gods Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Floors of the oldest layers of the site are terrazzo, a conglomerate. Other floors are bedrock, with stone pedestals going back to c. 9000 BCE. Full burials are lacking at Göbekli Tepe, though stelae suggest corpses left to scavengers. A small burial ground with mulberry tree is thought placed by pilgrims. Up to 700 human remains have been found. See also: Creation, Cattle & the Cosmic Cow Shen Rings Egypt - Divine Protection Arabian Leopard: Bronze Age Predators Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Special status of the human skull is evident at this site, indicating the presence of the Neolithic skull cult. Complex ritual behavior is revealed at Göbekli Tepe. Marks on three partial skulls indicate they were de-fleshed, modified, and even painted. See also: Castor Oil, Wigs & Death in Ancient Egypt Elderberry Tree: Germanic Nature Lore Wild Women and Winter Tales Back to Top

Neolithic building societies arise as the last Ice Age ends c. 10,000 BCE. The end of the ice age leads to warming climates and migrations of scattered groups. They occupy areas previously uninhabited as the Neolithic Revolution accelerates. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure See also: Gobekli Tepe - Neolithic Life Anatolia Oldest Cult Megaliths - Gobekli Tepe Abzu - Primal Waters of Creation Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The end of the Ice Age marks the pre-Holocene period (Age of Humans) which begins c. 9700. Giant short-faced bears and giant ground sloths go extinct as early humans migrate to new lands. In North America, horses also go extinct at this time. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Other prehistoric animals, like the saiga antelope, get through to the modern era. Although endangered, this hardy antelope is making a comeback today from the brink of population wipeout. In Neolithic times it's an important prey animal. See also: Neolithic Skull Cults & Ritual Skulls Mountain Gazelle: Wild Ancient World Neolithic Europe - Danube Valley Culture Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle In c. 10,000 - 8200 BCE in today's Cyprus, the arrival of Homo sapiens destroys the only known populations of dwarf elephants and pygmy hippos. Large piles of bones attest to the animals and their popularity as edibles. Before Homo sapiens, Homo erectus spreads through Africa and non-Arctic Eurasia. The oldest known evidence of anatomically modern humans are fossils found at Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, dating to about 360,000 years ago. See also: Before the Vikings - Early Northern Cultures Kaska - Mountain Raiders of Anatolia Silver - Queen of Precious Metals Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Evidence of the ability to speak or create language appears c. 50,000 BCE. The oldest civilizations of Homo sapiens are progressive and communally structured. Early regions of human building and activity include: China - Yellow River c. 10,600 BCE; Huang He River c. 10,000 BCE Syria - Damascus c. 10,000 BCE Jordan - Jericho c. 9600 BCE Anatolia - Göbekli Tepe, megalithic site c. 9500 BCE Danube Valley - c. 9500 BCE Anatolia - Cilicia c. 8500 BCE Cyprus - Aetokremnos c. 8,200 BCE Anatolia - Çatalhöyük c. 7500 BCE Indus Valley - c. 7000 BCE Portugal - Almedndres Cromlech , megalithic site c. 6000 - 4000 BCE Southeast Europe - Vinča culture , Danube c. 5500 BCE Ireland - monumental tombs dating to 4500 BCE Mesopotamia - Uruk c. 4000 BCE Egypt - Faiyum (Crocodilopolis), middle Nile, c. 4000 BCE England - Stonehenge, megalithic site c. 3000 BCE See also: Megaliths & Building at Gobekli Tepe Tiamat - Queen of Chaos & the Sea Ancient Greek Cultures: People of Minos Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The beginning of the Bronze Age predates the end of the Neolithic c. 2000. After 3300 BCE, Bronze Age civilizations and settlements develop and expand at sites throughout the world. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Trade opportunities increase. Metals such as copper and bronze create better tools and weapons, though stone continues to be used. Buildings become palatial in scope. The Age of Kings begins. Me-baragesi is the first monarch, reigning in Mesopotamia c. 2700 BCE. See also: Ancient Mesopotamian Cities - Uruk Neolithic Nubia & Early Egyptians Ephedra - Oldest Medical Stimulant Herb Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Back in 10,000 BCE the Neolithic Revolution, also known as the First Agricultural Revolution, marks the transition of many human cultures from hunter-gatherer to agriculture and settlement lifestyles. This leads to building and population growth. In Neolithic times people travel in small tribal or clan groups. It's the era of the ubiquitous nomadic hunter-gatherer. The people follow routes of wild animals, fish the sea or inland waters and forage from the land. See also: Soap & Medicine Herb of Ancients Cinnamon - Spice Trade of Ancients Caspian Tiger: Bronze Age Wild Predators Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle The climate is about 4° warmer after the ice age, prompting migration northward as southern resources dry up. Droughts might be seasonal or longer, caused by yearly flood and dry cycles, river changing course or building of dams. In the arid south, settlements appear near wadis, or seasonal water supply centers such as streams and temporary lakes. Ground water is also an important resource. A fig tree in the desert is a sign of groundwater within 6 ft (1,8 m) of the surface. See also: Figs - Food of the Ancient World Turquoise: Precious Stone of Ancients Enuma Elish: Marduk & the Chaos Monsters Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books After the Ice Age, the people cultivate land, raise crops and domesticate animals. The dog is already domestic by c. 12,000 BCE, used for work, companionship or if necessary, food. Sheep and goats are domesticated c. 8200 BCE as the Neolithic Revolution accelerates. Not every Neolithic culture builds megaliths. A number of colossal structures are created later, such as the Easter Island stones (c. 1400 - 1600 CE). See also: Apep - Primal Chaos God of Egypt Aya - Goddess of Dawn, Mesopotamia Ullikummi - Rock Monster of Legend Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books These settled communities allow further domestication of livestock, animal husbandry and experimentation with crops, seeds and soil. Settlement sees an increase in skills such as weaving, medicine and metal work. The Neolithic city Catalhoyuk supports a population of up to 8,000 individuals in the 8th millennium BCE. In a nearby prehistoric cave are  skulls with horns (bucrania) are preserved in a sanctuary, attesting to an earlier or ongoing bull cult. See also: Çatalhöyük (Catalhoyuk) Neolithic Anatolia Bronze Age Trade of Mesopotamia Herbs & Natural Remedies - Ancient Egypt Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Built on coastal Mesopotamia in 4000 BCE, Uruk later becomes the first city to reach a population of 50,000. It's in the fertile crescent created in part by the waters and watersheds of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers originating in the Taurus Mountains. In Egypt the construction of the first pyramid, that of Khufu, occurs c. 2600, an overlap of the end of the Neolithic and start of the Bronze Age. In the fertile crescent a trend of monumental architecture prevails in Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Assyria and Egypt. See also: Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy Bull of Heaven - Inanna vs Gilgamesh Pomegranate - Food of the Ancients Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Architecture in Mesoamerica echoes that of the step pyramids of Egypt an ocean away. There the first monumental building civilizations arise in c. 2000 BCE with the Gulf Coast cultures, Olmec and Monte Alto Cultures. See also: Cleopatra the Alchemist of Greece Herbology & Lore: Caraway German Myth & Folklore: Imps Back to Top

Göbekli Tepe (Gobeki Tepe) is the oldest known group of cult buildings in the world, dating c. 9500 BCE. In central south Turkey near the Syrian border, the site reveals the earliest megaliths and a glimpse into the mysterious Neolithic Skull Cult. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure See also: Gobekli Tepe - Neolithic Life Anatolia Çatalhöyük (Catalhoyuk) Neolithic Anatolia After the Ice Age - Neolithic Builders Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Buildings in Göbekli Tepe are typically round with a diameter of 30 m (98 ft), moving into oval design. Later designs are rectangular. Various sized buildings are found. A building called Temple D by archaeologists dates to the first phase of Göbekli Tepe (c. 9500 BCE). Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure The 15 m (50 ft)-high, 8 ha (20-acre) tell upon which Gobekli Tepe is built is densely covered with ancient domestic structures and other small buildings, quarries, and stone-cut cisterns from the Neolithic, See also: Istustaya & Papaya - Dyad of Destiny Kanesh (Kultepe): Kārum City of Trade Neolithic Skull Cults & Ritual Skulls Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Megaliths throughout the site are the oldest known in the world. They share common features, such as the T design and stylized limbs. The stones are sourced at limestone quarries nearby and as bedrock. Limestone is favored for carving and building. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Earliest habitation of Gobekli Tepe goes back to c. 9600 BCE. The residents are thought to be Pre-Pottery Neolithic Age (PPN) people. The megalithic monuments have been described as stylized human statues, many inscribed with stylized arms and loincloths. See also: Megaliths & Building at Gobekli Tepe Lotan - Chaos Sea Dragon of Ugarit Ullikummi - Rock Monster of Legend Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Gobekli Tepe is seen as a cult center. Some believe the cultish buildings are erected by the last hunter groups, who are connected to agriculture and animal husbandry. Some believe it's a gathering site for a transient population. Limestone bedrock quarries supply the building material of Göbekli Tepe. Limestone is a soft sedimentary rock popular for construction and carving. In Neolithic times people quarry stone with flint tools and transport the blocks. Various transport methods are possible. See also: The Way to Aaru - Egyptian Paradise Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Ancient Deities: Proto Indo European Gods Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Stones are most likely sculpted on site to avoid damage while moving them, and raised using the dynamics of leverage. Spaces between standing megaliths are marked with curving stone walls. At center of the structure, the two tallest stones face each other like mountains. Mountains are an enduring motif in Neolithic and later myth and art. See also: Taurus Mountains: Bronze Age Bounty Girsu (Tello): Ancient Sumerian City Kur - Underworld of Mesopotamia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books It's not known exactly what the standing stones or relief carvings represent. Subjects of the artworks are sometimes carved close together. Some theorists suggest these represent a story or message rather than ornamental design. The local domestic and wildlife are well represented. Bull, wild boar, fox, snake, wild ducks and vulture are the most common animal motifs. See also: Nekhbet - Vulture Goddess of Egypt Mountain Gazelle: Wild Ancient World Yazilikaya: Sacred Site of the Hittites Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Others include wild ox or aurochs, donkeys, gazelles, lions and other felines existing at the time, like tigers and leopards. Wading water birds are represented by cranes, stork and ibis. The early people show a strong connection to the environment. Some suggest Gobelki Tepe is a cult center for nomadic or semi-nomad groups, who have a complex and shared system of beliefs, and desire to erect monumental structures. Theorists also assert the site is used only for ritual and otherwise uninhabited. See also: Cult of the Bull - Prehistoric Aurochs Arabian Leopard: Bronze Age Predators Nature Spirits of German Mythology Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Again theories differ, especially due to the existence of house-sized structures, and finds such as grinding wheels, tool-making resources, agricultural tools and vessels, Systems such as rainwater collection on the 20-acre site hint at a place of ongoing habitation. In the later Bronze age, it's common to support a community of workers in the temple complex to keep it operational. Although Neolithic burials are not found at Gobekli Tepe, researchers uncover evidence of Neolithic skull cult rituals. See also: Uluburun - Bronze Age Shipwreck Taurus Mountains: Bronze Age Bounty Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Archaeologists hope to find further evidence of the Early Neolithic skull cult at Gobekli Tepe or other sites. Skull cult adherents are thought to exhibit decapitated heads of venerated ancestors or slain enemies at spots so designated. See also: Red Madder: Organic Ancient Colors Ancient Cultures: Yamnaya Steppe People Garnets - Gemstones of Blood and Life Back to Top