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Weld (Reseda luteola) is a natural yellow dye and pigment made from a flowering plant of the Resedaceae family. Weld is praised by ancient Greeks and beloved by Romans for its bright yellow color in clothing and tapestries. It's a favorite yellow of Renaissance artists. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Adventure See also: Kaolinite: White Pigment with Benefits Limonite: Ancient Earth Pigments Gold-of-Pleasure: Bronze Age Crops Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The names of Reseda luteola include weld, dyer's rocket, dyer's weed, dyer's mignonette, woold, and yellow weed. A native of Europe and Western Asia, the plant is habituated in North America as a common roadside and field weed. It enjoys the company of other plants. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Adventure The plant yields a sunny bright yellow durable through washings. Combined with indigo it can create a range of nature greens. In antiquity weld is harvested throughout Europe as a yellow dye plant. See also: Woad, the People's Blue: Ancient Pigments Egyptian Blue Lotus: Visionary Beauty Bau - Healing Goddess of Babylonia Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle In Neolithic times people experiment with natural colors. Çatalhöyük (Catalhoyuk) is known for dye-making among other artisan skills by c. 7000 BCE. Vessels of dye made with madder root (red), woad (blue) and weld (yellow) are also found at prehistoric sites. Red, blue and yellow are the primary colors of the color wheel, from which all other hues are made. Other Stone Age dyes and pigments include kermes red, red ocher and yellow ochre. See also: Kermes Insect & Ancient Red Pigments Herbs & Natural Remedies - Ancient Egypt Garnets - Gemstones of Blood and Life Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Black from soot, charcoal or charred bone, or ground magnetite is also used in early art. White colors include those from kaolinite and kaolin clays; chalk (calcite) or other forms of limestone. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Adventure Reseda luteola carries the natural plant chemical glucobarbarin. The name comes from a distant relative, Barbarea vulgaris. Both plants belong the order Brassicales, the mustards and cabbages. See also: Jimson Weed, Witches & Zombies Germanic Mythology - Brook Horses Ephedra - Oldest Medical Stimulant Herb Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Reseda luteola is the most popular source of yellow weld dye in the Reseda family, due to high levels of the flavonoid luteolin. Mixing yellow weld with blue woad creates the color Lincoln green, made famous by Robin Hood and the merry men of Sherwood Forest. Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle In fabric dyes, Lincoln green trends between 1510 CE to the end of the century. Natural greens and other colors are crafted in many towns, with singular hues contingent on the local flora. Coventry blue for instance is named for the color of the local woad. Lincoln green is created by overdying blue woad-dyed wool with Reseda luteola or another yellow dye plant, Genista tinctoria (dyer's greenweed or dyer's broom). See also: Soap & Medicine Herb of Ancients Red Madder: Organic Ancient Colors Alchemy: Science, Philosophy, Magic Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books When crushed the yellow weld plant converts glucobarbrin to an enzyme, barbarin. Another enzyme converts barbarin into resedine. They're both alkaloids but unlike other alkaloids don't exist in the plant itself. They form only when the plant is crushed. Glucobarbarin is the element which attracts cabbage butterflies wanting to lay eggs. Apart from this, scientists have no idea what the alkaloids are for. Many more cabbages may be crushed before enlightenment. See also: Herbology & Lore: Stinging Nettle Elderberry Tree: Germanic Nature Lore Curse of the Evil Eye & Apotropaic Magic Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Weld is in recorded use by the first millenium BCE. However its use may arise earlier than either woad or madder, and it's known in Neolithic times. In folk medicine the plant is used for pain-relief, antiseptic, and anti-inflammatory and possible mild narcotic properties. A vigorous, tough plant, weld grows in waste piles and field edges. Native to Egypt and the Middle East, it prefers dry soils and places where earth has been disturbed. It can grow in ditches, urban sites or garbage dumps, along with jimson weed. See also: Queen Eleanor & the Calamitous Crusade Horse in Dreams - Meaning of Horses Before the Vikings - Early Northern Cultures Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Weld is the most popular yellow dye throughout the Middle Ages and later centuries. By the end of the 19th century, yellow of quercitron becomes the preference. Quercitron is a yellow natural dye from bark of the Eastern Black Oak (Quercus velutina) in North America. Historically, France is a major exporter of weld. To make the yellow dye, soak the weld in water overnight. Next day simmer about an hour. Do not boil. Let the dye bath cool. Strain. Add fibers and leave them in the dye bath overnight. Herbology & Lore: Caraway Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Nabarbi - Rustic Goddess of Pastures Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books According to Gilman, Peck and Colby in the 1905 publication "Weld": "Good weld for dye must have flowers of a yellow or greenish color, and abound in leaves; that which is small, thin-stemmed, and yellow is better than that which is large, thick-stemmed, and green; that which grows on dry, sandy soils is better than that produced on rich and moist soils. For the greatest production of coloring matter, the plant should be cut before the fruits show much development, otherwise the pigment diminishes. Dye from weld serves equally for linen, wool, and silk, dyeing with proper management all shades of yellow, and producing a bright and beautiful color." See also: Linen, Hemp & Cotton - Fabrics of Ancient Egypt Hippomancy: Sacred Horse Divination Lapis Lazuli: Vibrant Blue Gem of Ancients Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle During the Renaissance, artisans favor weld yellow due its lightfastness and bright color. Used in woven tapestries of Central Asia, Turkey and Europe, weld is the preferred yellow flower dye. Shades of weld can vary from pure yellows to golden shades and forest greens. Weld can also yield a lake pigment for painting. A lake pigment is created from dye or an organic source. This is a multi-stage process of heat and natural chemical treatment, adding soda ash and a binder such as alum. See also: Turquoise: Precious Stone of Ancients Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Winter Tales - 4 Novellas Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In Egypt, weld is cultivated for fabric dye. The fabrics preferred by the ancient Egyptians are linen, hemp and later, cotton. They eschew wearing wool. In the time of the Pharaohs it's considered impure; nor is it practical in the hot climate. During the Tūlūnid period in Egypt (c. 868-905 CE) bands of tapestry trim in wool or silk, are woven into white or dark green linen garments. Metal threads might be included for extra gleam. See also: Hathor: Cosmic Cow Goddess of Ancient Egypt Milk & Dairy: Ancient Lactose Gene Nature Spirits of German Mythology Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Today reseda is a primary dye for the wool tapestries at the Ramses Wissa Wassef Art Centre in Giza, Egypt. Each February, the reseda is harvested for the annual wool dyeing event among all the artists at the center. Growing, harvesting, dyeing and drying are all done according to traditional methods. The yellow of weld lends itself to easy mixing with other earth colors and nature-based dyes. See also: Chalcanthite: Crystal Blue Explosion Pretty Poisons: Holly, Yew, Mistletoe Wandering Womb - Ancient Medicine Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In the first century CE, Greek writer Dioscorides lists weld as a plant widely used for dying cloth a vibrant yellow. Romans use weld to dye wedding garments, as well as the robes of the Vestal Virgins. See also: Egyptian Blue - First Synthetic Color After the Ice Age - Neolithic Builders Aya - Goddess of Dawn, Mesopotamia Back to Top

Among the May Day celebrations is Hexennacht or Witches' Night, from dusk April 30 to dawn May 1. On that night, they say witches gather atop the Brocken, the highest place in the Harz Mountain Range of Germany. The Brocken is also home to a spectral apparition. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure See also: Goats in German Myth: Erntebock & Habergeiß Butzemann, Witches & Nyx - Scare 'em Good German Vampires - Nachzehrer Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The highest peak in northern Europe, the Brocken overlooks rolling hills of forest and fog. In the old days, on Hexennacht witches come from far and wide in celebration of spring. Gatherings begin before recorded history, as the Brocken has a magical secret of its own. Later the gatherings are said to be revels with the Devil. While the Christian Devil doesn't appear until Anno Domini, the Hebrew ha-satan is first mentioned in the Abrahamic Book of Job, written between 931 and 721 BCE. See also: Jimson Weed, Witches & Zombies Curse of the Evil Eye & Apotropaic Magic Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle A śāṭān (Hebrew: שָׂטָן) is an accuser or adversary. Ha-Satan hasSāṭān (הַשָּׂטָן) refers to "the Satan", at first a subordinate then adversary of Yahweh. The earliest mention of a witch comes from Hebrew Biblical references written between 931 and 721 BCE. See also: German Myth & Folklore: Elves Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files Aufhöcker - Cursed Undead of German Myth Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In the story, Saul, the first king of Israel, needs advice on the upcoming battle with the Philistines, and Yahweh is not being helpful. Saul summons the Witch of Endor to raise the spirit of the prophet Samuel. It doesn't go well for Saul. The prediction is doom. His two sons die in battle and Saul takes his own life. The witch is the oracle or diviner, a profession known for thousands of years as priestess, shaman or spirit worker. As a medium she also communicates with the dead. See also: The Mystic Victorian - Fortune Telling Ornithomancy - Prophecy by the Birds Wiedergänger - the Undead Walk Again Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Witches go back to Mesopotamian times, when magic and spirituality are part of normal daily life. At this time, witches are not specifically considered evil. They can take light or dark forms to help others using a combination of magical and medical knowledge. The word witch comes from the Old English (450 CE - 1150 CE), masc. wicca and fem. wicce. Throughout Europe society is suffused with nature magic. Demonizing these beliefs, laws are passed against witchcraft, defined as "using supernatural powers to harm others". See also: Disease Demons & Doctors: Ancient Mesopotamia Ḫulbazizi - Ancient Exorcism Ritual Sphinx - Mythical Monster of Ancients Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle European witchcraft goes back to Classical Antiquity (8 BC - 5 AD). Rome still has pagan beliefs. Christianity begins its spread in the first century AD. By 310 AD it's the legal religion of Rome. Crop failure, famine, sickness, poverty are blamed on witches, who by the Middle Ages are automatically connected to Satan. The 1428 AD Valais Witch Trials in Switzerland comprise the first systematic European Witch-Hunt. It lasts eight years, causing deaths of 367 people. See also: Divine Twins: Germanic & Greek Mythology Hippomancy: Sacred Horse Divination German Myth - Werewolves Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books On Hexennacht in Germany, powers of magic and May day revelry sizzle through the air as the witches start their wild ride. People of antiquity hang charms and perform rituals, and use prayer to guard against evil energies. They sprinkle wild rue, a toxic plant in large doses, braid red ribbons in the manes of horses, entomb dead cats or spell bottles in the walls, and don't go out after dark. An iron knife buried at the front door prevents entry by malevolent entities. See also: Blacksmiths: Iron, Metal, Gods & Myth Mythic Fire Gods: Hephaestus of the Greek Stone Age Botai - First Horse People Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Citizens hang iron horseshoes to ward off hostile magic. They carve hexafoils, or 6-petal daisy wheels, and other anti-evil marks such as the Drudenfuß (Drudenfuss) or Drude's Foot in walls or beams. Drude is an evil spirit whose name becomes synonymous with 'witch.' The Drudenfuß is known by various names including Drudenkreuz "drude's cross"; Alpfuß or Alfenfuß "elf-foot" or Alpkreuz "elf-cross". It may also be called Pentalpha (pentagram) or Fünfstern (Five-Star). While the 5-pt star is preferred, the Drudenkreuz will rarely have six. See also: Great Women Artists - Käthe Kollwitz German Folklore - Irrwurz or Mad Root German Myth - White Ladies & Changelings Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In the 9th century AD, it all changes. The traditional Hexennacht is replaced with Walpurgisnacht, named for St. Walburga of Francia (now Württemberg). The people are told Walburga has the power to repel witchcraft. People of antiquity are practical polytheists and see no harm in being careful. They invoke the saint along with undertaking the age-old traditional rituals. See also: Horse in Dreams - Meaning of Horses Fertility Rituals - the Sacrificial God Linen, Hemp & Cotton - Fabrics of Ancient Egypt Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle By the 10th and 11th centuries Christianity has a firm foothold in Europe. The First Crusade (1096 AD) is about to begin. Meanwhile, in myth and lore, witches put flying ointment on their spindles or distaffs, pack up the goats and cats and frolicking imps and go off to the Brocken anyway. Superstitious activities of fearful mortals mean little so far. See also: Salt Trade - the Most Precious Mineral Edimmu: Evil Demons of Vengeance Ammit - Eater of the Heavy Heart Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In his famous 1808 work, Faust, German polymath Johann Wolfgang von Goethe describes the Brocken as the site of witch festivities on Walpurgisnacht: "Now, to the Brocken, the witches ride; The stubble is gold and the corn is green; There is the carnival crew to be seen, And Squire Urianus will come to preside. So over the valleys, our company floats, With witches a-farting on stinking old goats." In 1883 the scholar Jacob Grimm writes, “There is a mountain very high and bare… whereon it is given out that witches hold their dance on Walpurgis night.” See also: Oldest Cattle Cult 6000 BCE - Arabia The Many Faces of Frau Holle Bird Woman Elwetritsch: German Folklore Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The scholarly Grimms also identify the ancient German goddess Frau Holle / Hulda / Holda as a powerful female deity with different facets. She embodies aspects of the mother goddess and predates the Norse pantheon. As pagan belief fades, Frau Holle becomes associated with witchcraft, or harmful magic, because of her leadership role in the Wild Hunt; because her strength threatens the dominant ideology; and her aspect of domestic goddess and receiver of souls. See also; Cinnamon - Spice Trade of Ancients Brunhilde: Tragic Germanic Warrior Queen Cleopatra the Alchemist of Greece Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Frau Holle is a patron of spinning and weaving, which like many women's arts is linked to witchcraft, as in weaving a spell. Early witches fly on spindles, pointed rods used when spinning fibers by hand. The spindle twists the wool to create yarn or thread. Brooms are a more recent mode of transport. Mention of witches on brooms first appears in 1451, in French poet Martin Le Franc's manuscript Le Champion des Dames (Defender of Ladies). See also: German Myth - Harvest Spirits Woad, the People's Blue: Ancient Pigments Rhinestones: Treasures of the Rhine Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Witchcraft is associated with harmful magic well into the 20th century. Contemporary neo-pagan and Wiccan groups popularize the concept of benign witchcraft or spiritual observance as opposed to malevolent magic, reviving pre-Christian nature beliefs. In the medieval Old World, witches can be male or female or both, although women are especially guilty when accused. Witches are said to indulge in lascivious or obscene behavior. See also: Nanaya - Goddess of Erotic Love Wandering Womb - Ancient Medicine Women of Alchemy - Mary the Jewess Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Said to be shape-shifters who can turn to wolves or cats, they can also cast the evil eye from a distance, rendering cows dry and fields barren. They send elves out to spread disease. They cook and eat small children lost in the woods. Walburga is an 8th century English nun from Devon. Her brother opens an abbey at Heidenheim in Francia, now Baden-Württemberg, Germany. He names her his successor when he dies, making her an abbess. See also: German Myth - the Lutzelfrau Eschenfrau: Wicked Ash Tree Woman A Viking Christmas Yule Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Walburga spends much time trying to convert Germanic pagans to Christianity. She passes away peacefully in 777 or 779. Almost a century later, in 870, her relics are brought to Eichstätt, Bavaria, and she's canonized. At Eichstätt, her bones are placed in a rocky niche. According to stories the tomb begins to exude a miraculous therapeutic oil. See also: The Strange Case of Rudolf Diesel Pioneering German Women - Bertha Benz Asteria - Starry Gems of Myth & Magic Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Pilgrims continue to come by the thousands to visit her shrine and purchase the miracle oil. Because the magical production of the oil is not seen by adherents as witchcraft, it fattens the wallets of Eichstätt in both religious and secular contexts. German Catholics celebrate May 1 as Walburga's day of canonization. The night of April 30 is marked as Walpurgis Night or Walpurgis Eve. In modern times it's a night of Hallowe'en style pranks. Hexennacht is bigger than Halloween in Germany until recently. See also: Ancient Deities: Proto Indo European Gods Immortal - Quest for the Elixir of Life Mythic Fire Gods - Vulkan of Germania Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Nowadays, our witches put jimsonweed flying ointment on their Vroombas and take off to the Brocken in the Harz Mountains every May Day Eve. They want to arrive before nightfall. Not only is the Brocken the highest point of the Harz, it's also home to a miracle of light. The Brocken Specter (Spectre) is the enlarged shadow of the observer reflecting from clouds, surrounded by a bright colorful halo of glory rings or radial rainbow. The halo resembles the aura often portrayed around the head of a saint. See also: Reiker For Hire Victorian Crime Trilogy Milk & Dairy: Ancient Lactose Gene Pomegranate - Food of the Ancients Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle The effect appears when the sun shines from behind the observer onto a large area of fog or cloud. Dawn and dusk are the best times to see one, as the sun is low. The term Brocken Specter originates in 1780. Johann Silberschlag, pastor and natural philosopher, observes the phenomenon and writes about the experience. It becomes a major attraction of the Brocken. In his poem, Constancy to an Ideal Object, English Romantic poet Coleridge highlights his experience. See also: Linen, Hemp & Cotton - Fabrics of Ancient Egypt Butter - Food of Peasants & Barbarians Queen Eleanor & the Calamitous Crusade Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Constancy to an Ideal Object And art thou nothing? Such thou art, as when The woodman winding westward up the glen At wintry dawn, where o’er the sheep-track’s maze The viewless snow-mist weaves a glist’ning haze, Sees full before him, gliding without tread, An image with a glory round its head; The enamoured rustic worships its fair hues, Nor knows he makes the shadow he pursues! Samuel Taylor Coleridge, 1828 - after encountering a Brocken Specter See also: Lora Ley Adventures - Feast of Fools Great 19th Century German Woman Artists Herbology & Lore: Poison Hemlock Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books These days, neo-pagans, nature worshippers, specter seekers, witches and warlocks ascend the Brocken on the night of April 30 to celebrate the arrival of spring. It's an atmosphere of community, revelry and a spark of magic. See also: Great 19th Century German Woman Artists Ancient Marsh Muse - Rough Horsetail Song of the Loreley - Lethal Beauty Back to Top

Jimson (Datura stramonium) is among the herbs and plants of magic and healing. It's known as a flying ointment for witches, a folk medicine and lethal toxin. A branching aggressive herb with trumpet-shaped flowers, jimson belongs to the nightshade family. See also: Plant Lore: Stinking Nightshade, Henbane Witches' Night - Hexennacht Elderberry Tree: Germanic Nature Lore Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Also known as thorn apple, jimsonweed, devil's snare, or devil's trumpet, Jimson has long use as a hallucinogenic, to bring on visions, a trance state or occult experience. Native to North America, jimson weed comes to Europe during the Renaissance (15th-17th century). Jimson is named for Jamestown, Virginia. The mind-altering effects are discovered by soldiers at the Battle of Bacon, an armed 1676-1677 rebellion led by Nathaniel Bacon. It starts when Colonial Governor Berkeley refuses to drive Native Americans out of Virginia. See also: Queen Eleanor and the Calamitous Crusade Rhinestones: Treasures of the Rhine Butzemann, Witches & Nyx - Scare 'em Good Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle All parts of the plant are toxic. The seeds are especially poisonous. Robert Beverley Jr, 1705 author of The History and Present State of Virginia, Book II: Of the Natural Product and Conveniencies in Its Unimprov'd State, Before the English Went Thither, writes: "The James-Town Weed (which resembles the Thorny Apple of Peru, and I take to be the plant so call'd) is supposed to be one of the greatest coolers in the world. See also: Herbology & Lore: Poison Hemlock Reiker for Hire - Murder in the Cards Nature Spirits of German Mythology Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books This being an early plant, was gather'd very young for a boil'd salad, by some of the soldiers sent thither to quell the rebellion of Bacon (1676); and some of them ate plentifully of it, the effect of which was a very pleasant comedy ... ... for they turned natural fools upon it for several days: one would blow up a feather in the air; another would dart straws at it with much fury. Another, stark naked, was sitting up in a corner like a monkey, grinning and making mows [grimaces] at them; a fourth would fondly kiss and paw his companions, and sneer in their faces with a countenance more antic than any in a Dutch droll. See also: Ephedra - Oldest Medical Stimulant Herb Agrippina & Son: Poisonous Plots of Rome Herbology & Lore: Death Cap Mushrooms Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In this frantic condition they were confined, lest they should, in their folly, destroy themselves—though it was observed that all their actions were full of innocence and good nature. Indeed, they were not very cleanly; for they would have wallowed in their own excrements if they had not been prevented. A thousand such simple tricks they played, and after eleven days returned themselves again, not remembering anything that had passed." See also: Alchemy: Science, Philosophy, Magic Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Myrrh - Mystique, Death & Divinity Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Local names for Datura stramonium include thornapple, moon flower, hell's bells, devil's trumpet, devil's weed, tolguacha and Jamestown weed. It's also called stinkweed, locoweed, pricklyburr, false castor oil plant and devil's cucumber. Today, it grows wild in all the world's warm and temperate regions, where it is found along roadsides and at dung-rich livestock enclosures. In Europe, it's a weed in garbage dumps and wastelands and is toxic to animals who ingest it. See also: Castor Oil, Wigs & Death in Ancient Egypt Mercury (Quicksilver): Miracle Metal of Alchemy Winter Tales - 4 Novellas Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In South Africa, it's colloquially known by the Afrikaans name malpitte or mad seeds. The seed is thought carried by birds and deposited in droppings. Seeds might lie dormant in the earth for years. They germinate when soil is disturbed, as in gardens or ditches. Datura stramonium intoxication (poisoning) can cause dry mouth delirium hallucinations hyperthermia (overheating) tachycardia (increased heart rate) bizarre behavior urinary retention severe mydriasis (pupil dilation) causing painful photophobia (light aversion) for several days serious amnesia Symptoms begin 30 - 60 minutes after consuming the plant. Symptoms last on average 24-48 hours, but may linger up to two weeks. Intravenous physostigmine can be administered in severe cases as an antidote. See also: Broad Beans (Fava) - Bronze Age Crops Nigella Sativa: Black Seed of Healers Prussian Blue - Delight of Artists & Poisoners Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books A principle component of Datura is atropine, used in traditional medicine and recreation for centuries. It's used today to treat a slow heart rate and over-salivation or drooling, which is why is has symptoms such as dry mouth and fast heartbeat. In folk medicine the leaves are generally smoked in cigarette or pipe form. During the late 18th century, the English Physician General of the East India Company, James Anderson, popularizes it in Europe. In China it's sometimes used as anesthesia during surgery. See also: Medicine in Ancient Egypt: Ebers Papyrus Wandering Womb - Ancient Medicine Kaolinite: White Pigment with Benefits Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle From John Gerard's Herball (1597): "[T]he juice of Thornapple, boiled with hog's grease, cureth all inflammations whatsoever, all manner of burnings and scaldings, as well of fire, water, boiling lead, gunpowder, as that which comes by lightning and that in very short time, as myself have found in daily practice, to my great credit and profit." Henry Hyde Salter recommends D. stramonium as treatment for asthma in his 19th-century work On Asthma: its Pathology and Treatment. Smoking of herbs, including D. stramonium, is thought to provide relief for asthmatics since antiquity and into the early 20th century. See also: Herbs & Natural Remedies - Ancient Egypt Mythic Fire Gods - Vulkan of Germania Eschenfrau: Wicked Ash Tree Woman Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Throughout the Americas, indigenous peoples such as Aztecs, Cherokee, Algonquian, Navajo, Luiseño or Payómkawichum of California and indigenous people of Marie-Galante (Guadeloupe) use this plant in sacred ceremonies for its hallucinogenic properties. In Ethiopia, some students and debtrawoch (lay priests), use D. stramonium to open the mind to be more receptive to learning, and creative and imaginative thinking. These are also properties of the crown chakra in Hinduism. See also: Herbs & Natural Remedies - Ancient Egypt Folk Magic: Fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria) German Vampires - Nachzehrer Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The common name Datura originates in India. There, a sister species Datura metel is considered particularly sacred. It's believed to be a favorite of Shiva in Shaivism. Both Datura stramonium and D. metel are used by some sadhus and charnel ground ascetics, such as the Aghori, as both an entheogen and ritual poison. It's sometimes mixed with cannabis, and poisonous plants like Aconitum ferox, to create dysphoric experiences. See also: Linen, Hemp & Cotton - Fabrics of Ancient Egypt Destroying Angel: Nature's Deadly Poison Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The ascetics use unpleasant or toxic plants such as these in order to achieve spiritual liberation (moksha), in settings of extreme horror and discomfort. Due to its visionary ascriptions, jimsonweed has a reputation for magical uses in cultures throughout history. Anthropologist Wade Davis identifies D. stramonium, called "zombi cucumber" in Haiti, as a central ingredient of the concoction used in vodou to create zombies. The initial drug, tetrodotoxin, comes from the puffer fish. The victim appears dead, but is buried alive. See also: Soap & Medicine Herb of Ancients Khet, the Body: Death Rites of Ancient Egypt Dream Interpretation (Oneiromancy) - Mesopotamia Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle The bokor eventually comes to dig the person up. By this time the person is having serious mental trauma. In these conditions the not-dead bonds psychologically to the 'savior' making the process of zombi-ism more effective. D. stramonium puts the victim in a trance-like state. In European witchcraft, D. stramonium is considered a common ingredient, with other plants of the nightshade family, of witches' flying ointment. Jimson also creates the hallucinogenic effects of magical or lycanthropic (shapeshifting to a wolf) salves and potions. See also: German Myth - Werewolves Egyptian Blue Lotus: Visionary Beauty Herbology & Lore - Chamomile Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books During the witch hunt obsession in Europe, peaking in Germany in the 1620s and England in 1640 - 50, it's unlucky or inappropriate to grow the plant in one's garden. It's considered an aid to spells and incantations. See also: Germanic Mythology - Brook Horses Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Links The Mystic Victorian - Fortune Telling Back to Top

Kaolinite, a white clay mineral, is among the first pigments. It's created by the weathering of minerals found in stone. Present in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock beds, kaolinite is a plentiful earth pigment used since the pre-Neolithic as a natural coloring. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Adventure See also: Lead White & Minium Red: Colors to Die For Limonite: Ancient Earth Pigments Oldest Cult Megaliths - Gobekli Tepe Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Kaolinite is naturally whitish in tone but may be colored pale pink, cream, brown, gold, yellow and sometimes blue or green. Tan and brown are the most common color variations. For a brighter white the pigment needs more processing. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Adventure Tints come from inclusive earth pigments such as yellow and red ocher, or trace metals such as copper, or more rarely, iron. Muscovite (mica), quartz, feldspar, a mineral making up 60% of the Earth's crust; and anatase (a black oxide mineral) are also found in kaolinite. See also: Garnets - Gemstones of Blood and Life Kermes Insect & Ancient Red Pigments Woad, the People's Blue: Ancient Pigments Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle A relatively soft rock, kaolinite measures 2 - 2.5 on the Mohs scale of hardness, about the same as gold. Copper is 3 and glass is 5 - 6 for comparison. Kaolinite can be scratched with a fingernail or knife. Kaolinite has a dull to earthy luster and leaves a white streak. Formations of kaolinite north Europe happen in the Mesozoic Era, 252-66 million years ago. Kaolinite and its parent stone kaolin exist in the upper part of the Earth's crust, from surface to c. 1.5 km (0.9 mi) down. See also: Prussian Blue - Delight of Artists & Poisoners Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Ancient Deities: Proto Indo European Gods Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Kaolinite clay is prevalent in soils formed by chemical weathering of rocks in hot, moist climates such as tropical rainforests. As soils progress to cooler or drier regions, the proportion of kaolinite decreases. Proportion of other clay minerals such as illite (in cooler climates) or smectite (in drier climates) increases. Smectite is often found in volcanic zones. The main source of smectite is weathering of volcanic ash after contact with seawater. Mythic Fire Gods - Vulkan of Germania Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Egyptian Blue - First Synthetic Color Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Rocks abundant in kaolinite and halloysite, a chalky white mineral, are known as kaolin or China clay. They're both phyllosilicates, a group of minerals including the micas, chlorite, serpentine, talc and clay minerals, also called the Kaolinite-serpentine group. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Adventure Among the most common minerals of the earth's crust, kaolinite is mined as kaolin in Brazil, Australia, Bulgaria, China, Czechia, France, Germany, India, Iran, Malaysia, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Tanzania, Thailand, United Kingdom, United States and Vietnam. See also: Wine God Liber: Liberty & Liberal Libation Alchemy: Science, Philosophy, Magic Red Ocher (Ochre) Ancient Pigments Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Kaolin clay is also called China clay due to its popular source in that country. Processed kaolin is a coating for paper, still used today throughout the world. The world kaolin comes from Gaoling (Kao-ling), a Chinese village near Jingdezhen in southeast China. It's also simply called white clay. Kaolin clay is valued for porcelain and ceramics (china), paint, natural health, cosmetics and industrial properties. Among the earliest colors of the human palette, it's found in prehistoric cave paintings and tribal body decor. See also: Hünenburg: Bronze Age European Trade Hub Red Madder: Organic Ancient Colors Chalcanthite: Crystal Blue Explosion Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Kaolin clay is reduced to a powder product by soaking, washing and straining to remove impurities. The terms kaolin and kaolinite are often used interchangeably. Kaolinite is a pure clay mineral crystal, found in kaolin. Kaolinite is one part alumina and two parts silica. Kaolin is a parent rock found in sedimentary deposits mixed with kaolinite, quartz particles, feldspar, silica, zinc, copper and magnesium. Most other clay minerals derive from kaolin. See also: Scribes & Writing - Ancient Egypt Copper: Ruddy Metal of Myth & Magic Egyptian Blue Faience - Ceramic Glass Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Minerals are separated from clay using wet processing methods. Wet separation uses water or other liquids, such as organic solvents, to separate minerals based on properties such as specific gravity or surface tension. Hydrophobicity (in which a mineral is repelled by water) is a typical processing treatment. Kaolin clay is water-loving while some of its constituents, like talc, are water-repulsive. See also: Cress, Watercress: Natural Health of Ancients Abzu - Primal Waters of Creation Song of the Loreley - Lethal Beauty Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The desire to eat clay, diagnosed as the compulsive eating disorder pica, may be caused by the body's need for zinc (or iron in red clays). Symptoms of zinc deficiency include: loss of hair changes to skin and hair infections wounds slow to heal eye problems loss of taste and smell diarrhea Kaolin clay is given as a folk remedy for diarrhea. It also provides natural exfoliation by absorbing dead skin cells and impurities. It may treat or prevent skin problems like acne. Kaolinite is used as a whitener in toothpaste. It has a low iron content and is odorless. See also: German Myth - Headless Horseman Herbology & Lore: Plantain Plant Horse in Dreams - Meaning of Horses Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Clay absorbs moisture and oils, thus isn't recommended as a hydrating treatment. It's effective for cleansing oily skin. For potters and ceramics workers, human skin oil gives the clay more elasticity, which is why clay is worked with the hands. White is among the three color hues an infant can perceive after being born, along with black and red. These are also favorite palettes of early humans as they're easily found in natural form. See also: Gold-of-Pleasure: Bronze Age Crops Queen Eleanor & the Calamitous Crusade Mulberry Tree (Morus): Uses, Folklore & Myth Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Black is often acquired from ground magnetite, one of the three major iron oxide ores. From magnetite, it's the natural version of synthetic color Mars Black. Black from lamp soot is sold standardized as Lamp Black. Black also comes from charcoal or charred bone. Grinding colors is one of the labors common in scribe schools, dye and pigment making, and artwork. Through history, apprentice or student scholars are tasked with grinding and preparing raw pigments. Pigment processing goes back c. 300,000 years ago to Africa. See also: Linen, Hemp & Cotton - Fabrics of Ancient Egypt Milk & Dairy: Ancient Lactose Gene Great Women Artists - Käthe Kollwitz Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Red in the ancient world comes from ground hematite (red ocher) or raw red ocher; also the kermes insect, Polish cochineal bug or madder root. In the 1500s The Portuguese bring a brilliant red from the New World cochineal bug. It's often a bright red pigment in Mesoamerican art. Cochineal bugs produce the color carmine. See also: Red Madder: Organic Ancient Colors Steatite (Soapstone) - Ancient World Rhinestones: Treasures of the Rhine Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In mining the mineral rock is cut from the quarry. In the stone age people use flint to quarry rocks like limestone and kaolinite. For today's demand, strip mining is the most effective method, involving specifically top layers of the earth's crust where kaolin is often found. Industrial safety: Kaolin is generally recognized as safe, but may cause mild irritation of the skin or mucous membranes. Kaolin products may also contain traces of crystalline silica, a known carcinogen if inhaled. See also: Sailing - Bronze Age Sails & Sailcloth Herbs & Natural Remedies - Ancient Egypt Lora Ley Adventures - Feast of Fools Back to Top

Horses in dreams have universal and singular meanings. A dream of riding a horse is widely accepted as good luck. Dream interpretation or oneiromancy is a practice in ancient cultures such as in the Middle East, Egypt, China, India and Mesopotamia. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure See also: Hippomancy: Sacred Horse Divination Dream Interpretation (Oneiromancy) - Ancient Egypt Nanshe - Nature Goddess of Dreams Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books European regions such as ancient Germania, Scandinavia, Greece and Rome believe in the power of dreams. Interpretation of a dream horse can vary depending on the dreamer's circumstances, past events and future desires. Many factors influence the analysis. In the ancient world dreams can be omens, insight into diseases brought by disease demons, deific aid or advice. Dreams may appear at face value but often not. In dream interpretation it's important to look beyond the obvious. See also: Oldest Cattle Cult 6000 BCE - Arabia Dream Interpretation (Oneiromancy) - Mesopotamia Mamu - Sumerian Goddess of Dreams Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle For instance, the color black may relate to grief in the Western physical world. In the spiritual sense or dream a black horse portends prosperity, luck and health. If the horse is a stallion he's a sign of independence. A mare brings control over multiple aspects in life. Horse colors affect the interpretation. White horses signify death, not always literally but in terms of major change such as crossing boundaries, moving or taking a new direction in life. An off-white horse may warn of corruption. Pure white horses relate to completion of cycles. See also: Hünenburg: Bronze Age European Trade Hub Germanic Mythology - Brook Horses Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books A brown horse connects to physical earthly rhythms or secular life. It's a sign of stability especially in the home, luck in domestic activities and rewards for current or past work. Brown horses can signify patience and good things coming at a steady pace. A bay horse is lucky for commerce. The bay is a messenger of the gods and can bring an omen, prophecy, warning or advice. A dream of bay horses indicates harmony and progress. The bay horse can also signify an upcoming romance or new relationship development. See also: Jade - Jadeite, Nephrite & Jade Roads Divine Twins: Germanic & Greek Mythology Before the Vikings - Early Northern Cultures Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books A red horse foresees or identifies conflicts which may cause trouble in the dreamer's life. The horse attempts to communicate these in the dream. A red horse stands for creation and destruction, blood of passion or war. A sick person who dreams of a red horse will get well. A yellow horse brings blessings from the Sun and a reason for celebration. The yellow horse symbolizes abundance and fertility. However it can carry a warning of illness, especially nutritional deficiencies. See also: Woad, the People's Blue: Ancient Pigments Soap & Medicine Herb of Ancients Sun God of Heaven - Hittite Solar Deity Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle A spotted horse is strongly connected to the sky and cosmos. A horse of patchy colors is lucky for social interactions and team projects. A rearing horse can symbolize victory or warn of a threat from which the dreamer can be protected. A dream of a pair of horse carriages foresees death, except for athletes for whom it is a sign of future triumph - except runners, for whom it means defeat. At one time wealthy women, who dream of crossing a city in a chariot will receive priesthood (priestess). See also: Gold-of-Pleasure: Bronze Age Crops Figs - Food of the Ancient World Spiritual Magic - Numbers Three & Nine Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books For poor girls, the same vision in a dream signals self-sacrifice. For slaves, this image heralds imminent freedom. A sick person who dreams of entering a city on horseback should be cured, but will die if he sees himself leaving the city on horseback. In Germany at the end of the 19th century, a woman's dream of a horse means a lover will come to her. Dreams of horses are otherwise generally unfortunate among early Germans, particularly in East Prussia (est. 1773 CE), where a horse dream is a sure sign of death. See also: German Myth - Headless Horseman Herbology & Lore: Poison Hemlock Castle Frankenstein - Legend & Lore Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Hanns Kurth's dream dictionary interprets the horse in relation to psychic and erotic life. According to Kurth, riding a white horse is a sign of luck and success, while riding a black horse is a sign of fleeting success. The horse has broad meanings, says Kurth. It signifies freedom if seen in a meadow. If a riderless saddled horse appears, it signifies social success. Difficulty riding a horse may relate to mastery of new skills or academic challenges. See also: Pirwa - Horse God of Ancient Hittites Ancient Marsh Muse - Rough Horsetail Shurpu: Ancient Rite of Curse Removal Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Dreaming of a stormy horse whom the dreamer is able to ride indicates success after overcoming obstacles. In Mongolia, dreaming of a horse in general brings good luck. In her Prophéties de la nouvelle sibylle, Mlle A. Lelièvre speaks of a "truly prophetic dream". She stands at the top of a tall tree, surrounded by fighting men. A black horse passes below her tree. She mounts and gallops away through the streets of Paris naked. See also: Pretty Poisons: Holly, Yew, Mistletoe Kaska - Mountain Raiders of Anatolia Silver - Queen of Precious Metals Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Her dream ends with a vision of ancient figures who are depicted in history as having spoken oracles. Oracles are associated with the horse, hippomancy and powers of divination. Among birds, hens and corvids are especially known for gifts of prophecy. John W. Dunne, a British aeronautical engineer, says he dreamt of a mad horse racing down a familiar road the day before it happened. According to Richard Wiseman, the memory of an unconscious dream can be reactivated by an event which recalls it. See also: Early Fire Gods - Vulkan of Germania Ancient Wild Predators - Eurasian Lion Urash (Uraš) Primal Queen of the Gods Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle According to Wiseman, the memory of the dream then returns to the mind of the person who interprets it as prophetic. He cites the example of someone who sees the word "gallop", forgets it, then sees the word "horse" and remembers it. Thus dream interpretation can import a variety of influences from psychological to physical and spiritual. Numbers of horses also have meaning. Many horses can mean friendship and support, or overwhelming life issues. Three horses are fortunate as they form a trinity. See also: Iron Age - Metallurgy & Metal Magic Lavender (Lavandula) Health and Nature Rise of the Phoenicians - Early Years Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Dreaming of a foal is a sign of beginnings and success, especially in matters of childbirth, family or self-care. The foal also warns against emotional or headstrong behavior. Dreaming of a young horse may arouse a streak of mischief in the dreamer. An old horse means it's time to let go of something from the past. It also heralds achievement and experience. A horse moving toward the dreamer means help is coming. Moving away, it's a sign of encouragement and adventure. See also: Hesperus (Vesper) the Evening Star Shumugan - God of Donkeys & Mules Bizilla - Shining Love Goddess Sukkal Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Dreaming of horses in a nighttime setting represents intuitive action. Dawn and dusk are very lucky times in which, or of which to dream, as the horse is most strongly connected to divinity. Bad weather means the dreamer may have difficulty with commitments. Fair weather in a dream isn't always fortuitous as it could warn of coming inclement weather. Enjoy the bounty of life and be ready for anything. Like cattle, horses can also give insight about a previous life or forgotten memories. See also: Arabian Leopard: Bronze Age Predators Nature Spirits of German Mythology Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Overall, dreaming of horses is fortunate. Even negative circumstances can be overcome. The energy of the horse brings speed, skill, agility, travel or journeying, luck in love and money. The horse is the seventh sign of the Chinese zodiac. Horse relates to the celestial body of the Sun, and the number seven. Hair and personal appearance, beauty or image are associated with the horse. Activities of dance and journeying relate to equines. See also: Milk & Dairy: Ancient Lactose Gene Cult of the Bull - Prehistoric Aurochs Pomegranate - Food of the Ancients Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In German folklore, horses are in danger of being ridden all night by a Mare (no relation to mare horse), a smelly hairy malevolent spirit also responsible for nightmares. Red ribbons braided into the manes of horses protect them from evil magic. See also: Red Madder: Organic Ancient Colors Ancient Cultures: Yamnaya Steppe People Garnets - Gemstones of Blood and Life Back to Top

Hippomancy is divination using horses or horse bones and skulls to gain mystical insight. From the Greek hippos, meaning "horse", and manteia, meaning "divination", hippomancy is defined as "divination by the neighing and movements of sacred horses". See also: Ashvamedha - Sacred Horse Sacrifice Red Ocher (Ochre) Ancient Pigments Queen Eleanor & the Calamitous Crusade Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Hippomancy may or may not be ritualized, or part of a larger ritual, as in the horse sacrifice of Ashvamedha. Prophecies of the horse come partly from its role as a messenger to the gods. The horse can convey messages in a similar way as the Mesopotamian sukkals. Horseshoes and horse tack or utensils might also be used in a form of hippomancy, as they carry the essence of the horse. Among Indo-Europeans, divination by horse is a common form of augury up to the Middle Ages. While the Greeks dismiss it, Romans embrace it. See also: Ornithomancy - Prophecy by the Birds Hünenburg: Bronze Age European Trade Hub Stone Age Botai - First Horse People Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Divination includes detailed observation of the horse's habits, the influence of gender, age and color of the horse, how and when it eats, and arrangement of markings. Like the Egyptian cosmic cow with her spotted belly, horse patterns can have celestial meaning. A live animal is used for divination. In some cultures sacred horses are tended as oracles. A horse may be in a ritual enclosure or left to its usual habits. The diviner studies its motions or sounds, which have prophetic meaning, as in study of bird movements or ornithomancy. See also: Cattle Goddesses & the Cosmic Cow Crocodilopolis - Sobek Crocodile God Ancient Egypt Remedies: Ebers Papyrus Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In the context of a horse herd, the diviner observes the flow and direction of the herd. The focus is on behavior of the herd as a whole, instead of an individual horse. The time of year and possible wild migrations have influence. The diviner strives to look beyond the obvious. Hippomancy involves techniques such as interpretation of footprints or parts of a horse's body. Appearance of a horse in a dream is another part of hippomancy. In the ancient world, dream interpretation reveals both positive and negative elements. See also: Mamu - Sumerian Goddess of Dreams Nanshe - Nature Goddess of Dreams Dream Interpretation (Oneiromancy) - Mesopotamia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Later, study of a horse skull and/or bones (osteomancy) becomes popular. Northerners such as the Norse and Germanic tribes are enthusiastic hippomancers. Along with Chinese, Roman, Greek, Irish and Turkic cultures, they're also known for horse burials or sacrifice. Scapulimancy (scapulomancy, scapulamancy, omoplatoscopy or speal bone reading) is the practice of divination by use of scapulae or speal bones (shoulder blades) of an animal. In China these are considered oracle bones. See also: Horse Burials & Sacrifice: Ancient World Arcadia - Greek Lands of Ancient Gods Weapons & Warfare of Bronze Age Europe 1 Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle In the Hindu Vedas, horses can represent the Sun and its yearly course. This association is embodied by the wandering of the horse in the Ashvamedha ritual. The horse is also said to be analogous to Prajapati as Creator. In the Vedas, the horse symbolizes energy. As spiritual animals or animal spirit guides, horses relate to luck, wealth, work, travel, freedom and the Sun. Four horses pull the chariot of Greco-Roman sun gods Apollo, Helios and Sol. Sea deity Poseidon, father of Pegasus, is originally a horse god from Arcadia. See also: Women of Alchemy - Mary the Jewess The Mystic Victorian - Fortune Telling Weapons & Warfare of Bronze Age Europe 2 Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The Divine Horse Twins help define the world at creation. In Celtic lore, Epona, Celtic goddess of fertility, is patron protector of horses. The ancient Hittite God of Horses is the warrior deity Pirwa. As figures of high economic value, horses are among animals sacrificed at the Temple at Uppsala. A horse burial in a dry riverbed is also found at Hünenburg Bronze Age settlement in Germania. It's not clear if it's a burial or sacrifice. In Britain 31 horse burials are found. See also: Sacrifice of the Male: Temple at Uppsala Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Pirwa - Horse God of Ancient Hittites Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Equine oracular moments in history & lore: In Virgil's Aeneid, Anchises sees four white horses grazing and interprets this as an omen of war, adding that peace is still possible because horses can harness themselves to a chariot and be docile. According to the same work, Carthage is founded on the site where exiles of Tyre unearth a horse skull at the direction of Goddess Juno. The skull is a sign of war victories and abundance for centuries to come. See also: Uluburun - Bronze Age Shipwreck Alchemy: Science, Philosophy, Magic Elderberry Tree: Germanic Nature Lore Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books According to a text by Cicero, in the 3rd century BCE Gaius Flaminius of Rome falls unconscious from his horse in front of a statue of Jupiter. Troops see this as a bad omen and ask him not to engage in combat. Gaius Flaminius then tries divination by sacred chickens, who confirm the suspicions of his troops. He goes into battle anyway. He is killed and his army defeated by the Carthaginian General Hannibal, who the previous year crossed the Alps with elephants. See also: Agrippina & Son: Poisonous Plots of Rome Visigoths, King Alaric & the Ruin of Rome Reiker For Hire, Victorian Era & Nixies Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle In the Iliad, Achilles' horses Balius and Xanthus have the gift of prophetic speech bestowed by Hera. When Achilles goes to battle for vengeance, Xanthus lowers his head and lets his mane hang down. He says he can do nothing to change Achilles' fate. He reminds Achilles of his imminent death at the hands of "a God and a man". Achilles is killed by an arrow shot by Trojan Prince Paris, guided by Sun God Apollo. See also: Caspian Tiger: Bronze Age Wild Predators Asteria - Starry Gems of Myth & Magic Germanic Mythology - Brook Horses Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In Germania by Tacitus (98 CE), the author describes white horses kept in the woods, fed by the state and exempt from work. The ritual involves harnessing them to a sacred chariot and observing their neighing and snorting. The sacred horses are confidants of the gods. See also: Terramare Culture - Bronze Age Italy Istustaya & Papaya - Dyad of Destiny Saffron - Most Precious Ancient Spice Back to Top

Ashvamedha is a sacred horse sacrifice practiced by followers of the Śrauta tradition of Vedic religion. An elaborate ritual system of Kings, Ashvamedha horse sacrifice lasts about a year, involving displays of wealth, generosity, humility and hundreds of sacrificial animals. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure See also: Horse Burials & Sacrifice: Ancient World Oldest Cattle Cult 6000 BCE - Arabia Blood Sacrifice, Twin Brothers & Creation Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The Ashvamedha sacrifice or Ashwamedha Yajna is performed by a king as a rite of kingship. The ritual is extravagant and expensive. According to one observer a total of 609 animals are sacrificed during this ritual. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Only a powerful victorious king (rājā) can conduct Ashvamedha. One object of the rite is to acquire might and glory, including sovereignty over neighboring provinces, in part through the ancient practice of augury or hippomancy, divination by animal (horse) behavior. See also: Sacrificial Creation Myths: Early People Garnets - Gemstones of Blood and Life Gobekli Tepe - Neolithic Life Anatolia Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Hundreds of people, including priests, skilled workers, astrologers, and hundreds of tame and wild animals are involved. The overall ritual is complex, with precisely dictated rites at every stage. Each step must be carried out flawlessly. The ceremony is held in spring or early summer. The sacrifice may be related to elevation or initiation of a member of the Kshatriya warrior caste, the second-highest caste in the Varna system. Workers construct a sacrificial house and fire altar. See also: Lapis Lazuli: Vibrant Blue Gem of Ancients Sun Goddesses of World Mythology Ornithomancy - Prophecy by the Birds Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books First, the sacred horse is chosen, traditionally a white stallion with black spots. He's also depicted as a white horse with black ears, or all-white horse. He may have a dark front or blue hair tuft. He may specifically be a stallion who won a race at the right side of the chariot. In the Vedas, the horse is also considered analogous to Prajapati-Agni the Creator who forms the earth and skies. The horse in the Vedas symbolizes energy. Astrologers decide the right time for the horse to begin his travels. See also Hesperus (Vesper) the Evening Star Bull of Heaven - Inanna vs Gilgamesh Primeval Deities: Goddess of the Dawn Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The Laws of Manu refer to the Ashvamedha: "The man who offers a horse-sacrifice every day for a hundred years, and the man who does not eat meat, the two of them reap the same fruit of good deeds." A sacrificial ceremony takes place in the home. The King spends the night with the Queen, but without sex. Next day the horse, purified with more rites, is tied to a post and addressed as a god. He's sprinkled with water. The Adhvaryu priest whispers mantras into his ear. See also: Stone Age Botai - First Horse People Sulfur - Treasure of the Underworld Immortal - Quest for the Elixir of Life Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books A "four-eyed" black dog is killed with a club of Sidhraka wood. It's then passed under the horse, and dragged to the river from which the water sprinkled on the horse had come, and set to flow south. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure The horse is let loose toward northeast, to wander wherever he pleases. The time is a year or half a year. The horse is associated with the Sun, and its yearly course. See also: Pirwa - Horse God of Ancient Hittites Ancient Marsh Muse - Rough Horsetail Owl - Death, Messages, Mystic Wisdom Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle The roaming horse is attended by a herd of a hundred geldings, and 400 young kshatriya men of 4 different classes. Sons of princes or high court officials, they're entrusted to guarding the horse from danger but never impeding or influencing his progress. The escort also has to prevent the stallion from mating with any mares during his journey. This echoes the practice of brahmacharya, withholding of semen for spiritual empowerment. If the horse mates, an oblation or offering of milk is given to Vāyu, Hindu god of the wind. See also: German Myth - Harvest Spirits 2 The Way to Aaru - Egyptian Paradise Red Ocher (Ochre) Ancient Pigments Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books If the horse falls ill with an injury, an offering is made to solar deity Pūṣan. If the horse becomes ill without injury, an oblation of cake goes to Agni Vaiśvānara, the universal soul of power housed in all beings. If he develops eye disease, an oblation to solar deity Sūrya is given. If the horse drowns, an offering is given to Varuṇa, god of sky, oceans and water. See also: Milk & Dairy: Ancient Lactose Gene Animal Spirits - Horse, Otter, Goose Arcadia - Greek Lands of Ancient Gods Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books If the horse gets lost, an oblation of cake, potsherd, and three other dishes to the deities of heaven and earth, along with offerings to Vāyu and Sūrya. If the horse dies, another is chosen and consecrated to replace him. While the horse is away, a series of ceremonies takes place in the home of the person making the sacrifice. Each day three daytime rites and one evening ritual are conducted by priests. Ritual measurements, astrology and surveying dictate location of sites or buildings. See also: Eye of Ra Egypt - Wrath of the Woman Spiritual Magic - Numbers Three & Nine A Viking Christmas Yule Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books After the evening Dhṛtihoma ritual, two Brahmin and two Kshatriya bards and lutists praise the patron king's generosity. Musicians play the veena or south Indian lute. It's known the King gives 4,000 cows and 400 gold coins to the priests on the first day. Then comes a session of pariplavākhyāna, or the cyclic recital of tales, in which one of ten topics are be discussed each night, with 36 cycles of the ten topics. The tales are witnessed onlookers who attend in their free time. See also: Despoina - Goddess of the Mysteries Aruru - Violent Vegetation Goddess Before the Vikings: Nordic Bronze Age Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle When the horse returns, ceremonies are performed for a month. Twelve days of dīkṣā, rites performed before sacrifices, then twelve days of upasad take place. Upasad, a multiday ceremony, precedes soma sacrifices. Soma sacrifice relates to lunar cycles, seen as necessary to maintain cosmic order. Rites are based description in the Vedas. Then the king bathes, dons a black antelope skin and sits in a hut before a fire. Head covered, he fasts in silence and sleeps on the ground. See also: Song of the Loreley Pagan Solstice Fests: Saturnalia Brunhilde: Tragic Germanic Warrior Queen Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Soma is a ritual drink. Research suggests it as a golden volatile oil, expressed and washed from plant stalks with water. Oil and water are separated by filtering through a sheepskin. The liquid is mixed with milk, drunk by the priests and offered to the gods. On the 25th day, the agniṣṭoma is performed. It's the main part of the sacrifice. Soma is pressed out in the morning and offered along with "rice cakes, parched barley, flour in sour milk, parched rice, and a hot mixture of milk and sour milk". See also: Soap & Medicine Herb of Ancients Herbology & Lore - Chamomile German Myth & Folklore: Moss People Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books During the pressings and oblations, five musical chants are sung and five recitations intoned. The priests then drink the soma and perform the twelve oblations to the seasons, and the sacrifice of a goat to Agni, fire god. The similar midday pressing is dedicated to Indra, god of rain and storms. Dakshina is also distributed to the priests, consisting of a varying multitude of cows. Dakshina is a donation, fees or honorarium given to a cause, monastery, temple, spiritual guide, or after a ritual. See also: Lead White & Minium Red: Colors to Die For Carnelian - Gems of the Ancient World Arabian Leopard: Bronze Age Predators Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle At the evening pressing only two musical chants were sung and two recitations chanted. Then proceeded the conclusory libations to the "yoking of the bay horses" and the sun, followed by the Avabhṛtha. The Avabhṛtha is the "unpurificatory" bathing of the sacrificer at the end of the sacrifice. After an antelope skin is put in the water the king, his wife, and the priests ritually bathe. A sterile cow or eleven other animals are sacrificed. See also: Butter - Food of Peasants & Barbarians Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Bear Worship: Sacrifice of the Gods Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Throughout the night, the annahoma rites are taking place at the north altar. Annahomma is an offering of clarified butter, fried rice, fried barley, and fried grain. On the twenty-sixth day the king is ritually purified. The horse is yoked to a gilded chariot with three other horses, and parts of the Rigveda recited. The horse is then bathed with water containing a mix of mustard and sesame. See also: Apis - Sacred Fertility Bull of Egypt Çatalhöyük (Catalhoyuk) Neolithic Anatolia Mythic Fire Gods - Vulkan of Germania Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books After this he is anointed with ghee by the chief queen and two other royal consorts. The chief queen (mahiṣī) anoints the fore-quarters. The favorite wife (vāvātā) anoints the middle and the discarded wife (parvṛktī) the hindquarters. They decorate the horse's head, neck, and tail with golden ornaments and over a hundred pearls. The horse, a hornless black-necked male goat, and a Gomṛga (type of ox) are bound to sacrificial stakes near the fire. See also: Shakhar & Shalim: Divine Twins of Ugarit Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Nature Spirits of German Mythology Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Seventeen other animals are attached with ropes to the horse. The he-goat dedicated to Agni is attached to the horse's chest. A ewe dedicated to Sarasvatī (goddess of learning, arts & music) is attached under the horse's mouth. Two black-bellied he-goats dedicated to the Aśvins (twin horsemen associated with medicine & healing) are tied to the horse's front legs. A grey male goat dedicated to Soma-Pūṣan gods of meeting and the moon, is attached underneath the horse. See also: Limonite: Ancient Earth Pigments Sacrifice of the Male: Temple at Uppsala Shamhat: Sacred Prostitute & the Wild Man Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle On the two sides of the horse are attached a black goat to Sūrya and a white goat to Yama, god of the dead. Two goats with shaggy thighs are dedicated to Tvaṣṭar, divine craftsman. A white goat dedicated to Vāyu is attached to the horse's tail. A cow about to give birth is dedicated to Indra; a dwarfish cow is dedicated to Vishṇu. A huge number of animals, both tame and wild, are tied to other stakes - according to one observer, 609 in total. See also: Neolithic Skull Cults & Ritual Skulls Book of the Heavenly Cow - Myths of Egypt Neolithic Nubia & Early Egyptians Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The sacrifice maker offers the horse the remains of the night's oblation of grain. The horse is then suffocated to death. The chief queen ritually calls on the king's fellow wives for pity. The queens walk around the dead horse reciting mantras and obscene dialogue with priests. The chief queen then spends the night sleeping by the dead horse. See also: Hathor: Cosmic Cow Goddess of Ancient Egypt Wolpertinger - German Myths & Folklore Fertility Rituals - the Sacrificial God Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Next morning the priests raise the queen from her place. One priest cuts the horse along "knife-paths" with specially crafted knives of gold, silver and iron. Others recite verses of Vedas, seeking healing and regeneration for the horse. The horse's epiploon, part of the viscera below the liver, along with soma are offered in oblation. Priests dismember the horse and other animal victims, giving a blood offering of blood. Parts of the horse are given to various nature deities of sky, atmosphere and earth. See also: Battle Axe - Burial, Settlement, Culture Sulfur - Treasure of the Underworld Scorpion Men of Babylonia Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle The Atirātra is a soma sacrifice at night, during which the drink is consumed. Afterwards an Avabhṛtha takes place. In the Ashvamedha sinners and criminals also take part in ritual purification by bathing. Twenty-one sterile cows are sacrificed, and the dakshina distributed to the priests. The main dakshina forms either the four wives of the king or their 400 attendants. After completion of the ritual, the king is considered undisputed ruler of the land traversed by the horse. See also: Semen - Life & Death in the Ancient World Mythic Fire Gods: Hephaestus of the Greek Kohl: Eye Beauty Magic of Ancients Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books While the Ashvamedha ritual is last performed in the 18th century, animal sacrifice or blood sacrifice is still in practice today. Sacrificial animals are usually goats and chickens. See also: Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Reiker For Hire, Victorian Era & Nixies Turquoise: Precious Stone of Ancients Back to Top

The oldest cattle cult appears in Arabia c. 6000 BCE. Described by the research team as the “first large-scale, monumental ritual landscape anywhere in the world … [it is] the earliest evidence for a cattle cult in the Arabian Peninsula.” READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure See also: Milk & Dairy: Ancient Lactose Gene Horse Burials & Sacrifice: Ancient World Hünenburg: Bronze Age European Trade Hub Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The site is enormous, consisting of groups of 2 - 19 mustatil. The mustatil are prehistoric monuments built of sandstone walls. Mustatil is the Arabic term for rectangle, the shape of the enclosures. About 1000 mustatils have been found in NW Arabia since 2021 CE. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Some of the sandstone blocks used in the constructions weigh more than 500 kg, or just over half a ton. The area of building covers a massive area of 200,000 sq km (77,220 sq mi). Construction of mustatil is later than than of kites. See also: Limonite: Ancient Earth Pigments Book of the Heavenly Cow - Myths of Egypt Ancient Arabia - Stone Age to Bronze Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Above: examples of mustatil in northwest Arabia. The sites are deliberately laid out. Those like C are built on sides of volcanoes, attesting to their use as ritual monuments and not regular cattle pens or enclosures for killing such as kite constructions. At first mustatil are assumed to be kites, Neolithic herding or killing pits. Kites and mustatil are both prehistoric enclosures surrounded by crude, low stone walls. The distinction between mustatil and kites is apparent both in shape and size. See also: Giant Cinnamon Birds of Arabia Immortal - Quest for the Elixir of Life Ancient Deities: Proto Indo European Gods Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Mustatil are generally smaller. The longest kite is 6 k (3.7 ft) long, with the longest mustatil measuring 600 m (1970 ft). Kites go back to about 8000 BCE and have persisted for millennia. Mustatil are confined in time to 6-5000 BCE or the Late Neolithic. Kite construction starts in the early Neolithic and prevails for thousands of years. They're built in a range of shapes, and feature "killing pits." where animals are driven to be killed with clubs, spears, stones or other weapons. See also: Hathor: Cosmic Cow Goddess of Ancient Egypt Broad Beans (Fava) - Bronze Age Crops Cult of the Bull - Prehistoric Aurochs Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In this way they have similar use to the mass kill sites of the American aboriginal people, who at one time drive buffalo over cliffs. One of these regions, the largest of the ancient buffalo cults, is preserved in First Peoples Buffalo Jump State Park in Missouri, USA. Also similar are Neolithic northern European 'trapping pits'. A trapping pit is a hole dug and hidden. An animal falls into the pit and is killed with rocks, clubs, spears and other weapons. See also: Humbaba: Giant Mountain Forest Man Wild Women and Winter Tales Mountain Gazelle: Wild Ancient World Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books European rock art and cave paintings reveal red deer (Cervus elaphus) and elk or moose (Alces alces) are hunted in the Stone Age using trapping pits. Remains of trapping pits for elk, reindeer, wolves and bears are still found in Northern Scandinavia. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure In Hinduism the Brahmic texts state the five creatures suitable for sacrifice in Vedic India, in descending order of importance, are man, horse, cattle, sheep and goat. The text of the Rigveda and other Vedas provide detailed description of sacrifices including cattle sacrifice. See also: Chalcanthite: Crystal Blue Explosion Red Madder: Organic Ancient Colors Creation, Cattle & the Cosmic Cow Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The complex Arabian structures are defined as ritual or sacrificial sites in 2021. The layout of chambers suggests a type of single-file procession to an inner location. There, primarily cattle bones are piled beside an upright mastaba stone or type of bench. According to the research team, it's a "ritual deposition of animal horns and cranial elements, particularly of cattle.” The authors state this fits with “the rock art of the region, with scenes of both cattle herding and hunting frequently appearing.” See also: Gold-of-Pleasure: Bronze Age Crops Neolithic Skull Cults & Ritual Skulls Butter - Food of Peasants & Barbarians Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Radiocarbon dating of the cattle skulls show them to be from c. 5300 - 5000 BCE. At this time the Holocene Humid Phase affects climate. Now a desert, the area during the Holocene is a grassland with frequent droughts. The dates of cattle domestication to cult-like ritual animals coincides with the formation of the lactose tolerant gene in humans. Early humans are the same as most other mammals. After infancy they develop intolerance to lactose, a sugar found in dairy products. See also: Wandering Womb - Ancient Medicine Lavender (Lavandula) Health and Nature Baltic Amber - Gold of the North Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books However, humans ingest dairy regardless. Making cheese, butter and yogurt from the milk destroys some indigestible compounds and these foods are easier on the system. Over 2000 to 20,000 years, many groups of humans establish an adult tolerance for lactose. Cattle cults of later history include the bull Apis of Egypt and the reverence of Mithras in ancient Rome. The worship of Ninsun, wise cow goddess and mother of Gilgamesh, is attested in Babylonia. Bull of Heaven - Inanna vs Gilgamesh Prussian Blue - Delight of Artists & Poisoners Khella - Ancient Health & Herbology Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Ninsun (Ninsumun) translates in Sumerian as Nin-sumun(ak)  or Lady of the Wild Cows. A Mesopotamian goddess at Uruk, Ninsun is the mother of Gilgamesh. She's considered a lamma or protector goddess, and her symbol is the wild cow. Some cattle cults move into mass sacrifice and bloodletting especially of bulls and oxen. This is the case at the Temple at Uppsala in 10th century Sweden. In some cultures animal sacrifice is still practiced today, as Tamil Nadu in South India. See also: Woad, the People's Blue: Ancient Pigments Shamhat: Sacred Prostitute & the Wild Man Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Cattle are killed as part of funerary rituals at royal graves in Ur (2900-2350 BCE). The sites contain whole skeletons of cattle killed in their prime, an extravagant show of wealth. After the sacrifice people usually feast on the meat. Cows are precious as a single cow can feed a family with milk, butter, cheese and other products with nutritious health benefits. In a lack of oxen she'll even pull a plow. See also: Ancient Marsh Muse - Rough Horsetail Kusarikku - Bull Men of Mesopotamia Nanaya - Goddess of Erotic Love Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books She can also make more bulls for the sacrificial altar. Offerings of butter and cheese are left at temples of cow goddesses in Egypt. In ancient Greece, preferred animal sacrifice in order of importance are bull or ox, cow, sheep, goat, pig, piglet and poultry. See also: Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Pagan Solstice Fests: Mithras & the Sun Bird Woman Elwetritsch: German Folklore Back to Top

Horse burials are ritual entombment of horses, relating to a deceased human. Horse burials take various forms including cremation, burial of horses with the dead person or in a separate area. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure See also: Pirwa - Horse God of Ancient Hittites Silver - Queen of Precious Metals Creation, Cattle & the Cosmic Cow Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The earliest proven horse burial in the Old World dates back to the fifth or fourth millennium BC and is found at S'ezzhee, in a cemetery on the Samara River in southwest Russia, along with horse figurines. Horse burial is part of a larger tradition of horse sacrifice. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure At sites of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age, the skin of a horse is hung over a pole with some bones left inside to keep the shape. This may represent an early horse culture or Cult of the Horse. See also: Germanic Mythology - Brook Horses Limonite: Ancient Earth Pigments Gold-of-Pleasure: Bronze Age Crops Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Horses are domesticated in Eurasia c. 3800 BCE, in the steppes of today's Ukraine and Kazakhstan. The first known horse domestication comes from the Botai people of Eurasia. Horse burial in history covers the range of domesticates horses. The Eurasian Steppe is the core of horse culture from c. 4000 BCE. Early cultures with a tradition of horse burial are those in or bordering the Central Asian area including Turkic, Chinese and Indo-European cultures. See also: Stone Age Botai - First Horse People Neolithic Skull Cults & Ritual Skulls Kur - Underworld of Mesopotamia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In ancient Germanic and Scandinavian lands, horses are commonly sacrificed and buried alongside deceased humans. Horse burial is found at the Bronze Age site of Hünenburg. Celtic and Gaulish ritual horse burials are also documented. Read: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure In Greek mythology horses are sacred to sea god Poseidon. Poseidon fathers several horses including Pegasus and hero horse Arion. Sun god Apollo drives a chariot pulled by four horses. In Celtic lore Epona is the horse goddess, sometimes known as the Great Mare. See also: Hünenburg: Bronze Age European Trade Hub Ornithomancy - Prophecy by the Birds Divine Twins: Germanic & Greek Mythology Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The horse has strong symbolic and practical meaning for Bronze Age humans. In Celtic and Germanic cultures the horse relates to the travel of the sun across the sky. Horses may be deified, similar to the Bull Apis in Egypt, and are used in divination. Divination by animal or herd movement is popular throughout history and still used today in some parts of the world. Other forms of divination include ornithomancy or information gleaned from the flight patterns or activities of birds. See also: Bird Woman Elwetritsch: German Folklore Giant Cinnamon Birds of Arabia Apis - Sacred Fertility Bull of Egypt Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Entrail divination or haruspicy or is the study of viscera, especially the liver, of sacrificial animals. It's Practiced by groups such as the Etruscans, Assyrians, Babylonians, African and South American tribes and ancient Romans, The liver is thought to be the center of essential life. Haruspicy is also practiced by ancient Assyrians, Babylonians, and by African and South American tribes. Animals commonly used are sacrificial sheep or poultry, with hens being among the most prophetic birds. See also: Women of Alchemy - Mary the Jewess The Mystic Victorian - Fortune Telling Weapons & Warfare of Bronze Age Europe 2 Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Ancient world diviners consider horse activity and horse or herd behavior more revealing than their livers. In Chinese astrology the horse has powerful symbolic meaning. The Year of the Horse is one of travel, progressive action, luck and prosperity. Human burial with other livestock is uncommon. From Bronze Age sites in Britain, 31 horse burials are found, but only one cow burial. At Uppsala in Sweden, male horse sacrifice accompanies that of other species as late as the 11th century CE. See also: Sacrifice of the Male: Temple at Uppsala Hathor: Cosmic Cow Goddess of Ancient Egypt Kusarikku - Bull Men of Mesopotamia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The oldest known horse burial in Egypt is a wrapped mummified horse in an enormous coffin, dating to the 18th Dynasty (c. 1550 - 1292 BCE). It's discovered on the west bank of the Nile at Thebes. In Nubian and Egyptian society, horse burial becomes more prominent c. 728 to 657 BCE. Associated with horse burials are chariot burials. A grave might contain horse and chariot, or one of the two, or several. See also: Castor Oil, Wigs & Death in Ancient Egypt Creation, Cattle & the Cosmic Cow The Way to Aaru - Egyptian Paradise Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle The two-wheeled chariot first appears in ancient Sumer (Mesopotamia) c. 3000 BCE. By the 13th century BCE various types of chariots are used. They include the three-wheeled chariot of the Hittites and sleek war chariots of Egyptians. Assyria and other Mesopotamian regions all drive and develop chariots. Chariots appear in the Rigveda, evidence of their use in India in the 2nd millennium BCE. Ancient Mycenaeans, Minoans and other Greek cultures take chariots to a new level and they're prominent in art. See also: Ancient Greek Cultures: People of Minos Minoan Genius (Genii) Helper Spirits Assyrians: Reign of Tukulti-Ninurta I Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Greeks are also known to drown horses in sacrifice to Poseidon. The sea god Poseidon is originally a horse and freshwater god originating in Arcadia, the rustic home of Pan. The later Romans embrace both chariots and horse burials. In Europe, domestication of the horse arrives c. 2000 BCE. The chariot is introduced to Europe by c. 2000 - 1500 BCE. Prior to the chariot, people fight on foot, rarely on horseback. See also: Arcadia - Greek Lands of Ancient Gods Broad Beans (Fava) - Bronze Age Crops Weapons & Warfare of Bronze Age Europe 1 Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Even after the horse comes to Europe it's primarily an animal of the wealthy and elite. The first mounted warriors are Botai and Yamnaya. The skill is rare in the west. Eastern cultures known as horse warriors develop their unique fighting methods in the 1st millennium BCE. At some Gaulish and British sanctuaries, horses are killed and their bodies carefully buried. At Gournay-sur-Aronde, equines are left to decompose before their bones are buried around the bounds of the sanctuary, along with many broken weapons. See also: Hünenburg: Bronze Age European Trade Hub Çatalhöyük (Catalhoyuk) Neolithic Anatolia Der Türst: Dread Huntsman & the Wild Hunt Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books This rite occurs at regular intervals of about ten years. Some south British tribes bury horses and dogs with care in grain storage pits. These are believed to be sacrifices of thanksgiving to underworld gods once the stores reached the end of their use. Various people such as the Assyrians and Greeks develop the horse and chariot war culture into a fine art. In the ancient Olympic Games of Greece, c. 800 BCE chariot racing is a sporting event. See also: Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Terramare Culture - Bronze Age Italy Gobekli Tepe - Neolithic Life Anatolia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books After c. 1000 BCE the war chariot fades from grace as mounted cavalry begins to take its place. Wheeled wagons are adapted for use in siege weaponry. Chariots remain in wide use in parades, processions and sports, or evolve into coaches and carriages. Different types of horse burials appear even within one region and culture. Horses are cremated or buried. Horses might be put into the same grave as humans, or in a different pit. Some cultures favor horse burial for male warriors, while others make no distinction. See also: Myrrh - Mystique, Death & Divinity Elderberry Tree: Germanic Nature Lore Agrippina & Son: Poisonous Plots of Rome Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In the kurgan or tumulus burial above, apart from the male body with grave goods, the burial site includes 13 humans, with no adornment, buried above him. Around the edges of the burial 22 horses are buried in pairs. Horse cults, along with Bull and Bear cults, are among the early religious persuasions of humankind. Archaeological evidence of a Horse Cult appears during the Iron Age and in some places goes back to the Bronze Age. See also: Tumuli (Tumulus): Bronze Age Burial Mounds Ereshkigal & the Mesopotamian Underworld Bear Worship: Sacrifice of the Gods Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle In horse worship the horse is accorded attributes of divinity. Revered as a sacred animal the horse may be associated with a particular deity, or as a totem animal representing and embodying royal, military or personal power. As a totem animal or animal spirit the horse corresponds to the Sun, freedom and the open road. Horses are associated with journeys physical and spiritual. Horse spirit people are in tune with the world around them. See also: 3 Great German Artists for Art Lovers Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Sun Goddesses of World Mythology Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Horse cults and horse sacrifice are initially a practice of Eurasian nomad cultures. Beliefs and practice prevail into the early Middle Ages. In the Ashvamedha ritual, Śrauta tradition of Vedic religion, a horse is allowed to roam for a year, attended by soldiers, then sacrificed. See also: Woad, the People's Blue: Ancient Pigments Queen Eleanor & the Calamitous Crusade Nanshe - Nature Goddess of Dreams Back to Top

The Luwians, Hatti and Hurrians, among others, inhabit ancient Anatolia when the Hittites rise to power in the 17th century BCE. The Hittites assimilate the Hatti and have words with the neighbors. Spats arise, but overall the spirit is one of compromise, progressive thinking and local harmony. Goods and Gods are exchanged over growing trade routes. See also: Puduḫepa - Queen of the Hittites Allani - Hurrian Underworld Goddess Divine Light - Sun Goddess of Arinna Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle There are plenty of others to battle, including the Egyptians, poking around the border countries, the Kaskians or mountain people making raids south of the Baltic, and the occasional rebellion, civil war or territorial dispute. In the 20th century BCE, Hittite is the earliest example of a definitive Indo-European language. The Luwians have been here a while, existing in various parts of the lands of Anatolia and Mesopotamia. They first make their presence felt c. 2000 BCE. See also: Rabbit Fever Plague & Warfare: Hittites Neolithic Europe - Danube Valley Culture Pazuzu - Demon God of Mesopotamia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The Luwians are mentioned in Old Assyrian Empire documents from the Assyrian trading town Kültepe (Kultepe), central Anatolia, dating from between 1950 and 1700 BCE. Here Luwian and Hittite are shown to be two distinct languages. The origins of the Luwians are obscure. They may have been a united nation at one point and branched off into other communities and kingdoms. They may have migrated with other groups and settled parts of Anatolia and Mesopotamia. See also: Chicken Soup: Chickens in German Folklore Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Lamashtu, Baby-Eating Demon Goddess of Mesopotamia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Some scholars believe they were based at the site of Purushanda, referred to in documents but not yet found in modern times. The type of Luwian language spoken in the ancient Hittite capital, Hattusa, differs from that spoken in the region of Kizzuwatna. The Hittites conquer the region in the 17th century BCE. About a hundred years later it breaks off into independent Kizzuwatna, and a Great King is crowned. The Hittite monarch has to sign a treaty with the King of Kizzuwatna, but shortly thereafter the area becomes a vassal of the Hurrians. Eventually it returns to Hittite control. See also: Botanical Alchemy - White Dead Nettle Ancient Wild Predators - Eurasian Lion Bird Woman Elwetritsch: German Folklore Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle During the Hittite New Kingdom (c. 1400 BCE), Luwian replaces Hittite as the empire's dominant language. In the early Iron Age, several Luwian-speaking Neo-Hittite states arise in northern Syria. In the early 13th century BCE, Puduhepa, later Queen of the Hittite king Hattusili III, is a priestess in Kizzuwatna. When she marries Hattusili, she brings along some of her local pantheon, including the goddess Hepat of Aleppo, who is equated with the Sun Goddess of Arinna. Famous for her diplomacy, Puduhepa helps keep the Empires at peace. See also: Ereshkigal & the Mesopotamian Underworld Inanna (Ishtar) - Goddess of Ancients German Myth: Lindwyrm, Mare & Pig Demons Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books This is apparent in the mythical marriage of Hepat to the Luwian Tarḫunz, concordant to the prevailing trend of deific crossover among the ancient cultures. Some mythologies are similar, shared or interchangeable, often for political reasons. The Luwains worship the great Storm God Tarḫunz, for instance, who equates with Teshub, Tarhun and Tarḫunna in surrounding beliefs. The fortuitous wedding of Hepat and Tarhunz emulates that of Sun Goddess of Arinna to weather god and sky father Tarhunna. See also: Weather God of Zippalanda: Bronze Age Gods Anatolia - Kārum City of Trade Kültepe Wild Women and Winter Tales Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books After the collapse of the Hittite Empire c. 1180 BCE, several Luwian groups split off into separate regions, states and prince-doms. The majority are destroyed or incorporated into the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911 - 605 BCE) during the 9th century BCE. See also: Bull of Heaven - Inanna vs Gilgamesh Ancient Deities: Proto Indo European Gods Sun Goddesses of World Mythology Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle From the exhibition "Forgotten Kingdoms" at the Louvre: "This basalt pedestal vase (above), engraved with an inscription in louvite hieroglyphics, was discovered in southern Iraq in the 1880s. It may come from Babylon or Sippar, but was certainly made in northern Syria. According to the dedication, the bowl was carved in honor of the god of the storm by a character whose name has not been preserved. The expression "God of the storm of heaven" is another name of the god of the storm of Aleppo. The bowl could be specifically carved for the temple of the storm god of Aleppo." See also: Primeval Deities: Goddess of the Dawn Cult of the Bull - Prehistoric Aurochs Asteria - Starry Gems of Myth & Magic Back to Top

Hünenburg (Huenenburg) bei Watenstedt is a Bronze Age settlement in Germany. Only the rampart walls and inner ditches remain. In use by c. 1400 BCE, as a village the site dates to the late Bronze Age c. 1200 BCE. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure See also: Terramare Culture - Bronze Age Italy Gobekli Tepe - Neolithic Life Anatolia Blacksmiths: Iron, Metal, Gods & Myth Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The reconstructed village image shows typical longhouses, which are used as far back as Neolithic times c. 5000 BCE in building. The archaeological excavations indicate the Hünenburg is built during the Bronze Age as a fortification. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Dating to the late Bronze Age (1200 to 750 BCE), several fortifications are found in Central Europe. The site is one of the largest Bronze Age settlements in Central Europe, with around 500 permanent inhabitants. See also: Tin - Essential Metal of Antiquity Copper - Ruddy Metal of Myth & Magic Çatalhöyük (Catalhoyuk) Neolithic Anatolia Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle The first inhabitants of the complex are thought to come from the Saale estuary group in the regions of the northern Harz mountains of today's Germany. Evidence of the Saale group in the Harz appears c. 1300 - 750 BCE. Crops grown in the area might be gold-of-pleasure, a popular seed crop in northern Europe at the time; as well as barley, wheat and broad bean. Metal smiths or metalworkers are active at the site. At this time iron ores are coming into use but bronze is still preferred. See also: Weapons & Warfare of Bronze Age Europe 1 Urnfield Culture: Bronze & Iron Age Europe Ancient Deities: Proto Indo European Gods Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books As a center of power and seat of elite Hünenburg yields artisan bronze finds, such as a richly decorated basin cast at the site. The basin style spreads to the surrounding areas, showing commercial interaction with the neighbors. While metallurgists in Anatolia are already creating steel from iron c. 1800 BCE, most regions take longer to adopt the new metal. Northern Europe enters the Iron Age c. 800 BCE. See also: Sailing - Bronze Age Sails & Sailcloth Myth & Metallurgy - Metals of Antiquity Gold-of-Pleasure: Bronze Age Crops Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Excavation evidence shows the ramparts of the Hünenburg are first built in the 11th century BCE. From c. 900 BCE, a stone facing is built on the outer side of the rampart. Shortly thereafter the people erect a massive stone wall. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure Chronological progression details the use of the site as a group habitation, permanent settlement and later a place to be defended. Prominent people live at the site as well as specialist artisans. Cultures exchange goods and ideas. It's a desirable location. See also: Limonite: Ancient Earth Pigments Woad, the People's Blue: Ancient Pigments Castor Oil, Wigs & Death in Ancient Egypt Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books A double channel system with shallow ditches and individual culverts is found in 2017 CE inside the rampart. Research identifies it as a Neolithic earthwork existing thousands of years before the Bronze Age Hünenburg. The channels measure 8 m (26 ft) wide and 3 m (9.8 ft) deep. They're considered to be part of a wall or fortification. Excavated c. 1100 BCE they're later filled back in to a depth of 1.5 m (4.9 ft), and that is where they are today. See also: Jade - Jadeite, Nephrite & Jade Roads Divine Twins: Germanic & Greek Mythology Al-Mi'raj: Unicorn Hare of Arab Myth Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle The remaining ditch system exists throughout the Bronze Age history of the Hünenburg and may have held a wooden construction. Some researchers believe the channels mark a dominion, or cult area within the Hünenburg complex. Geomagnetic measurements in 2019 find evidence of a larger building constructed inside the ramparts. The southern slope, under excavation since 2001, is also probed with non-intrusive geologic methods such as seismic and sonic prospecting, as well as excavations. See also: House Spirits of Germanic Mythology A Viking Christmas Yule Sacrifice of the Male: Temple at Uppsala Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books 2010 CE measurements indicate a formerly inhabited area of about 27 ha (66.7 acres) as an outlying settlement known as the lower city. This exterior habitation exists at the same time as the fortification and shows plenty of activity. By the end of 2014, archaeologists excavate three tons of pottery from the ground of the outer settlement. Quantity suggests a pottery making or trade center. Findings confirm wooden post houses with wicker or wattle walls. Houses are about 11 × 5 m (37.7 x 16.4 ft). See also: Aufhöcker - Cursed Undead of German Myth Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Bronze Age Cultures - the Hittites Houses typically have hearths and a type of stone paving. This could be terrazzo which is easily made from crushed rock fragments. Ground limestone can soften to a clay-like consistency in water, and is used as a binder for the fragments. When the mixture hardens the flooring is polished. Individual tiles can be made by using a mold. Evidence of early terrazzo flooring is also found at the Neolithic cult town of Gobekli Tepe. See also: Neolithic Skull Cults & Ritual Skulls Curse of the Evil Eye & Apotropaic Magic Reiker For Hire, Victorian Era & Nixies Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Storage and waste pits up to 1.8 m (5.9 ft) deep are found in the habitation. In 2011, researches find evidence of an ancient watercourse flowing through the settlement. The stream bed yields animal bones and skulls. Streams and rivers are often sacrificial sites and perceived as sacred cross-culturally. Later excavations in the outer settlement reveal a horse skeleton on its back at a depth of 1.6 m (5.2 ft), although it's unclear whether this is an animal sacrifice or horse burial. See also: Bronze Age Trade of Mesopotamia Uluburun - Bronze Age Shipwreck Before the Vikings - Early Northern Cultures Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Horses are most strongly linked to rulers and warriors. In Bronze Age society horses are domesticated but often associated with the elite. Horses and chariots are used in battle by the second millennium BCE in ancient civilizations such as Egypt and Anatolia (Turkey). Horse burial is the practice of burying a horse as part of the human burial ritual. The first known horse burial is at S'ezzhee, today's southwest Russia in the 4-5th millennium BCE. Bronze Age horse burial is common to cultures such as Indo-European, Chinese and Turkic. See also: Folk Magic: Fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria) Salt Trade - the Most Precious Mineral Inara & the Dragon - Purulliya Festival Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books During the Bronze Age the Hünenburg fortification and its outer settlement comprise an urban style trading hub and organized central settlement. Built at the intersection of long-distance routes for trade and travel, it's an excellent location. Early trade contributes to its growth and prosperity as a settlement. Suggested trade items include ores and metal utensils or weapons, attested by archaeological finds; and possibly pottery and salt. See also: Red Madder: Organic Ancient Colors Tooth Worms of Ancient Mesopotamia 1st Peace Treaty 1258 BCE - the Queens Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Research indicates people from Baltic Scandinavia once live near Watenstedt. According to Immo Heske, head of the excavation, there is a mix of "groups and people from other regions in Watenstedt." Seen as an early European metallurgy center, Hünenburg may have been a stop for Scandinavian traders seeking metals. Metals might be sold as raw ore, or extracted and traded as ingots of specific shapes, sizes and weights. See also: Silver - Queen of Precious Metals German Folklore - Irrwurz or Mad Root Immortal - Quest for the Elixir of Life Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Copper and tin to make bronze are especially lucrative. A route directly south from Sweden, consisting of road and river travel, is feasible. By this time the Nordic Bronze Age is at its zenith and the metals for bronze (88% copper + 12% tin) are much in demand. Contacts of the Hünenburg population go as far as the Mediterranean region. Strong centers of trade in the Mediterranean include Greek Myceneans, up to c. 1100 BCE when the Bronze Age collapse sees the destruction of empires. See also: Prussian Blue - Delight of Artists & Poisoners Ancient Greek Cultures: People of Minos Goats in German Myth: Erntebock & Habergeiß Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Factors of prolonged drought, seismic activity such as as earthquakes and tremors, migration, internal rebellion, old grudges and attacks from violent seafaring peoples cause the collapse of powers including Minoan, Hittite and Kassite empires. After that the Phoenicians rise in influence. Merchants, traders and warriors, they forge the most widespread trading network ever known, by sea to the Greek islands, across southern Europe, down the Atlantic coast of Africa, and up to ancient Britain. See also: Rise of the Phoenicians - Early Years Figs - Food of the Ancient World Giant Cinnamon Birds of Arabia Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books As a ring wall fortification the Hünenburg settlement is similar to the nearby Isingerode habitation, which also features a ring wall of the Late Bronze Age and outer settlement. Built around 1200 BCE it was in use until c. 600 BCE. Between 900 and 600 BCE burials took place just southeast of Hünenburg. Excavations in 2007 and 2008 discover many graves rich in grave goods. It's thought the rulers of the Hünenburg settlement are buried there. So far 77 graves have been found. See also: Chalcanthite: Crystal Blue Explosion Sulfur - Treasures of the Underworld Alchemy: Science, Philosophy, Magic Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle The Hünenburg battlements also stand for about 600 years. From the 12th to the 7th century B.C., the Hünenburg is continuously settled. It's then abandoned for a thousand years. During the Migration Period of c. 400 CE and in the early Middle Ages. another settlement phase begins. The ramparts are renewed. A dry stone wall about 0.8 m (2.6 ft) wide is built atop of the rampart. See also: Rhinestones: Treasures of the Rhine Herbology & Lore: Poison Hemlock Nature Spirits of German Mythology Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In the last phase of building the stone construction is levelled again, then rebuilt up to 1.4 m (4.6 ft). It's not known if these later construction phases relate to the Saxon-Frankish conflicts of the 8th century. See also: Sun Goddess & Moon God in Myth Linen, Hemp & Cotton - Fabrics of Ancient Egypt Bird Woman Elwetritsch: German Folklore Back to Top

In the ancient world, trade unites countries, spreads knowledge and formalizes safe travel routes. In Mesopotamia a local trade network is growing by c. 5000 BCE. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure In trade, the Indus Valley and Egypt also emerge among Eurasian leaders. Major trade runs include the Amber Roads from the Baltic, the Steppe Routes to the East, and the Tin Roads. See also: Bronze Age Europe - The Amber Road Tin Trade Routes - Ancient Networks Asteria - Starry Gems of Myth & Magic Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Maritime Jade Roads are generally confined to the Asian Pacific and the Eastern civilizations. A number of specialty routes, such as for the lapis lazuli trade from Afghanistan, also increase travel and spread prosperity. Routes form by land, river and sea. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure By c. 5000 BCE in Mesopotamia, trade is forging new frontiers, as local communities up and down the coasts and inland settlements participate in the action. Evidence of long-distance trade appears c. 4100 BCE with Indus Valley carnelian. See also: Carnelian - Gems of the Ancient World Lahar: Flock & Sheep Pastoral Goddess Apkallu - Seven Sages of Mesopotamia Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Living in the fertile delta, the Mesopotamians have a number of local items to trade such as wheat, barley, clay and ceramics. Invention of the first cuneiform script (c. 3500 BCE) in Sumer comes from the need of merchants to communicate with traders of a different language. The marks are made with a stylus. At first the stylus is made from sedge, a family of reed with triangular stem. See also: Shumugan - God of Donkeys & Mules Lord Rodent (Ninkilim) Sumerian Pest God Ushumgallu: Dragon Lion Snake Sukkal Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The exchange of surplus items for needed items opens new venues of income, luxury and ease of daily existence. By 4000 BCE Mesopotamian ceramics from ancient cities Eridu, Nippur, Ur and Uruk travel to Egypt. Excavation finds include cylinder seals and lapis lazuli jewelry. READ: Cult of the Fire God - Bronze Age Quest Adventure During the Uruk period (c. 3600 - 3100 BCE) Mesopotamia expands an intercontinental trading system. The Sumerians establish trading colonies in today's southeast Turkey, Syria, and Iran. See also: Nungal (Manungal) Prison Goddess Kassite Empire: Rise of the Kassites Ishum: Night Watchman & Fire God Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Mesopotamians also trade leather products, locally-sourced bitumen and various oils including fish oil, palm and olive oils. From reeds they create mats, wholesale baskets and large lightweight boxes and containers perfect for shipping. Besides the main grain crops such as wheat and barley the Mesopotamians also cultivate flax, a valuable plant for food and fiber. Although sheep are domesticated in c. 8000 BCE, wool isn't in use as a textile until about 4000 BCE. See also: Bizilla - Shining Love Goddess Sukkal Ninlil - Sumerian Matriarch Goddess Taurus Mountains: Bronze Age Bounty Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Evidence of flax use as clothing goes back to c. 33,000 BCE. Spun, dyed and knotted wild flax fibers found in a cave in Georgia are dated to the Upper Paleolithic Period. Flax, spun and woven into linen, creates the world's first fiber. Although wild flax is used for millennia, the cultivation of flax begins in the Mesopotamian fertile crescent. See also: Soap & Medicine Herb of Ancients Scorpion Men of Babylonia Shamash (Utu) Sun God of Mesopotamia Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle Linen fabric is especially beloved by the Egyptians, who grow flax themselves on the Mesopotamian model. They use it in shrouds and burials as well as clothing. Traders come from other lands, bringing riches such as carnelian from the Indus Valley; metals such as gold, silver, copper and tin (88% copper + 12% tin = bronze). They bring ivory, pearls and precious stones. From ancient Afghanistan they bring lapis. See also: Kusarikku - Bull Men of Mesopotamia Lapis Lazuli: Vibrant Blue Gem of Ancients Bronze Age Afterlife & Burial Beliefs Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books In the 3rd millennium Mesopotamians begin to trade glass. They're among the first to develop the process of mixing sand, soda and lime to create the desired product in enough quantity to trade. Similar techniques also appear in Syria and Egypt. Early glass objects include jewelry and beads, cups, vases and ornaments. Glassmaking techniques don't yet reach the Indus Valley, but faience techniques do. See also: Egyptian Blue Faience - Ceramic Glass Lagash: Vibrant Bronze Age City State Gold - Precious Metal of the Sun Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books Trade in wood is also vital to Mesopotamian ship work and building construction. Early boat making involves shaping and tying bundles of dried reeds together, and caulking the inside with bitumen or tar. Perfect for navigating the delta marshlands, the boats are light, waterproof and easy to handle. Boats can also be made from hides stretched over a frame. For an oceangoing merchant vessel, wood is the most desired material at the time. See also: Nanaya - Goddess of Erotic Love Abzu - Primal Waters of Creation Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Sylvia Rose Books on Smashwords Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries Sylvia Rose Art on Zazzle In the 2nd millennium BCE stories circulate of great cedar forests guarded by hideous demi-gods, fearsome demons or the giant mountain man monster Humbaba. Some stories circulate through traders not wanting to reveal their supply, much like tales of the giant cinnamon birds of Arabia. In the Epic of Gilgamesh c. 2000, the hero vanquishes the giant mountain man and opens access to a great forest of enormous trees. The cedar forests of Lebanon become known to the world. See also: Humbaba: Giant Mountain Forest Man Gatumdug: Sumerian Goddess of Lagash Mountain Gazelle: Wild Ancient World Today's Zazzle Specials Smashwords Books The Phoenicians, located at the coast of the Levant, build an entire marine trading fleet with cedar wood c. 1500 BCE. They spearhead a massive rampage to the great forest as Egyptians, Greeks, Arabs and more rush to get precious wood in a land of not a lot. Eventually, colossal empires arise. This is their beginning. See also: Lisin - Medicine Goddess of Ancients Shulpae (Šulpae): Demon Warrior God Figs - Food of the Ancient World Back to Top