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Her name means 'the great' in Sumerian. Gula is a Mesopotamian goddess whose worship grows popular in the 2nd millennium BCE. Ancient world medicine includes aloe vera for burns and exorcism of disease demons. Nigella Sativa: Black Seed of Healers Disease Demons & Doctors: Ancient Mesopotamia Uruk Mesopotamia: Forefront of Civilization Gula, Goddess of Healing and Medicine Medicine in the ancient world is a constantly developing art. Holistic plants and recipes are noted on hundreds of clay tablets up to 5000 years old. Herbal trade with Egypt includes blackseed from the Arabian peninsula. Mesopotamian healers give prescriptions, in the forms of health recipes, use of healing plants or mystic incantations. A sacrifice at a certain deity's temple might be required. Gula first appears in the Ur III period (2193 - 2004 BCE) in Umman, south-east Sumer. Her cult spreads to Nippur, which becomes her center of worship. She's revered in Uruk , Babylon, Ur and Lagash . After Hammurabi (1792 - 1750 BCE), her worship expands to Larsa, Sippar and Isin. The Kassites praise her in their capital, Dur-Kurigalzu. She becomes popular in Mesopotamia after the Hittites  sack Babylon (1595 BCE). The day of Gula is the nineteenth of the month. Belet-Seri: Underworld Scribe Goddess Namtar: Underworld Sukkal & Disease Demon Gallu (Galla) Demons of Ancient Kur Legendary Hanging Gardens of Babylon When a person is ill, gods like Nergal and demons of disease may need to be placated. An oracle might be consulted as to the best course of action. Oracles include gods like sun deity Šamaš and fertility god Adad ( Ba'al ). Certain practitioners (bārû) read omens from animal livers, like the haruspices of later Rome. Other Mesopotamian healing Goddesses include Ninisina, Ninkarrak , Nintinugga, Bau  and Meme. At one point, Gula attributes her healing powers to the Primordial God Ea , deity of water, knowledge and crafts. Healing plants and herbs are often used together with mystic rites or chants. Plants growing underfoot have spiritual and medicinal properties. The common plantain ( Plantago major ) is both medicine and food. Herbology & Lore: Plantain Plant (Plantago) Anzû - Mesopotamian Monster of Mayhem Irrwurz or Mad Root: German Folklore Plantain ( Plantago major ) Health and medicine expand scientific borders in such creatively rich regions as Mesopotamia, Egypt, Asia Minor and Greece. Goddess Gula becomes one of the most popular deities in the ancient near East. The worship of Gula begins in folk religion, where she's a domestic deity, guardian of the household and rebuker of disease demons. She might also preside when a woman is in childbirth. Depending on region and belief, one or more deific attendants are present at the time of pregancy, birth and infancy of the child. In Mesopotamia, the demon Pazuzu  is often invoked. Lamashtu, Baby-Eating Demon Goddess of Mesopotamia Kotharat - Bronze Age Birth Goddesses Lammašaga: Sumerian Angel Goddess Pazuzu doesn't like people, but he hates Lamashtu more, & guards against her power Although he's a demon he will stave off the evil of his sworn enemy Lamashtu , thus protect mother and child. Deific childbirth guardian entities are the  Šassūrātu  (Sassuratu), Divine or Deific Midwives, and lamma goddesses. Gula is responsible for the cutting of the umbilical cord at birth, as well as blessings of a happy fate for the child. She is considered auspicious for fighting off childhood diseases and protection against Lamashtu as well. She's associated with dogs. In depictions she may be accompanied by one dog or several. Votive offerings of dog statuettes and canine figures are placed at her altar. Her sukkal , Umašum, is a canine or person-dog entity. Sirius the Dog Star: Stellar Mythology Inanna: Goddess Queen of Heaven Kusarikku - Bull Men of Mesopotamia Goddess Gula enjoys unprecedented popularity. She's even mentioned in Syrian texts from Emar and  Ugarit . Her travels absorb some local deities including the goddess Meme or Memešaga. Known as a 'divine caretaker', Memešaga merges with her as worship of Gula expands. Even the Akkadian Goddess Ninnibru, an early wife of Ninurta, comes to be seen as a representation of Gula. Originally Gula is unmarried . At some point in the Kassite period (1531 - 1155 BCE) Gula hooks up with god hero Ninurta . Ninurta is originally an agriculture and fertility deity. In his warrior aspect she can heal his wounds, if any go so deep. He can cause beneficial healing plants to grow. Exceptionally, Gula is the wife of the god Pabilsaĝ or minor vegetation snake god Abu . Ninkarrak: Ancient Medicine Goddess Mamu - Sumerian Goddess of Dreams Hutena & Hutellura: Dyad of Birth & Fate Vegetation snake gods dwell in the Mesopotamian Underworld, associated with fertility Gula has influence in a person's life, from infant to elderly. In a Mesopotamia hymn Gula is called 'the great doctoress'. Tools and techniques associated with her include herbal remedies, razor, scalpel, various knives and lancets. Gula has the ability to use illness or disease as punishment for disrespectful mortals. A related goddess, Ninkarrak, is invoked in sickness-causing curses. Gula doesn't take on this aspect. She cannot be invoked in curses. She's the most common figure on kudurru or boundary stones , queen of all the medicine gods, goddesses and entities. Carvings show her seated on a throne. She's the most popular goddess on Neo-Assyrian seals. By nature she's associated with death. In one hymn Gula says she can raise the dead from the Underworld Kur . An incantation invokes her to counter the harmful effects of Ereshkigal , Mesopotamian Goddess of Death and Queen of the Underworld. Nanaya: Goddess of Erotic Love Gallu (Galla) Demons of Ancient Kur Dream Interpretation (Oneiromancy) - Mesopotamia Ereshkigal, Queen of the Underworld & Land of the Dead, Goddess of Night Her association with dogs is not unusual as the saliva of dogs has healing properties. Medical science observes wounds licked by dogs heal twice as fast due to antitoxins and disinfectants in canine saliva. One Neo-Assyrian text citing Babylonian customs says a dog who crosses the Esabad , one of Gula's temples, is believed to be a messenger of Gula. The dogs help her on her journeys and protect her from Lamashtu. An incantation against the demon states, "We are not just any dog, we are dogs of Gula, poised to flay your face, tear your back to pieces, and lacerate your ankles!" Ancient Elam - Middle Elamite Period Asag - Horrific Disease Demon of Kur Sin (Suen): Moon God of Mesopotamia Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

A Mesopotamian god, Abu is classed as a minor deity. Like many vegetation divinities Abu is also a god of snakes or serpents, associated with the Underworld. In ancient times the symbolic meaning of snakes is a dual one. The snake is associated with medicine, healing, wisdom, mysticism, sensuality, prosperity and fertility. It can also represent poison, treachery and primal fears. Namtar: Underworld Sukkal & Disease Demon Rise of Pan: Fertility Goat God Péh₂usōn Ancient Marsh Muse - Rough Horsetail Vegetation and Snake Gods of the Underworld -Abu Snakes are powerful fertility entities. They dwell in caves and tunnels , earth and rocks, hidden in trees and water. Young snakes emerge from their hidden hatching places in seeming elemental birth. With bellies on the ground, snakes or serpents attune to the rhythm of the earth. Shed snakeskins attribute the ability of rebirth for the snake and land. They flick forked tongues to scent the air around them, analyzing different smells from subtle changes in vibrations. Their abilities seem like ancient Earth magic. It's no surprise serpents come to be associated with mystic powers. Belet-Seri: Underworld Scribe Goddess Ereshkigal & the Mesopotamian Underworld Feast of Fools - A Lora Ley Adventure The snake can smell with its tongue Sylvia Rose Books  on Smashwords   Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series   Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries   Sylvia Rose Art  on Zazzle   As told in countless myths, the snake or serpent is a primary agent of evil and chaos. In Egypt the chaos serpent Apep attacks Ra every night in Duat , the Underworld. The Hurrian snake sea monster Hedammu almost eats everything in the world until Shauska (in some tales Inanna ) puts her best features forward. The snake is a common antagonist in creation myths of almost all cultures. Superstition says a snake can hypnotize its victim. That's not true but it is a fact snakes can 'see' in pitch dark, and also through walls. See also: Divine Light - Sun Goddess of Arinna Bull of Heaven - Inanna vs Gilgamesh Bashmu (Bašmu): Voracious Serpent Dragon Infrared camera shows warm and cool spots Today's Zazzle Specials   Smashwords Books For the first, they rely on sonar signals to create an auditory map of their surroundings. For the second, although they can't literally see through walls, they have infrared vision and can see the heat of a body on the other side of a wall. The snake knows if it's a large animal like a dog or a prey animal like a mouse. READ: Cult of the Fire God  - New 2024 Elementally, snakes are primal dragons. Like dragons they're linked to prosperity. In the German Lindwyrm myths, the snake-dragon monster multiplies the treasure it sleeps upon. See also: The Maiden & The Lindwyrm - A Fairy Tale Seduction of Hedammu, Father of Snakes Wadjet - Winged Snake Goddess of Egypt Treasure multiplies when the Lindwyrm sleeps on it Today's Zazzle Specials   Smashwords Books The Lindwyrm can manifest as a large snake or a serpent dragon with wings and little forelegs. Rarely does it have back legs. The Lindwyrm can also put its tail in is mouth like an ouroboros and roll to catch its human prey. The two types of Lindwyrm are 1. benevolent, and 2. hungry. The first will grant a wish, a favor or give wise advice. The other will eat the person. It might depend on the serpent's mood. See also: German Myth: Lindwyrm, Mare & Pig Demons Gula - Medicine Goddess of Mesopotamia Nigella Sativa: Black Seed of Healers Healing, or Poison? Today's Zazzle Specials   Smashwords Books Because snakes are linked to the Underworld they also represent the fertility of the earth. They appear in the company of vegetation deities, many of whom live beneath the earth. As plants and herbs provide medicine the snake starts to represent healing. Snake venom can work to heal in small amounts in medical preparations, but a large armount can be deadly. Serpent gods, shamans and animal spirit workers know how to get medicine from the snake and take advantage of its restorative powers. Serpent gods of healing may be invoked to prevent or treat snakebite. See also: Happy Wednesday! Tidbits & Trivia Lotan - Chaos Sea Dragon of Ugarit Heqet, Frog Goddess of Egypt Greek God of Medicine Asclepius and his Rod, with snake Today's Zazzle Specials   Smashwords Books The Greek god of medicine, Asclepius , is also associated with snakes. The Rod of Asclepius or the Staff of Asclepius is a staff with one snake twining round it. It's known as a symbol of medicine. It may be mistaken for the caduceus of Mercury, with two snakes, relating to commerce. As a minor God, Abu has less representation on god lists and in documentation than the big ones like Marduk and Ea. He isn't the only vegetation deity. The Mesopotamian / Canaanite vegetation god Dumuzi has a major role in the pantheon. However Abu is the consort of medicine goddess Gula , which pulls him some rank. See also: Asherah: Goddess of Childbirth & Fertility Allani - Hurrian Underworld Goddess Carnelian - Gems of the Ancient World Gallu Demons torture Dumuzi (left) - the snake-like vertical entities are snakes Today's Zazzle Specials   Smashwords Books Vegetation god Dumuzi lives in Kur, the Mesopotamian Underworld, for six months because he angered Inanna. Even in Mesopotamia winter brings cold and snow. He's then replaced by his sister Geshtinanna and goes back to the Overworld for six months. As a fertility symbol the snake is associated with nutrient rich earth, such as volcanic earth. From the ruins of Pompeii comes a fanciful fresco featuring Bacchus. The large snake is shown on the ground below the volcano, attributing to the fecund earth. Unfortunately it all blew up in 79 AD. See also: Silver - Queen of Precious Metals Mythic Fire Gods: Hephaestus of the Greek Wine God Liber: Liberty & Liberal Libation Bacchus fresco with snake in vegetation, Pompeii Sylvia Rose Books  on Smashwords   Lora Ley Fantasy Fiction Series   Reiker For Hire Murder Mysteries   Sylvia Rose Art  on Zazzle   The God Abu is associated with pains of the scalp. He also relates to dying gods, making him part of the eternal birth/death/rebirth cycle. Creations myths often begin with the death of one or more gods or divine beings. In the Babylonian creation myth, the death of chaos goddess / sea serpent Tiamat by Ninurta or another hero god figure leads to the creation of heavens and earth. See also: Early Fire Gods - Vulkan of Germania Copper - Ruddy Metal of Mystic Magic Ambrosia: Divine Nectar & Immortal Gods Today's Zazzle Specials   Smashwords Books In the Proto-Indo-European concept , divine entity Manu makes the earth and humans from the body of his sacrificed twin brother Yemo. With help from the primal gods he brings forth the classes of priests, warriors and the people from different parts of Yemo's body. By sacrificing of the primordial cow, he creates all the animals of the world. See also: Nabarbi - Rustic Goddess of Pastures Benu - Ba Heron God of Ancient Egypt Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Back to Top

Kamrushepa (Kamrušepa) is a Luwian and Hittite goddess of medicine and magic. She's the wife of Sun God Tiwaz and plays an important part in the popular myth of Telipinu . Hashamili - Metal Work & Smith God Luwians - Mysteries of Ancient Anatolia Rabbit Fever Plague & Warfare: Hittites Kamrushepa Goddess of Magic & Medicine The major cult center of Kamrushepa is Kanesh ( Kültepe ), a prosperous trading town about the middle of today's Turkey. She's also worshipped at other Anatolian sites such as Taniwanda in northern Anatolia. Her symbol is an iron throne. On god lists at her sites of worship she's presented as wife of the Luwian Sun God, Tiwaz (Tiwad). Kamrushepa goes out in her chariot pulled by fiery steeds, the symbol of Tiwaz as well as Pirwa  the warrior horse god. Bronze Age Cultures - the Hittites The Shekelesh - Bronze Age Mysteries Hahhima - Deadly Hittite Frost Demon Besides the Sun God, she's affiliated with Pirwa and related deities such as Ḫaššušara, Hashamili the smith god and Maliya the deified river garden goddess. Later she becomes associated with Shaushka, the Great Goddess . Her Hattian equivalent is Kataḫzipuri, goddess of magic revered by the Hattians , Hittites and Palaians. While seen as a benevolent medicine Goddess, Kataḫzipuri may have a mean streak. Ebony - Precious Wood of Ancients Zagros Mountains - the Way to Kur Gula - Medicine Goddess of Mesopotamia Medicine Goddess Gula of ancient Mesopotamia In the Mesopotamian lands the equivalent of Kamrushepa is Sumerian medicine goddess Gula . Over time Gula becomes the most-worshipped deity in Mesopotamia, after Inanna . Most female deities in the ancient world are associated with childbirth, even war goddesses such as Egyptian Sekhmet . Kamrušepa also bears the title of divine midwife. Eileithyia: Birth Goddess of Ancient Greece Pomegranate - Food of the Ancients Asherah: Goddess of Childbirth & Fertility Female deities are often connected to childbirth She can be invoked together with other medicine goddesses to ease the pain of labor and protect the pregnant or birthing mother. Women wear or hold figurines of birth goddesses, or their symbols. She watches over nursing mothers, infants and babies. Her magic protects against hostile supernatural forces waiting in the shadows to snatch the lives of mothers in childbirth or their newborns. Ornithomancy - Prophecy by the Birds Arcadia - Greek Lands of Ancient Gods Aruna, Hittite God of the Sea Kamrushepa's name means Spirit of the Clouds or Spirit of Smoke Unlike other goddesses associated with magic, who dwell in the Underworld, Kamrushepa lives in the heavens with the astral gods. Her name means 'spirit of the clouds' or 'spirit of smoke'. In Luwian religion Kamrušepa belongs to a primary group of gods. The Luwian religion has no distinct structural pantheon, although Tarhunt the Storm God takes the traditional place as leader. Primeval Deities: Goddess of the Dawn Ancient Deities: Proto Indo European Gods A Myth of Hahhima, Frost Demon God Luwian bowl with hieroglyphs Besides Kamrushepa, the group is composed of: Tarhunt - Storm God, equated to Teshub and Tarhunna Tiwad - Luwian Sun God Maliya - deified river, garden and artisan goddess Arma - Hittite & Luwian Moon God Iyarri - God of Plague and War - an archer whose arrows inflict disease Santa (Šanta), a warrior deity associated with plagues ... and various tutelary gods represented by the logogram LAMMA. Kamrušepa is especially well attested in Luwian incantations from Kizzuwatna. Tarhunna (Tarḫunna) Storm God of the Hittites Inara & the Dragon - Purulliya Festival Shurpu: Ancient Rite of Curse Removal People invoke her in incantations. prayers, music and praises In 1274 BCE, Hittite Queen Puduhepa is a priestess in Kizzuwatna when she meets her future husband Hattusili III , also the future king of the Hittites. One of her many achievements is the listing and categorization of the thousands of Hittite gods. Kamrušepa appears in several Hittite myths. In the myth of Telipinu , when Telipinu goes off in a fit of anger and the earth begins to die, she instructs the other gods how to bring him back with magic. Telipinu - God of Farming & Crops Lelwani - Hittite Underworld Goddess Pan: Wild Rustic God of Music & Flocks In part of the ritual, an offering of twelve sheep is taken from the herds of the Sun God, which are tended by smith god Hashamili . One of Hashamili's aspects is as a protector deity. The sheep are brought to Ḫapantali, a Luwian pastoral shepherd goddess. A similar formula comes from a disappearance myth of the storm god. A nother text fragment describes Kamrušepa and the Sun God arguing until they calm down by combing sheep together. Yazilikaya: Sacred Site of the Hittites Ancient Elam - Middle Elamite Period Chaoskampf: Order & Chaos Battle Out After the late Bronze Age Kamrushepa disappears from the public eye. No mention of her is found past the first millennium BCE. Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

The Hittites are first noted in tablets of trade found at the karum of Kanesh ( Kültepe ) in Anatolia, modern day Turkey. The Hittite Empire is a dominant power, but willing to make a deal. Rabbit Fever Plague & Warfare: Hittites Hattusilis III - Great Hittite Kings Bronze Age Purulli: Hittite New Year & Spring Fest Let's Dance During the Mid Bronze Age c. 1900 - 1650 BCE, the Hittites emerge as a conglomeration of many small regions in North-Central Anatolia. They settle the banks of the Kızılırmak or Red River, the longest river in Turkey. The area is conducive to fishing, farming, travel and trade. Major advances happen in the Bronze Age. Agriculture and commerce ramp up in Anatolia. At first the Hittite region includes villages and trade centers in North-Central Anatolia. In 1780 BCE they create the Kingdom of Kussara, with a capital at Kanesh . Lelwani - Hittite Underworld Goddess Puduhepa: Bronze Age Queen of the Hittites 12 Days of Zagmuk: Chaos & the King Kanesh is a prosperous trade town The kingdom is the forerunner of the ruling Hittite dynasty. It's occasionally mentioned as Ku-ša-ra in clay tablets of Old Assyrian traders in Anatolia. The people who live in the central Anatolian region when the Hittites arrive are the Hatti. After assimilating them, the Hittites keep the name of their Empire as the Land of the Hatti, and establish their capital at Hattusa. The Hittite Empire goes through four stages of growth and civilization: the Early Age, Old Kingdom, Middle and New Kingdoms. Writing emerges, based on early trade tablets. Laws and justice are enacted. Building and commerce make steady gains. Hattusa Green Stone - Mystic Secrets Pagan Solstice Fests: Saturnalia Yazilikaya: Sacred Site of the Hittites Parade of deities, Hittite Yazilikaya religious center at Hattusa Then, the 1600 BCE eruption of Thera (Santorini) in the Aegean pulverizes much of Minoan civilization in Greece. The rest is accomplished by the Mycenaean Greeks. Effects of the eruption reach China and Africa. The Santorini eruption greatly affects Anatolia, especially the west. The sky is black for five days as volcanic ash spreads. Tsunamis crash over the coasts. Archaeologists find tsunami victims in Cesme-Baglararasi, Turkey.  The eruption disrupts trade, agriculture and economy throughout the lands and sea routes. Not only that, the volcano keeps erupting until 1450 BCE. In this time, the Hittites are rising to their true power. Inara & the Dragon - Purulliya Festival Suppiluliuma II: the Last Hittite King Bronze Age Ancients - Catacomb Culture Hittite metalwork: bronze fist goblet c. 1450 BCE As early as c. 1800 BCE,   Anatolians begin working iron into steel. The first evidence of steelmaking appears, with a few small objects in Kaman-Kalehöyük in Anatolia. Also in Anatolia, the Kashkan mountain people launch attacks on settlements. The Kashka inhabit lands along the south coast of the Black Sea, placing Anatolian towns within reach of frequent raids. It's thought they're the reason the Hittites don't push north to the Black Sea. People barricade the settlements nearest the domain of the raiders with towers and walls. The Kashka hire themselves out as mercenaries, then attack and raid those who hire them, which does nothing to improve their image. Neolithic Europe - Danube Valley Culture Bronze Age - Corded Ware Culture Bell Beaker Culture: European Bronze Age Between 15th - 13th centuries BCE, Hittites are among the strongest powers of the Near East. Conflicts arises with the New Kingdom of Egypt, the Middle Assyrian Empire and the empire of Mitanni (Hurrian) for control of the region. Hurrian policy, society and religion make a strong impression on the Hittites. They begin to include some of the Hurrian gods, like Teshub  (Teššub) the weather god, into their own worship centers. He's equated with Hittite storm god Tarhunna. Tarhunna (Tarḫunna) Storm God of the Hittites 1st Peace Treaty 1258 BCE - the Queens Aruna, Hittite God of the Sea Tarhunna, Hittite Storm God In the 14th century BCE, disaster strikes. An epidemic of tularemia, also called rabbit fever or Hittite plague devastates the region. The plague is considered the first documented use of disease as a biological weapon. Hittite tablets from the mid-14th century BCE enumerate disabilities and death caused by the plague. Hittite King Muršili II writes prayers to deities begging relief from the sickness. The plague lasts two decades and kills many of his subjects. Donkeys are banned, as one theory names them as possible carriers. Hapkis - Hittite & Kaska Hostilities Kamrushepa: Hittite Goddess of Magic Hahhima - Deadly Hittite Frost Demon The Hittites are involved in the 1274 BCE Battle of Kadesh, a fierce conflict with Egypt's Ramesses II over the strategic Levant town Kadesh. The Hittite and Egyptian borders meet there. The Hittites pull off a surprise visit. Spies among the Egyptians spread false information. The spies are caught and beaten until they reveal the Hittites are much closer than thought. Ramesses barely pulls his troops together. The battle is known for using the most chariots of any conflict up to then. Despite heavy fighting the outcome is indecisive and both sides go home claiming they won. Telipinu - God of Farming & Crops Divine Light - Sun Goddess of Arinna Nerik: Ancient Life in the Kashka Zone Egyptian wall relief shows Hittite spies being beaten One of the most influential women of the ancient world is Puduhepa , Queen of the Hittites. She's born 1290 BCE and becomes a priestess of Shaushka, the Hurrian equivalent of Inanna (Ishtar). She meets future King Hattusilis as he's returning from the Battle of Kadesh. They fall madly in love and return to Hattusa together. Puduhepa later orchestrates the world's first peace treaty , together with Pharaoh's first royal wife Nefertari , between Egypt and the Hittite Empire. Kashka - Mountain Raiders of Anatolia Tumanna: Ancient Black Sea Kingdom Luwians - Mysteries of Ancient Anatolia Remnants of clay copy of treaty finalized 1258 BCE. Each ruler receives his own silver copy. Beset with warfare by hostile tribes, some associated with wider Bronze Age collapse, by the 12th century BCE, the Hittites are floundering. The Kashka sack Hattusa. Internal and external strife topples the Hittite power. Part of the kingdom is annexed by the Assyrians, the rest sacked by opportunistic Phrygian invaders. The Hittites break into smaller groups, without real identity as a people. Some regions survive until the eighth century BCE, when they come under control of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Hittite groups scatter and merge with people of the Levant, Mesopotamia and new powers of Turkey. Pirwa - Horse God of Ancient Hittites Nefertari Queen of Peace Ancient Egypt Hayasa-Azzi - Hittite Bronze Age Foes Reliefs & Hieroglyphs at Hattusa, charmber built by Suppiluliuma II, last king of the Hittites Prior to the discovery of the Hittite Kingdoms in the 19th century AD, the Hebrew Bible is the only source of documentation about the Hittites. According to the writings, the Hittites supply the Israelites with cedar, chariots and horses. Uriah the Hittite is mentioned among the loyal men of King David. Hittites are warriors, and also wise enough to build a powerful kingdom and its operating systems. A Myth of Hahhima, Frost Demon God Hashamili - Metal Work & Smith God Hatti - Cultures of Ancient Anatolia Stone relief, Hittite boat crushing enemies Remains of the Hittite legacy are discovered in 1834, but not identified. In 1906, an archaeologist found a royal archive at Hattusa with 10,000 tablets, inscribed in cuneiform Akkadian and an unknown language. Ongoing excavations at Hattusa and other locations continue to reveal artifacts of a thriving ancient culture. Myth & Metallurgy - Metals of Antiquity Isuwa - Bronze Age Hittite Foes Hannahanna - Great Grandmother Goddess Green Stone of Hattusa (purpose unknown) amid the ruins Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

The ancient town of Kültepe (Kultepe, Kanesh, Kaneš), where the earliest writing originates, rises to a prosperous trade city and kārum or karum in Bronze Age Anatolia. Kanesh is a hub of trade, travel and social interaction. Çatalhöyük (Catalhoyuk) Ancient Anatolia Lake Van: Fate of a Primeval Soda Salt Lake Ereshkigal Goddess of Underworld & Night Trade goods, food & spices at the market It's a land-bound region located in the center of Anatolia, modern day Turkey, connected by a network of ancient roads. Routes evolve from trade in such products as amber, obsidian, salt, metals, textiles, dyes and spices. Many roads lead to Kültepe, sitting in the center of the ancient world like a Sun with earthly rays. In the lower city of Kültepe is an Assyrian kārum ( pl. karu ), or trading colony. Baltic Amber - Gold of the North Colchis - Bronze Age on the Black Sea Amazons - Warrior Women History & Myth textiles, dyes and pigments are coveted trade items Kārum comes from the Old Assyrian. It applies to Anatolian trade posts of the 20 - 18th centuries BCE, with the main city for trade as Kültepe. It's also administrative and distribution center for Assyrian settlements in Anatolia. The city is the source of the earliest record of a definitively Indo-European language, Hittite, going back to the 20th century BCE. The kārum is part of the city decreed by local authorities to be given to early Assyrian merchants and tradespeople. As long as the goods stay in the kārum the merchants don't have to pay taxes. Gold - Precious Metal of the Sun Before the Vikings - Nordic Bronze Age Immortal - Quest for the Elixir of Life Gold market: trading & testing metals Merchants establish rates of value of gold and silver. Gold is considered worth eight times as much as silver, and is used for wholesale trade, while silver is the preferred medium for retail. From Kültepe, the kārum cities stretch west as far as Ankara and north to the Black Sea. Smaller towns and regions develop similar versions, mabartu (sing. mabartū ) , about the same time. Trade includes copper, tin, fabrics, wool, amber, luxury items, food and spices and a strange new metal, amutum , considered an early example of iron. Copper - Ruddy Metal of Myth & Magic Lavender (Lavandula) Magic of Nature Alchemist Dippel: the Frankenstein Files Copper and herbs such as lavender are popular commodities on trade routes During the Bronze Age Kültepe is beset by battle and conflict. An ancient cuneiform tablet tells of an uprising by seventeen kings against the dominant powers c. 2254 - 2218 BCE. In the 18th century BCE the city is conquered by several different rulers, who wage war on each other for the crown. In the 17th century BCE, the descendants of King Annitta move their capital to Hattusa to found the line of Hittite kings. Battle Axe - Burial, Settlement, Culture Seduction of Hedammu, Father of Snakes Tin Trade Routes - Ancient Networks A letter written on clay tablets, found at Kültepe The tablets above are a letter sent from a merchant in Assyria to another in Kültepe, discussing the trade of precious metals. The letter warns: "This is important; no dishonest man must cheat you! So do not succumb to drink!" After the rise of the Hittite Empire, the kārum vanishes from Anatolian history. Today, remains of the kārum settlement form a large round mound 500 m in diameter and about 20 m high, also called a tumulus or tell. Goats in German Myth: Erntebock & Habergeiß Flavors of Coffee: From Harvest to Homestead Rhytons - Animal Vessels of the Ancients Animal shaped rhyton, or drinking vessel, found in Kanesh (19th century BCE) A tumulus settlement is the result of several stratigraphic periods. New buildings are erected on remains of earlier periods. The result is a well-defined stratigraphy from prehistoric times to the early Hittite period. At one point the city is burned and rebuilt, at another it's abandoned and rebuilt. A large quantity of cuneiform plaques and tablets, the first ancient writing, are found, most in the area of the kārum. Mythic Fire Gods: Hephaestus of the Greek Primeval Deities: Goddess of the Dawn Zircon - the Primordial Gemstone Kultepe archaeology site today Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

The secrets of life are in the double helix. DNA region manipulation modifies entire segments of DNA including multiple genes and regulatory sequences. Genetic Engineering: Biotechnology of Change Slime Mold: Brainless Wonder & Evolutionary Link How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts DNA dictates who, how and what a person is, from eye color to inherited disease risk. Manipulating individual genes makes great inroads, leading to the ability to modify entire regions of DNA. DNA region manipulation has powerful potential. Imagine being able to not just correct a single typo in a massive document, but rewrite entire paragraphs, chapters or even sections of the book. Vermicompost: Composting with Worms How to Make an Artificial Intelligence System Secret Life of Rust: Power of Bacteria DNA region manipulation, instead of targeting individual genes, focuses on the big picture. It modifies larger stretches of DNA including multiple genes, elements, or non-coding sequences regulating biological processes. Researchers at the University of California have systematically manipulated a chromosomal region associated with obesity in mice . Reduction in neurotensin in the brain causes a 20% reduction in mouse body weight. DNA region manipulation involves an interplay of genetic elements. Biological pathways and processes never operate alone. They're governed by coordinated action of multiple genes working together. Humans in Space: Effects on Body & Mind Nucleic Acids: Nature, Environment & Health Glutamates: Umami Flavors & Brain Cells Methods for DNA region manipulation include: CRISPR/Cas9 Technology By creating guide RNAs to direct the Cas9 enzyme to specific DNA sites, researchers can make precise cuts. For example, researchers use CRISPR to target large genetic regions in rice. increasing yield under drought conditions. Transposons Often called "jumping genes," transposons can insert themselves into various positions within the genome. By using engineered transposons, scientists create genetic modifications. How Solar Panels Work Effects of Extreme Heat on the Human Body Oil Wars: A Global Power Play Synthetic Biology This field merges biology with engineering. Scientists use synthetic biology to construct large DNA sequences, manipulating the expression of genes across extensive regions. Synthetic organisms have been used to produce biofuel. Synthetic biology can redesign organisms for specific tasks, like producing biodegradable plastic. By manipulating larger DNA regions, researchers can engineer bacteria to convert organic or industrial waste into products useful to humans, like biogas (CO2 and methane ). Carbon Dioxide (CO2): the Good & the Bad Quorum Sensing: Microbial Coordination How Wind Turbines Create Electricity compost is full of organic nutrition for microbes Uses Disease Treatment Diseases, such as cancer, diabetes and neurodegenerative disorders are driven by the dysregulation of multiple genes and signaling pathways. By manipulating entire regions of DNA, scientists can restore regulation. Investigating the genetics of complex diseases requires looking at many interacting genes. DNA region manipulation helps researchers analyze the interactions more effectively. Scientists have manipulated pathways in breast cancer models, identifying new therapies. Engineering Metabolic Pathways In biotechnology, DNA region manipulation can be used to engineer entire metabolic pathways in microorganisms. Scientists can create organisms to synthesize compounds like biofuels, pharmaceuticals, or industrial chemicals. This approach is more efficient than modifying individual genes. Amoebae: Microbial Predators on the Move Lactase: Nutrition & the Milk Sugar Enzyme Flavors of Coffee: From Harvest to Homestead Agriculture Agricultural researchers can use DNA region manipulation to enhance crop yields, improve nutrient use and increase resistance to pests and diseases. By rewriting entire regulatory regions of plant growth, they can create crops better adapted to change. Scientists focus on gene clusters causing traits like disease resistance or nutrient absorption. Genetically modified corn varieties show improved drought tolerance and a increased yield during dry seasons. Developing Gene Therapies For genetic diseases caused by large genomic deletions or complex rearrangements, DNA region manipulation is a more targeted approach than regular gene therapy. By replacing missing or dysfunctional regions, scientists restore normal gene function to cure medical conditions. Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk Magnesium (Mg): Ecology & Human Health Artificial Intelligence: Power of Prediction Sweet delicious corn Gene therapy is rapidly evolving. With DNA region manipulation, researchers develop treatments to address multiple genetic disorders. New therapies in clinical trials can correct several mutations in the same session. Problems Delivery and Targeting: Efficiently delivering large DNA constructs to specific regions of the genome is difficult. Gene editing technologies such as CRISPR-Cas9, are more efficient at targeting smaller sequences. Off-Target Effects: The modifications must occur solely at the intended location, so as not to disrupt other essential regions of the genome. Complexity: Navigating the many interactions within large DNA regions and predicting the consequences of manipulation requires sophisticated computational models and extensive experiments for validation. Mineral Oil: Technology & Ecology Hormones in Microbes, Plants & Animals Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Yemen, at the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula, is a country long in conflict. Recent US military airstrikes targeting Houthi forces in Yemen bring attention to political factors and motivations behind the conflict. Houthi Rebels: Origins & Warfare Gaza Strip: Cause & Effects of War Nine Countries with Nuclear Weapons Dragon Tree in Yemen Turmoil in Yemen is rooted in a mix of history and modern geopolitical complexities. The US involvement in Yemen reveals a complex mix of historical grievances, regional power struggles. The urgent need for humanitarian relief reaches a point beyond crisis when the US stops sending aid to Yemen. Recent attacks represent a broader strategy designed to protect US interests and support regional allies. Iran: Perilous Power of the Middle East Oil Wars: A Global Power Play Weapons of Mass Destruction: United States History of Instability Yemen's past is one of unity and fragmentation. From ancient kingdoms of Saba' and Ma'in to centuries of Imamate rule, diverse governance and cultural influences shape a complex nation. During the Cold War (1947 - 1991), the country splits into North and South Yemen. North Yemen, or Republic of Yemen, allies with Saudi Arabia and the US. Russo-Ukrainian War: Motives, Propaganda & Technology Myanmar (Burma): Beauty & Brutality Microchips: the Real World Power Oceanic white-tip shark ( Carcharhinus longimanus ) with entourage Communist South Yemen, or the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, aligns with the Soviet Union and other communist countries.  Hope for stability comes with unification in 1990 under President Ali Abdullah Saleh . Soon deep grievances resurface. One of the most prominent groups to emerge is the Houthi movement. Arising from the Zaidi Shia Muslim minority of the north the Houthis form as a religious revivalist group. They quickly became a political and armed force. The Houthi cite government corruption, economic marginalization, and the influence of Saudi Arabia as justification for rebellion. In 2011 the Arab Spring, a series of anti-government protests and armed rebellions, shakes the Arab world. Violence forces the internationally recognized government of President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi to flee. Taiwan: Ancient Culture to Modern Economy Indus River Valley Civilization: Bronze Age Nanorobots: Micro Robotic Tech, Ecology, Health Exploiting the political vacuum created by the Arab Spring the Houthis steadily gain control of territory. In 2014, they seize the capital, Sana'a, sparking a civil war. This is now recognized as a proxy battle between regional powers like Saudi Arabia and Iran. Saudi Arabia, backed by the United Arab Emirates and other allies, launches a military intervention in 2015. The purpose is to reinstate Hadi's government and counter Iranian influence in Yemen. The conflict draws in multiple countries, turning Yemen into a war zone among regional and international powers. The US involvement in Yemen comes from strategic interests in the region, such as oil and natural gas. The emergence of the Houthi movement, its ties to Iran and forthright rejection of Western influence are significant threats to world superpowers. Fossil Fuels: Ecology & Economy China: Politics, Economy, Military & Modern Life Buddhist Violence in Rakhine State Myanmar Iranian Shamed kamikaze drone Yemen has is considered fertile ground for terrorist organizations. Airstrikes targeting AQAP (Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula) in Yemen increase significantly between 2015 and 2019. The Houthis are accused of receiving military and financial support from Iran, which alarms US allies like Saudi Arabia. In 2021, the Houthis launch multiple missile attacks into Saudi territory, hitting civilian areas. This spurs the US to strengthen alliance with Saudi Arabia, its biggest oil partner. Military assistance includes airstrikes aimed at countering Houthi advances. World powers fear potential threats arising from the ongoing civil conflict. Recent US-led strikes against Houthi targets are a response to the group's escalating attacks on commercial shipping in the Red Sea. Launched in support of Palestinians in Gaza, the attacks disrupt global trade routes. Cryptocurrency: Finance in the Space Age Make an AI for Stock Market Analysis & Prediction Canada in Space: Canadarm(s) & Dextre oil tanker The Red Sea is a critical artery for global commerce. The US has a vested interest to ensure safe passage of ships through this vital waterway, and Houthi attacks directly threaten this interest. Deterring Houthi Aggression The strikes are meant to prevent Houthis from further attacks on shipping. The US is targeting missile launchers, radar sites, and other military infrastructure. The US hit-miss ratio is terrifying for civilians, who go from seeing the US as a benefactor to an outright aggressor. Supporting Regional Allies Saudi Arabia has been subjected to Houthi attacks for years. The US intervention is seen by some as a demonstration of its commitment to regional security and support for its allies. Yellow River Civilization: Ancient China North Korea (DPRK): Total Control Nine Years War 1688-1697 France vs. Europe Saudi scene Partnership between the US and Saudi Arabia is based on mutual interests. Saudi Arabia is needs to curb Houthi power due to strong Iranian influence. The US shares similar concerns, considering Iran a major enemy. US provides more than $100 billion in military support to Saudi Arabia since 2015. The partnership is under scrutiny due to human rights violations resulting from the Saudi-led coalition's military operations in Yemen. Moral implications of US support create ongoing tension between strategic objectives and ethical considerations. The US president re-lists Houthis as a "foreign terrorist organization" and unilaterally dismantles USAID. Carbon Sequestration: Environmental Health Pakistan: Ancient Cultures to Nuclear Power Magnesium (Mg): Ecology & Human Health Civilian life in Yemen is at a crisis point, with over 24 million people, about 80% of the population, living in absolute poverty. "USAID's suspension in Yemen is another massive blow to Yemenis who have now survived 10 years of brutal conflict, displacement, hunger and disease." ~ Scott Paul, Oxfam America's director of peace and security Containing Iranian Influence The US accuses Iran of providing support to the Houthis, such as weapons, training and intelligence. The strikes are meant to tell Iran the US won't tolerate its actions. The US will not directly attack Iran, a strong world power. Maintaining International Law and Order The US argues Houthi attacks violate international law and threaten the freedom of navigation, a fundamental principle of maritime law. The strikes are presented as a necessary measure to uphold these principles. There are over 180 oil rigs in the Red Sea. Many tankers and other vessels have had to re-route to avoid Houthi attacks. How to Make an Artificial Intelligence System Robot Lubrication: Grease the Machine Drone Warfare: Unmanned Combat Vehicles USS Carney under attack by Houthi missiles Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Nine countries have nuclear arsenals: Russia, the United States, China, France, the United Kingdom, Pakistan, India, Israel and North Korea. Each have reasons for grasping and expanding their nuclear weaponry. Russo-Ukrainian War: Motives, Propaganda & Technology Myanmar (Burma): Beauty & Brutality Solar Energy & Nuclear Power in Space About Nuclear Weapons A nuclear weapon is an explosive device. It gets its destructive force from nuclear reactions. These can be fission, or splitting atomic nuclei; or a combination of fission and fusion, combining atomic nuclei. Fission weapons (atomic bombs) : These bombs generate energy by splitting the nuclei of heavy atoms, such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239. Fusion weapons (hydrogen bombs) : These more advanced weapons combine light atomic nuclei, like isotopes of hydrogen, to unleash much more explosive power. This catalyzes release of huge energy in the form of heat, light, and radiation. It causes catastrophic damage and lingering radioactive fallout. Sheer scale of destruction and potential for escalation are unmatched. It leads to massive infrastructure damage, loss of life in the hundreds of thousands or millions, and long-lasting environmental consequences. Tungsten: Elusive Metal of Light, Art & Industry Space Debris: Coping with Dangerous Junk Building Robots: Elastomers, Metals & Plastics Nuclear Weapons - Political and Military Contexts The political environments within these nine countries are central to shaping their nuclear strategies. Factors like military doctrine, national identity, perceived threats, and international relationships influence each nation's approach to nuclear weapons. Geopolitical Tensions:  Many nuclear powers exist in regions with high tensions. Conflicts, such as the ongoing rivalry between India and Pakistan, the North Korean standoff, and U.S.-Russia relations, increase the risks associated with nuclear proliferation. International Treaties:  Treaties like the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) hope to limit nuclear weapons spread and promote disarmament. However, disparities between nuclear and non-nuclear states complicate compliance and generate ongoing tensions. CubeSats: Science, Technology & Risky Business Metalloproteins: Biochemistry of Nature & Health Food to Energy: Krebs Cycle & Cell Balance The Nuclear Powers Russia Successor to the Soviet Union (1922 - 1991), Russia gets the largest nuclear arsenal in the world. In a geopolitical climate of NATO tension and conflict in Ukraine, the Kremlin sees nuclear weaponry as a deterrent to threats. Its nuclear weapons originate from the Soviet Union's extensive program during the Cold War. Their continued modernization maintains power status and gives Russia influence on the global stage. Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land How Solar Panels Work Russia has approximately 6375 nuclear warheads set to protect against the US. They include strategic long-range missiles like intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), and tactical nuclear systems. United States The US is the first nation to develop and use nuclear weapons, having dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. Its arsenal remains substantial. The US views this a necessary to its national security strategy to deterring aggression. Like Russia, the US modernizes its nuclear forces and sees them as a vital component to its global power. Sirius the Dog Star: Stellar Mythology Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities Transition Metals in Science and Health They originate in WWII with the Manhattan Project. Nuclear weapons let Washington project its power world-wide. Today, it maintains around 5800 nuclear warheads for both deterrence and alliance assurance. The Pentagon focuses on modernizing its nuclear capabilities to counter rivals like Russia and China. Debates about the ethics of nuclear possession and need for disarmament persist, but have little effect in a military context. China China's nuclear arsenal is smaller than those of the US and Russia, but fast growing. China maintains a "no first use" policy and views nuclear weapons as a deterrent against attack. China's interest in nuclear weapons stems from its desire to be recognized as a major global power. It wants to safeguard its national interests, particularly in the face of perceived threats from the US and regional rivals. Nüwa: Chinese Primordial Snake Goddess Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor Chun Yuyan & Death of Empress Xu China starts developing nuclear weapons in the 1960s after being refused nuclear assistance from the Soviet Union. Nuclear weapons solidify China's status as a global superpower. China has an estimated 320 nuclear warheads. Recent advances in missile technology shows a shift to a more assertive nuclear stance, with an increased defense budget aimed at bolstering military capabilities. France France develops its nuclear arsenal independently, motivated by a desire for strategic autonomy and maintaining its power status. It's a guarantor of national independence and an essential component of defense. Medieval France: Peasants, Knights & Urbanites Nine Years War 1688-1697 France vs. Europe Knights Templar Crusades & Medieval France France starts developing nuclear weapons in the 1950s after being refused nuclear assistance from the United States. These weapons give France a strong position in global security. France has about 290 nuclear warheads. French nuclear policy emphasizes national independence, ensuring its nuclear capabilities can protect France and its allies without reliance on other powers. Most of France's nuclear arsenal consists of submarine-launched and air-dropped weapons. These provide a reliable second-strike capability in case of an attack. United Kingdom The UK's nuclear deterrent is seen as a central component to its national security and its relationship with the United States. The UK's nuclear weapons are originally developed with US assistance. Eirenaeus Philalethes: Alchemy & Death in Renaissance London Hundred Years’ War: Battles & Overview Victorian Health: Sea Water Hydrotherapy With around 225 nuclear warheads, the United Kingdom prioritizes a deterrence strategy based on the principles of NATO. British nuclear weapons are predominantly on submarines to keep them hidden. The UK's approach to nuclear capabilities reinforces its role within NATO, providing reassurance to allies while facing fluctuating public debates over the utility and morality of maintaining its arsenal. Pakistan Pakistan develops nuclear weapons in response to India's nuclear program. Pakistan views nuclear weapons as essential for deterring potential Indian aggression. In the volatile context of ongoing conflict with India, nuclear weapons are seen as Pakistan's ultimate security guarantee. Pakistan starts developing nuclear weapons after India's 1970s test nicknamed "Smiling Buddha". Pakistan: Ancient Cultures to Nuclear Power Indus River Valley Civilization: Bronze Age Etch Carnelian Beads Like It's Indus Valley 2500 BCE Tensions often dictate Pakistan's nuclear stance. Nuclear weapons let Pakistan stand up to its larger neighbor. Pakistan has around 170 nuclear warheads. Its nuclear policy emphasizes a deterrent strategy against India, leading to a dynamic arms race in South Asia. India India's nuclear program is motivated by security concerns, especially in relation to China and Pakistan. India maintains a "no first use" policy but reserves the right to retaliate with nuclear weapons if attacked. Rasayana: Alchemy & Health of India Guar Gum: Unique Qualities for Art & Crafts Nāgārjuna: Buddhist Mystic & Alchemist India starts developing nuclear weapons in the 1960s with the help of the Soviet Union after losing a war with China. Nuclear weapons enhance India's regional power projection and assert its independence. India emerges as a nuclear power with its first tests in 1974 and currently has about 160 nuclear warheads. It's actively working to modernize its arsenal in response to regional tensions and other possible threats. Israel Israel's nuclear arsenal is a closely guarded secret, neither confirmed nor denied by the Israeli government. It's believed Israel develops nuclear weapons to deter aggression by hostile states in the Middle East. Emmer Wheat - First Domestic Crops Anat - War Goddess of Ancient Ugarit Butter - Food of Peasants & Barbarians Israel develops its nuclear program secretly in the 1950s. Though it has not officially confirmed its arsenal, Israel is thought to have around 80 to 90 nuclear warheads. Israel sees its nuclear reputation as vital for survival. North Korea North Korea's nuclear weapons rush is driven by need for regime survival and to deter intervention by US and allies. North Korea defies international sanctions in continuing to develop nuclear and missile programs. North Korea acquires its knowledge and materials from various sources, including black-market networks and possible assistance from Pakistan. Nuclear weapons are the foundation of the legitimacy of the Kim regime. North Korea (DPRK): Total Control Survival of Bacteria in the Extremes of Space How Spacecraft Produce Water for Astronauts North Korea has 40 to 50 nuclear warheads, developed primarily in response to perceived threats from the United States and its allies. The North Korean regime sees nuclear weapons as critical for its survival. Nuclear weaponry is a tool for international leverage. Denuclearization talks repeatedly stall, causing heightened tensions in East Asia. Nuclear Weapons: Influence in Diplomacy Nuclear capabilities can amplify a nation's influence in global diplomacy. The potential use of nuclear force gives states leverage in negotiations, allowing them to extract concessions or secure alliances. Pharos Lighthouse: Ancient Wonder of Alexandria Super Alloys in Space Exploration What Robots Need to Function & Survive Nuclear powers often have a stronger voice in international forums and are taken more seriously on matters of global security. However, this influence is also constrained by the fear of triggering a global catastrophe. Security Problems While nuclear weapons can enhance a nation's security, they also create compounding problems. Countries feeling threatened build up arms and urge allies to do the same, causing heightened fears and instability. Weapons of Mass Destruction: United States Silent Destroyers: Microbial Corrosion of Concrete Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Street art at Teufelsberg, a US listening station during the Cold War Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Amoebas live in nearly all environments of Earth. Unique adaptations and survival strategies of these canny microorganisms make them integral to ecosystems. Unseen, these single-celled microbes are vital to environmental balance, being both predators and prey. Malevolent Microfungi: Hazards of Health & Home Microfungi: Mysterious Web of Life & Death Radioactive Gas: Radon (Rn) Noble & Deadly Amoeba clockwise from top right: 1. Amoeba proteus 2. Actinophrys sol 3. Acanthamoeba sp. 4. Nuclearia thermophila 5. Euglypha acanthophora 6. neutrophil ingesting bacteria. These six are detailed below. There are multiple credits for this image. What are Amoebas? Amoebas (also amoebae) are some of the most fascinating microorganisms on the planet. Their unique structure, adaptability, and behaviors make them a subject of endless curiosity and research. Single-celled microorganisms, amoebae belong to kingdom Protista and phylum Amoebozoa . They're characterized by flexible shapes and ability to form temporary projections or pseudopodia, aka false feet. These are extensions of their bodily cytoplasm. Prussic Acid: Secrets of Hydrogen Cyanide Great Advances in Chemistry 1600-1800 Famous Women of Renaissance Alchemy Amoeba has ensnared a protozoan with its flowing pseudopodia. It actively stalks prey. The video is here: Amoeba hunts and kills paramecia and stentor - YouTube They extend and use the mutable appendages to move around and capture food. To travel, an amoeba sends out pseudopodia which attach to a surface, and thus pulls itself along. This adaptability gives them a fluid morphology, enabling them to live in diverse environments. Most amoebas are solitary organisms. Certain species can behave colonially under specific conditions. This allows them to work together for survival or reproduction. Some amoebae can aggregate in stressful environments, forming a temporary multicellular structure known as slime mold . The Protista Kingdom covers creatures which are not fungi, plants or animals. It derives from Greek meaning "the very first". Protista include the sub-kingdom protozoans , slime molds, chrysophytes, dinoflagellates and euglenoids. Oxidation: Metabolism & Essential Molecular Action Biofilm: Metropolitan Microbes of People & Planet Acid-Producing Bacteria in Sulfuric Acid Creation Protozoa including amoebas Protozoans clockwise from top left:   1. Blepharisma japonicum , a ciliate; 2. Giardia muris , a parasitic flagellate; 3. Centropyxis aculeata , a testate (shelled) amoeba; 4. Peridinium willei , a dinoflagellate; 5. Chaos carolinense,  a naked amoebozoan; 6. Desmarella moniliformis , a choanoflagellate. Multiple credits  exist for this pic. Amoebae belong to the protozoans. Most amoebae are harmless or beneficial, but there are a few rogues. Amoebae Causing Sickness & Death Like zombies, some amoebae only love you for your brains. The microbe Naegleri fowleri , aka brain-eating amoeba, cause serious central nervous system infection. The amoeba lives in warm fresh water bodies and enters a human organism through the nose. Acanthamoeba can also cause diseases in humans. These include keratitis and granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE). The latter is often but not always seen in immunosuppressed patients. Gum Arabic, Guar, Xanthan: Guide for Artists & Artisans Alchemy: Processes Used by Alchemists The Microscope: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek Amoeba cyst GAE is caused by when the amoebae enter the body through an open wound and then spread to the brain. The combination of host immune responses and secreted amoebal proteases causes massive brain swelling resulting in death in 95% of those infected. Besides brains, Acanthamoeba attack the eyes. Keratitis, swelling of the cornea, is identified by inflammatory cells and congestion of the ciliary body (ie eyelashes or eyelids). It's linked to infectious and noninfectious conditions and affects the whole body or only surfaces of the eye. Entamoeba histolytica is also a health risk. This microbe is responsible for amoebic dysentery, affecting approximately 50 million people worldwide annually. Like many other microbes, amoebas are ubiquitous and found in various habitats, from freshwater ponds and streams to moist soil and marine ecologies. They delight in regions of rich organic matter and actively explore their environment. Divine Water: Sulfuric Acid in Alchemy Arsenic: Murderous Metal & Miracle Cure Renaissance Apocalypse: End is Nigh Entamoeba histolytica - parasitic Some species are found in more extreme conditions, such as hot springs, salt lakes, volcanic vents or the deep sea. Fairly young on the ecological timeline, amoebae first appear 750 million years ago; compare to 3.45 billion years for bacteria. Feeding Habits of Amoebae Amoebas are heterotrophic, feeding on bacteria, algae, and other small microorganisms. A heterotroph can't produce its own food and relies on nutrients from sources of organic carbon, mainly plant or animal matter. In the food chain, heterotrophs are primary, secondary and tertiary consumers, but not producers. Heterotrophic organisms include all animals including humans, fungi, some bacteria, protists and many parasitic plants. Asclepius: Greek Medicine Snake God Elixir of Life: Alchemy & the Emperor 12 Steps to the Magnum Opus: Ripley Scroll Heterotrophic organisms, their social and feeding habits Amoebae use the process of phagocytosis to ingest food. The amoeba extends pseudopodia to envelop prey or particles, forming a food vacuole. It uses lysosomes, a collection of organelles, to digest the matter. Lysosomes, single membrane-bound organelles, are found in many animal cells. These spherical vesicles are full of hydrolytic enzymes to digest an assortment of biomolecules. The amoeba digests food within 5-30 minutes. Metabolic wastes include ammonia and water. Amoebas are important to keeping bacterial populations in check and recycling nutrients in their habitats. They ensure smooth operation of the decomposition process in nature by consuming excess bacteria. Baldness: 9 Natural Cures by Physician Dioscorides Acid-Producing Bacteria in Sulfuric Acid Creation Women of the Wild Hunt: Holle, Diana, Frigg Amoebas digest organic matter and and consume excess bacteria to keep the populations healthy Reproduction of Amoebas Amoebas reproduce asexually, by binary fission. In this process, an amoeba divides into two identical daughter cells, each with a copy of genetic material. Under optimal conditions, this causes rapid population growth with some species doubling in number every 24 hours. Some species such as Acanthamoeba form cysts to endure unfavorable conditions such as drought, thus surviving until environmental factors improve. Dormant cysts can last for years. The lifespan of an amoeba varies significantly among species, ranging from days to months. Environmental conditions, such as temperature, food and moisture availability, can influence their longevity. Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle Talc (Magnesium Silicate): Beauty, Art & Industry Caterina Sforza: Renaissance Alchemy Amoeba cell division Amoebas are typically not visible to the eye. Their size ranges from 10 to 500 micrometers. To see them clearly, at least 400x magnification with a microscope is recommended. At this magnification, unique movements and characteristics come into view. They're always intriguing subjects for microscopists and biology enthusiasts. Types of Amoeba Amoeba proteus One of the most studied amoebas, Amoeba proteus is known for its size and distinct movement patterns. It is commonly found in freshwater environments and serves as a model organism in many biological studies. It feeds primarily on smaller microorganisms. Tartrate Crystals: Secrets of Tartaric Acid Reduction in Chemistry: Gaining Electrons Glauber: Preparation of a Golden Spirit of Wine Amoeba proteus Actinophrys sol This unique amoeba, also known as "sun animalcule ," has a star-shaped appearance due to its radiating pseudopods, which it uses to capture food. It usually inhabits environments of slow-moving fresh water, and can be seen through a microscope. Acanthamoeba sp. Known for detrimental effects on human health, Acanthamoeba can cause serious infections. This genus is often found in soil and water and is notorious for its resilience in harsh conditions. Many Acanthamoeba  species are present in soil and freshwater. These amoebas can cause keratitis, particularly among contact lens wearers. Secret Life of Rust: Power of Bacteria Xanthan Gum & Plant Blight: Xanthomonas Campestris Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy Nuclearia thermophila : A thermophilic amoeba at home in high-temperature environments, Nuclearia thermophila is a fascinating extremophile. Other extremophiles include those acid or high saline environments. Euglypha acanthophora : With a protective siliceous shell, this amoeba is noted for its ecological significance in freshwater habitats. It feeds on bacteria and algae. It has distinct morphological features. This amoeba builds protective shells from silica, which gives it a distinct appearance and nickname "shelled amoeba". Found mainly in freshwater, it consumes organic debris and builds its shell from microscopic grains of sand. Neutrophil ingesting bacteria : Although not true amoebas, some cells have amoebic properties. A compelling example of amoebas at work is seen in neutrophils, a type of white blood cell. It exhibits amoeboid movement during the ingestion of bacteria. This similarity highlights essential processes in both immune defense and microbial ecology. There's an excellent video clip here: Immune Cells Eating Bacteria (Phagocytosis) - watch the cells decimate the bacteria Acetic Acid Bacteria for Vinegar Artisans: Acetobacter Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Paints of the Artist's Palette in Renaissance Europe White Blood Cell Attacks Anthrax Bacteria Facts About Amoebae Amoebas are among the simplest forms of life on Earth. Their ability to change shape allows them to navigate through various environments effectively. They can exist in anaerobic conditions, meaning they can survive without oxygen. Many species are essential in controlling bacterial populations in ecosystems. Amoebas can change their shape for movement and feeding due to their flexible cell membranes, which sets them apart from most other cells. Equipped with lysosomes, they assist in digesting the food they engulf, showcasing their efficient nutrient absorption mechanism. Some amoebas can survive extreme conditions, including high temperatures—a testament to their robust nature. Their ability to form cysts allows them to endure unfavorable environmental conditions, making them exceptionally resilient. As crucial participants in the food web, amoebas are both prey for larger organisms and predators for nutrient recycling, maintaining ecological balance. Arsenic Trioxide: Paris Green Paint Pigment & Pesticide Separatory Funnel: Alchemy Lab Equipment Literature: Great Literary Patrons in History Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Slime molds dwell in dark, damp environments of decaying matter, like forest floors or compost heaps. They morph between fungi and single-celled amoebas and are lauded for their intelligence. Compost Heat: Microbes & Decomposition Amoebae: Microbial Predators on the Move Quorum Sensing: Microbial Coordination Slime molds begin as several single celled individuals. When conditions are right they unite to create either multicellular structures or one big cell. They often appear rain or high humidity. Slime molds are not plant, animal or fungus, but belong to the kingdom Protista, like amoebae. They're renowned for showing what humans perceive as intelligence, even though slime molds don't have a brain. Instead they have multiple nuclei, a natural phenomenon shared with heterokaryotic fungi. A nucleus is the cell's control center, holding genetic material (DNA). Botulism: Causes, Symptoms & Prevention Listeria  Bacteria: Health and Environment Pseudomonadota: E. coli, Gonorrhea & Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria Parts of cell The nucleus regulates essential cellular activities like growth, protein synthesis, and reproduction. In animals, the skeletal muscle cells, liver cells and osteoclasts have multiple nuclei. Nuclei communicate with each other. They can coordinate functions and process local signals. They may show regional specialization, a function shared by non-motile yeast colonies. Slime molds  can pulsate. This is caused by chemicals moving inside it. Water waves carry calcium molecules from back and forth. T he "grainy" appearance of some slime molds is due to minute calcium crystals on the peridium (the outer layer). Slime molds often make round or blobbish formations which can be in close proximity or adjoining, as below. The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature Algae in Glass Houses: Diatomaceous Earth Aspergillus Flavus Mold: Origins, Behavior, Dangers Lycogala epidendrum, first slime mold known to science (1654) Slime molds are classed into two main groups. Cellular Slime Molds Cellular slime molds live as individual amoebae, foraging for food like bacteria and organic particles in soil, leaf litter or dung. When food gets scarce, individual cells aggregate, drawn together by chemical signals. Amoebas move using pseudopodia or false feet, temporary extensions of cytoplasm. These allow the protists to crawl or glide along a surface and forms the basis of slime mold movement. Pseudopodia also capture food. Amazing Yeast: Feeding, Breeding & Biofilms Tardigrades (Water Bears): Extreme Survivors Cell Communication in Living Organisms single-celled amoeba with pseudopodia and visible nucleus Cells communicate with each other through signaling molecules interpreted by nuclei. The molecules bind to receptors on other cells, triggering intracellular reactions to coordinate functions.  The amoeba cells form a sluggish mass or pseudoplasmodium. This coordinated group migrates towards light and air. It produces stalk-like fruiting bodies, which are t he spore-producing organs of a fungus. Spores are formed at the end of the stalk in the sporangiophore, where each haploid nucleus is enclosed in a tough outer membrane. The stalk elevates sporangia and releases spores to find new food sources and begin the cycle again. The individual cells "sacrifice" themselves to form the stalks. Echinosteliales may produce just one stalk. Seemingly altruistic behavior also appears in yeast (fungi) and certain bacteria. For example they create biofilms from their own bodies and microbial glue . A yeast cell may sacrifice itself to create spores within it, made from the nuclei of nearby sister cells. Spores & Yeast: Saccharomyces cerevisiae Fungal Biofilms: Ecology of Biofilm-Producing Molds & Yeasts Microbe Glue (EPS) in Biofilm Formation slime mold fruiting bodies Plasmodial Slime Molds Plasmodial slime molds, such as Physarum polycephalum , begin as spores. The spores germinate into single cells which fuse to form a single giant cell, the plasmodium, with thousands of nuclei. The plasmodium creeps along surfaces, engulfing bacteria and other organic matter. It's usually brightly colored yellow, orange, or red, and can cover an obvious area. When conditions go bad, as in lack of food or moisture, the plasmodium retracts to form fruiting bodies or stalks. At the ends of the stalks nuclei undergo meiosis. Chromosomes are reshuffled and nuclei divide making spores which are haploid, having just one set of chromosomes. Upon release the spores disperse to start the life cycle again as haploid amoebae. Hormones in Microbes, Plants & Animals Why Apples Turn Brown: Science & Nature Nitrogen Fixation & Evolution of Plant Life Sporangeum of Enteridium lycoperdon Slime molds are famous for certain traits: Decentralized Problem Solving: Slime molds solve complex problems like finding the shortest path through a maze to reach food. They avoid areas they've already explored. This is accomplished by detecting minute quantities of their own secretions. It manifests as "memory". Network Optimization: Slime molds construct efficient transportation networks, mimicking layout of railway systems in urban areas. They can connect food sources. Self-Organization and Collective Behavior: Slime molds are organized, with individual cells coordinating actions to achieve a common goal. Biological Warfare: Microbes & Insects Binary Fission: Speedy Microbe Reproduction Bacteria & Archaea: Differences & Similarities Trichia varia  slime mold Bio-Inspired Design: Slime mold behavior inspires new approaches in computer science, robotics, and architecture. Their ability to optimize paths and solve problems is used to develop algorithms and designs. Slime molds are important to ecosystems. Breaking down organic matter, they recycle nutrients back into the soil to supporting plants and other organisms. This promotes soil health and biodiversity. They're indicators of environmental health. Their presence and abundance signals plentiful organic material and moisture, and a thriving ecosystem. It's a lucky sign when they show up in compost. Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes: Life Forms on Earth Rotten Egg Sulfur Smell: Microbial Processes Malevolent Microfungi: Hazards of Health & Home Physarum polycephalum  forming a plasmodium Slime molds have been on Earth for 600 million+ years. They predate both plants, which appear 500 million ya, and animals with brains or nervous systems.  Amoebae, from which slime molds originate, are known to exist for at least 750 million years. Comparatively, bacteria, a favorite slime mold food source, are among the earliest forms of life. They appear 3.5 billion years ago, in the early Precambrian period. Fungi have been on Earth for about a billion years. The earliest humans emerge a mere 2 million ya. Slime molds are a major step evolutionary step beyond lichen for example, which forms from a fungus and alga or cyanobacteria, and microbe colonies which exhibit collective behavior. Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses Algae: Evolution, Science & Environment Cyanobacteria: Nutrients & Bacterial Blooms collective behavior Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a common spore-forming yeast, known better as brewers' yeast. Some strains also release enzymes toxic to other yeasts , in an epic battle for survival in the microworld. Fermentation: Yeast & the Active Microworld Oil-Dwelling Microbes: Bacteria, Yeast, Fungi Honey Mead: Most Ancient Ambrosia Yeast is a fermenting agent in beer, wine, coffee, chocolate, bread, sourdough, sorghum, sodas, kefir and more Yeast appears in many aspects of life, notably brewing, baking, health and biotechnology. These unicellular organisms belong to the kingdom Fungi. They're distinct for their ability to ferment sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains are also used for the fermentation processes of coffee and chocolate. W ith over 1,500 yeast species identified thus far, Saccharomyces cerevisiae  is considered the first domesticated microorganism. It normally reproduces by budding. Yeast: Potent Power of the Active Microworld Microbial Alchemy: Fermentation, Digestion, Putrefaction Mother of Vinegar & Microbial Life in a Bottle A yeast cell budding Killer Yeast Under certain circumstances such as nutrient depreciation, some strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae turn into rampant assassins. They release deadly enzymes capable of killing off competing yeast and weaklings of their own species. Killer yeast is harmless to humans. However, it can corrupt wine and is not fond of caffeine. According to the National Institutes for Health, caffeine toxicity is enhanced in yeast cells following exposure to cigarette smoke. Killer Yeast: Assassins of the Microworld Microbes: Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Protozoa, Fungi & Viruses Secrets of Xanthan Gum for Artists & Chefs Microbes behaving badly Life and Death in Yeast World To make bread and some fermented beverages, S. cerevisiae must live, thrive and die. It can't survive heat over 60 °C (140°F), and ironically is sensitive to the high amount of alcohol it creates. In brewing the yeast can die when alcohol production reaches 10-20%, but more often the cells sink to the bottom, seen as sediment. Many cells are still viable and can be re-pitched up to three times. Dead cells disintegrate, releasing sugars and nutrients rapidly gobbled up by thriving yeast. In brewing eventually the live yeast go dormant as there's nothing left for them to do. Bdellovibrio : Lifestyles of Predatory Bacteria B. Linens Bacterium: Big Cheese of B.O. Aspergillus Flavus  Mold: Origins, Behavior, Dangers Yeast Cells Death or dormancy of yeast is the main reason beer and wine have lower alcohol content than do distilled drinks like brandy. In viticulture the lees or sediment containing yeast may be used to make a specialty wine. While Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the most commonly used species, others like Candida , Brettanomyces , and Kluyveromyces also have significant industrial impact. Their varied metabolic capabilities and adaptability contribute to this diversity. Silent Destroyers: Microbes of Concrete Corrosion Women Brewers: Brewing History of Europe Secret Life of Rust: Power of Bacteria Brettanomyces wild yeast Yeast in the Wild Yeast is very active in the wild. It's present on Earth for about 600 million years, evolving from a time microorganisms ruled a single continent and vast primal seas. Wild yeasts are found on the skins of fruits, on decaying wood, in soil, groundwater and in air. Wild yeasts adore grapes and plums. They don't form on the fruit until it's ripe. In the wild this is pre-fermentation preparation. They also naturally ferment wild berries and other fruit. Acetic Acid: Vinegar 🜊 in Ancient Alchemy Glauber: Preparation of a Golden Spirit of Wine Literature: Great Literary Patrons in History Wild yeast appears as the whitish coating on grapes and other fruits Some animals such as chickadees and wasps intentionally get drunk on the yeast-fermented fruit like mountain ash (rowan) berries, or apples. If wasps are abuzz over rotten fruit, it could be some yeast is brewing cider. This is primarily in autumn, when sugars are running high. The booze-addled animals fly erratically, bump into things and land clumsily, but they're in good humor about it. Wild yeast is responsible for wild honey mead. Early humans and other animals raid bee hives for honey. Honey mead is a pleasant surprise. The conditions in a wild hive are perfect for wild yeast fermentation, providing sugars (honey), darkness, warmth and moisture. The Unseen World: Protozoans in Nature Verdigris: Coveted Blue Green Copper Pigment Steam & Style - Agrippina of the Rhine honeycomb dripping with honey Conditions for Yeast Growth Water is vital for yeast to absorb nutrients. Most yeast species flourish in a temperature range of 20°C to 30°C (68°F to 86°F) but can survive in both colder and warmer conditions. Yeasts consume sugars, amino acids, and vitamins found in organic materials. Many yeast species thrive with or without oxygen. For instance, Saccharomyces cerevisiae ferments sugars in anaerobic conditions to produce alcohol and carbon dioxide. Sugars are the main source of energy for yeast. Fermentation is conversion of these sugars. During fermentation, yeasts excrete alcohol (ethanol), carbon dioxide, and various other byproducts, which contribute to flavor and texture of baked goods and alcoholic beverages. Song of the Loreley - Lethal Attraction Difference Between Gram-Positive & Gram-Negative Bacteria Brownian Motion: Physics & Phenomena fermentation by yeast Yeast Spores Spores are reproductive structures formed by yeasts and other fungi. They're a way to survive harsh environmental conditions. Stressors like nutrient shortages or increased salinity cause they shift from active growth to sporulation, producing protective spores. This survival strategy is allows yeast spores to endure until conditions become favorable again. The biological process by which yeasts form spores is known as sporulation. In response to environmental stresses, or when nutrients become scarce, yeasts undergo a complex series of metabolic changes. German House Spirits: Beer Donkey (Bieresel) 10 Wise Plants & Herbs for the Elixir of Life Ethyl Alcohol: Science of Solvents & Booze ... enter survival mode This process starts with the yeast cell preparing to divide. Instead of conventional budding, the yeast goes into a dormant state or quiescence. In this stage the yeast cells produce spores through mitotic and meiotic cell divisions. They can withstand extreme climates and loss of moisture. Some spores can endure freezing temperatures of -80°C (-112°F). Certain yeast spores found in frozen soils can still germinate after c. 400 years. Under optimal conditions, spores revive quickly. Seven Deadly Diseases of the Renaissance Red & White Tartar: Wine Salts of Alchemy Science of Alchemy: Simple Distillation Process Happy spore revival! Yeast Spore Allergy & Health People allergic to mold spores may also be allergic to yeast spores. Yeasts make up about 1% of world fungi. While yeast allergies and yeast spore allergies may not be the same thing, if allergy is suspected it's prudent to avoid foods or beverages containing yeast. Inhalation of fungal spores by asthmatic or sensitive people can cause respiratory and other health problems such as hives and digestive issues. Many common yeasts are found in humans. They include Candida spp., Cladosporium spp., Saccharomyces spp., Penicillium spp., Malassezia spp., Aspergillus spp., Cryptococcus spp., Rhodotorula spp. and Trichosporon spp. Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities Predators of the Microworld: Vampirovibrio & Lysobacter Biofilm Communities: Metropolitan Microbes taking a closer look In medicine, brewer's yeast has been engineered to make penicillin. The antibiotic is the first of its kind to be created by Saccharomyces cerevisiae . This yeast is commonly used in biotechnology to make drugs. Threats to Yeast and Spores Yeast cells are sensitive to extreme temperatures, high levels of alcohol, and inadequate nutrients, which can hamper growth or kill the cells. They can be killed by temperatures exceeding 60°C (140°F) and extreme pH levels. Conversely, yeast spores display greater resistance; they can endure boiling water and extreme dryness. Strong chemicals like bleach and intense ultraviolet light can eradicate spores. Ardent Spirits Alchemy: the Fiery Elixirs of Life Beer Goddess Siris of Mesopotamia 4 Infused Wines of Ancient Medicine To Nourish and Protect Yeast For those who cherish yeast and wish to nourish and protect this industrious microbe, it's crucial to maintain a balanced environment. This includes: Providing Nutrients : Regularly adding sugars, amino acids, and vitamins can support yeast health. Temperature Control : Maintaining the right temperature is essential for active fermentation. Moisture Level : Keeping the environment sufficiently moist can prevent the yeast from drying out. To successfully cultivate yeast, it's crucial to recreate an ideal growth environment. Yeasts thrive on nutrients like sugars, nitrogen, vitamins (B1), and minerals like zinc and magnesium. Feeding a yeast culture ensures vigorous fermentation and efficient rising of dough. Arcanum Joviale: Alchemy of Sudorific Sweat Elixir Vitae: Giambattista della Porta Honey Bees (Apidae): Nature & Myth Pizza dough Facts About Yeast Spores Nature’s Miniature Time Capsules : Yeast spores can preserve genes for thousands of years, making them invaluable for scientists studying historic organisms. Yeast spores can survive in harsh climates, including temperatures as low as -80°C and conditions with little water. Used in Biopharmaceuticals : Some yeast species are engineered to produce human proteins and vaccines, showcasing their importance beyond baking and brewing. Active Even in Space : Yeast can survive in space conditions. Diversity:  Although Saccharomyces cerevisiae  is well-known, the yeast family includes species used in diverse fields such as biofuels and bioremediation or environmental cleanup. Ecological Impact:  Yeasts are essential in nature, breaking down organic matter and facilitating decomposition, contributing to a healthy ecosystem. Fungal Biofilms: Ecology of Biofilm-Producing Molds Colorful World of Bacteria - Color Producers Cupriavidus metallidurans : Metal Eating Gold Making Bacterium forest ecosystem with fungi Sylvia Rose Books Non-Fiction Books: World of Alchemy: Spiritual Alchemy World of Alchemy: A Little History Fiction Books: READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top

The Russo-Ukrainian War begins in 2014. Conflict goes back much further. The war has profound political, social, and economic repercussions not only for Ukraine and Russia but the world. Here's an overview. Drone Warfare: Unmanned Combat Vehicles About Crude Oil & Natural Gas Iran: Perilous Power of the Middle East The Russo-Ukrainian War is a complex multifaceted crisis. It's rooted in historical tensions, geopolitical ambitions, and ideology clashes going back hundreds of years. Historical Perspectives Ukraine and Russia share centuries of history. Kyiv, the Ukrainian capital, is considered the basis of Slavic civilization. Ukraine is subject to periods of foreign rule by Poland, Lithuania, Austria-Hungary and the Soviet Union. As time goes on this forges a strong national identity and desire for self-realization. These qualities often clash with Russia's perception of Ukraine as being within its sphere of influence. Slavic River Spirits & Roman Gods Titanium (Ti): From Space to Earth & Back Building Robots: Elastomers, Metals & Plastics Major historical events contributing to the Russo-Ukrainian War include The Holodomor (1932-1933):  A man-made famine in Soviet Ukraine, widely considered a genocide by Ukrainians, causes immense suffering and fuels deep-seated resentment toward Moscow. Ukraine's Independence (1991):  Collapse of the Soviet Union and Ukraine's declaration of independence are hailed by Ukrainians but not Russia, who struggles to accept the loss of an important territory. The Orange Revolution (2004):  Pro-democracy protests against alleged election fraud in Ukraine are seen by Russia as Western interference aimed at weakening its influence. Oder River: Nature & Early People Thirty Years' War Europe: Five Major Battles Silicone: Creation, Robotics & Technology When Ukraine declares independence from the Soviet Union, the new country faces the challenge of forming a unique national identity. Many people desire closer ties with Europe, especially in western regions. Conversely, in eastern Ukraine, many preserve strong cultural, historical, and linguistic connections with Russia. In 2013, tensions explode when then-President Viktor Yanukovych rejects a trade deal with the EU, favoring stronger ties with Russia. Massive protests known as the Euromaidan movement contribute to the ousting of Yanukovych in February 2014. Russia supports separatists in the Donbas region of eastern Ukraine, leading to protracted war in the area. Silicon (Si) Metalloid: Prehistory into the Future Black Sea: Stone Age & Early History Biometallurgy: Microbes Mining Metals destruction in Donbas Annexation of Crimea Crimea is a Ukrainian peninsula in the north Black Sea with majority-Russian population. In March 2014, Russia's annexation of Crimea claims protection of ethnic Russians. Crimea is given to Ukraine in 1954 on the 300th anniversary of the Treaty of Pereyaslav, in which Cossacks pledge allegiance to Tsar Alexi. The transfer is attributed to Communist first secretary Nikita Khrushchev (1894 - 1971). Irrigation in History: Greening of the Land Magnesium (Mg): Ecology & Human Health Gallic Wars: Caesar's Invasion of Germania Crimean View - the famous Swallow Nest Castle In Jan 1992 the Supreme Soviet of Russia challenges constitutionality of the transfer. Nikita Khrushchev is posthumously accused of treason against the Russian people. Alexander Rutskoy, former Vice President of Russia, calls the transfer of Crimea a “harebrained scheme.” He says those who signed the document must have been suffering sunstroke or hangovers. Control of Crimea grants access to the Black Sea, a strategic military and economic region. The March 2014 annexation sparks international outrage and sanctions. It's condemned by 100 countries of the United Nations. Currently, Russia uses Crimea as a military base, a source of forced recruitment, and a detention center in its war against Ukraine. Hundreds of Ukrainian civilians are held there, isolated from the rest of the country and the world. Mercury: Miracle Metal of Madness Methane (CH4): Science of Microbial Gas Nine Years War 1688-1697 France vs. Europe Motivations: Politics, Economics and Geopolitics Political Control: Russia views Ukraine as strategically vital, both geopolitically and ideologically. Keeping Ukraine within its orbit ensures Russian security and influence in Eastern Europe. Economic Interests: Ukraine a crucial transit route for Russian gas exports to Europe. Control over Ukrainian territory, particularly the Donbas region with its rich natural resources, also holds economic significance. Ukraine has 22 of the 50 minerals classed by the US government as critical. These include lithium, graphite, titanium , silicon , uranium used to generate nuclear power and rare earth elements. Deposits of copper , lead , zinc , silver , nickel , cobalt and manganese are also significant. Many resources are untapped. Lead: Death Metal of Metallurgy Prague: Bohemians of the Renaissance Baba Yaga - Slavic Forest Witch Titanium crystallized in bar form Geopolitical Ambitions: Russian President Putin's vision of restoring Russia's great power status clashes with Ukraine's aspirations for closer ties with the West, including potential NATO membership. Putin has repeatedly challenged legitimacy of Ukraine's borders. According to his ideology it's historically part of "Greater Russia." For Russia, Ukraine is a crucial buffer state against NATO's expansion. Ukraine's desire to align more closely with Western Europe and NATO is perceived by Russia as a significant threat. Ukraine's agricultural sector alone contributes about 12% to its GDP, a valuable asset for both nations. Ancient Grains: Wheat, Barley, Millet, Rice Emmer Wheat - First Domestic Crops Copper (Cu) Effects on Human & Plant Health Zelenskyy and Putin Volodymyr Zelenskyy:  President of Ukraine, Zelenskyy rises to international prominence for his leadership. He rallies the Ukrainian people, appeals for international support, and is a symbol of Ukrainian resistance. Before his presidency, Zelenskyy is a comedian and actor, with no military background. He wins presidency in 2019, advocating anti-corruption, and aiming for peace talks to resolve conflict in eastern Ukraine. His relatable background resonates with a generation of Ukrainians eager for change and reform. Einkorn Wheat - First Domestic Crops Silver - Queen of Precious Metals Dnieper (Dnipro) River: Early Humans Zelenskyy art Vladimir Putin:  The President of Russia, Putin is the driving force behind Russia's policies towards Ukraine. He views Ukraine as essential to Russia's strategic interests is willing to use military force to achieve his goals. Putin has maintained control for over two decades, using nationalism and historic narratives to reinforce his authority. His emphasis on reasserting Russia's status as a global power often leads to aggressive foreign policies. These particularly involve Ukraine. In 2023 surveys say up to 75% of Russians support Putin's stance on Ukraine, proving the effectiveness of state messaging. Vistula River: Early Tribes & Trade Self-Healing Silicone Technology in Robotics Hair Loss: 9 Natural Cures of Physician Dioscorides Faked photo of Putin riding a bear has become so iconic there are even action figures & tshirts available 2022: Full-Scale Invasion In February 2022, Russia launches a full-scale invasion of Ukraine, a significant escalation of conflict. Putin cites "demilitarization" and "denazification" of Ukraine as his goals. He accuses the Ukrainian government of being controlled by Nazis, although its President is Jewish-born. He also claims the Ukraine government is a threat to Russian security. Rise & Fall of the Habsburg Dynasty Europe Thirty Years' War: Conflict, Antagonists, and Impact on Society Famous Women of Renaissance Alchemy Supporters The international community is divided in support for Ukraine and Russia. Supporters of Ukraine:  The US, European Union and many other countries condemn Russia's aggression and provide Ukraine with financial, military and humanitarian aid. Western nations, especially NATO members, stress significance of national sovereignty and security. Supporters of Russia:  Russia receives support from Belarus, Syria, and a few other countries. Russia has support and strong relations with some such as China, Vietnam, Iran, Cuba, Venezuela, Nicaragua, North Korea, Myanmar. Space Satellites: Mechanics & Materials Sirius the Dog Star: Stellar Mythology Religious Wars Catholics & Protestants France Myanmar military Propaganda & Disinformation Propaganda is a powerful tool in the Russo-Ukrainian War. It's used by both sides to shape public opinion and justify their actions. Political and civil propaganda are used by many countries including the US. Its basic function is to demonize certain groups or behaviors and portray others as desirable. Russian Propaganda: Russia's propaganda aims to portray Ukraine as a failed state controlled by Western powers and infiltrated by "Nazis". It also seeks to demonize Ukrainians, justify military actions, and undermine international support for Ukraine. Curonian Freshwater Baltic Sea Lagoon Great Cormorant: Wild Birds & Mythic Beasts Zinc (Zn): Technology, Nature & Health Kyiv after Russian shelling 2022 State-controlled Russian media portrays the conflict as a defensive struggle against Western threats and "Nazism" in Ukraine's government. Ukrainian Counter-Propaganda: Ukraine's propaganda focuses on portraying Russia as an aggressor and highlighting the resilience of the Ukrainian people. It seeks to galvanize domestic support, maintain international solidarity, and counter Russian narratives. Ukraine emphasizes its fight for sovereignty and territorial integrity. Social media channels disperse information and rally international support. In early months of the war, Ukrainian social media campaigns reach millions in the West, raising awareness of the situation. Dniester River Neolithic Civilization How Salamanders Regenerate Body Parts Solnitsata - Neolithic Salt Trade Town Weapons & Technology The Russo-Ukrainian War is a proving ground for modern weapons and technology. Conventional Weapons: Tanks, artillery, and armored vehicles are integral to the ground war. Drones: Both sides extensively use drones for reconnaissance, surveillance and attack. Precision-Guided Munitions: Guided missiles and artillery shells have been used to target military infrastructure and enemy positions. Cyber Warfare: Cyberattacks have been used to disrupt critical infrastructure, spread disinformation, and undermine enemy capabilities. Cyber warfare involves both sides using advanced tactics to disrupt communications and create confusion within opposing forces. In WWII this is largely accomplished with radio interference and false broadcasts. Nickel (Ni): Metallurgy Facts & Folklore Sacred Geometry: Insight to the Mysteries Vistula Lagoon Baltic Nature & History Russia gains attention for drone capabilities. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are deployed for reconnaissance as well as precision strikes. Russian forces use drones in over 50% of their operations by 2022. Russia uses Iranian-made Shahed-136 kamikaze drones. They're fairly cheap and can cause significant damage to infrastructure and civilian areas. The attacks lead to massive loss of civilian lives. Since 2023 Ukraine uses uncrewed surface vessels, initially to counteract the Russian offensive in Crimea. The seafaring drones carry large explosive payloads and strike at the waterline of ships. The drones’ relatively low cost also allows Ukraine to stage attacks with large numbers. Despite their scale the attacks are hard for Russian warships to detect. Calcium (Ca): Earth Metal of Structure & Strength Sinope: Poison, Honey, Greeks & Clay Honey Bees (Apidae): Nature & Myth Ukraine's uncrewed surface vessels Peace Talks Numerous attempts have been made to negotiate a peaceful resolution to the conflict, but with little success. Key obstacles include: Territorial Disputes: Russia's annexation of Crimea and its control over parts of the Donbas region remain major points of contention. Security Guarantees: Ukraine seeks security guarantees from Western powers to prevent future Russian aggression, while Russia demands guarantees that Ukraine will not join NATO. Political Status of Ukraine: Russia wants Ukraine to be a neutral buffer state, while Ukraine seeks to maintain its sovereignty and right to choose its own alliances. Cobalt (Co): The Little Goblin Who Could Metal Salts: Ancient History to Modern DIY Cupriavidus metallidurans : Metal Eating Gold Making Bacterium Social and Economic Impact Consequences of the conflict are staggering. Humanitarian Crisis: Millions of Ukrainians have been displaced from their homes, seeking refuge in other parts of Ukraine and neighboring countries. Economic Devastation: The war has caused widespread destruction of infrastructure, disrupted economic activity, and led to a sharp decline in Ukraine's GDP. Global Economic Impact: The war has disrupted global supply chains, particularly for food and energy, leading to rising prices and inflation. Famous Women of Ancient Rome Antimony (Stibnite, Kohl) Ancient Metal of Science & Beauty Scheele's Green: History's Most Toxic Pigment Cities like Mariupol experience destruction rates of over 90%. The economic toll is severe. Up to 40% of Ukraine's economy is affected, causing a drastic rise in poverty nationwide. International aid has been crucial to support Ukraine's economy. Funds from various countries exceed $500 billion since start of the war. About 10% of the money is from the US, which as of 2025 has been axing foreign aid. The US has taken an interest in the Russia Ukraine war with concerns over the oil pipelines running around and under the Black Sea. It also wants mineral rights in Ukraine. oil pipes In March 2025 Russia and Ukraine agree to a ceasefire on the Black Sea. They have a thirty-day overall truce, which they accuse each other of violating. The US involvement in this agreement is as much to secure political power as foreign-sourced wealth. Western sanctions imposed on Russia target key sectors such as finance and energy, affecting public sentiment and economic stability. State media attempts to downplay the effects. Heavy Metals Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Chromium & Arsenic Silica, Silicon & Silicone: Differences & Similarities Rabbit Fever Plague & Warfare: Hittites Other Important Facts War Crimes Allegations: There are widespread allegations of war crimes committed by both sides, including targeting civilians, torture, and sexual violence. Nuclear Threat: The war has raised concerns about the potential use of nuclear weapons, with both sides engaging in nuclear rhetoric. Ukraine has no nukes and Russia has about 6,000. However Ukraine has several nuclear reactors which the US has expressed a desire to own. Long-Term Implications: The Russo-Ukrainian War has profound long-term implications, including the reshaping of European security, rise of new geopolitical alignments, acceleration of world trends such as deglobalization, and energy transition. The Russo-Ukrainian War exemplifies larger tensions between authoritarian regimes and democratic nations. The conflict highlights international law, national sovereignty and global power balance. The war intersects with critical matters like energy security and the flow of global migration. Millions of Ukrainians flee to safer locations. Metalloproteins: Biochemistry of Nature & Health Hetero-Fermentation in Lactic Acid Bacteria Quorum Sensing: Microbial Coordination Sylvia Rose Books READ: Lora Ley Adventures  - Germanic Mythology Fiction Series READ: Reiker For Hire  - Victorian Detective Murder Mysteries Back to Top